Informal systems are characterized as problematic, undesigned and emergent. The upsides to their existence are very rarely taken into account, yet, informality often achieves things formal systems never could. The value of informal systems comes from the unique human ingenuity that drives their development. Because of this natural ingenuity all human systems contain a level of informality, even those, which are traditionally defined as formal. Designers often refer to this informality as the ‘unintended consequences’, ‘misuse’ or ‘hacks’ of design. The idea of people informally re-appropriating design for new uses is antithetical to most definitions of good design and planning. Informal systems, although often problematic, are actually the workarounds individuals use in reaction to failing formal systems. Design can, therefore, look to these systems as a method for diagnosing and redesigning broken formal systems. Furthermore, if we know that it is the natural reaction for humans to re-appropriate, hack and change designed systems, then we can begin to design and predict this evolution. We can use these theories to manufacture emergent and resilient human behaviors and bring the value of informality to the design of human systems.
Generally, the northern part of India experiences this type of climate. Most cold and cloudy regions are situated at high altitudes. Shimla, Shillong, Srinagar and Mahabaleshwar are examples of places belonging to this climatic zone.
SKY CONDITIONS – Overcast for most part of the year, axcept during the brief summer period.
MISCELLANEOUS - Conditions in summer are usually clear and pleasant, but owing to cold winters.
The main criteria for design in the cold and cloudy region aim at resisting heat loss by insulation and infiltration, and promoting heat gain by directly admitting and trapping solar radiation within the living space. And protection from dampness is also very important.
Sierpinski Triangle
This is the fractal we can get by taking the midpoints of each side of an equilateral triangle and connecting them. The iterations should be repeated an infinite number of times
Suppose the coast of Britain is measured using a 200 km ruler, specifying that both ends of the ruler must touch the coast. Now cut the ruler in half and repeat the measurement, then repeat again:
COASTLINE PARADOX
In the early 18th century , countries vied with each other to expand their empires and the aristrocracy emphasized its position with lavish displays of wealth and luxury.
ROCOCO STYLE:-
Pieces of furniture were smaller, lighter, and more curvaceous in form than earlier styles, often with curved cabriole legs and pad or claw and ball feet.
Free standing tables no longer had cross strechers and pedestal legs were replaced by cabriole legs with a double s- curve.
Недавно аудитория социальной сети для делового общения LinkedIn превысила отметку в 200 млн пользователей. По данным компании, ежедневно на сайте появляются более 170 тыс. новых аккаунтов. И это вполне ощутимо: кнопку report spam приходится нажимать практически ежедневно. Как не попасть в спам, рассылая предложения в LinkedIn?
Generally, the northern part of India experiences this type of climate. Most cold and cloudy regions are situated at high altitudes. Shimla, Shillong, Srinagar and Mahabaleshwar are examples of places belonging to this climatic zone.
SKY CONDITIONS – Overcast for most part of the year, axcept during the brief summer period.
MISCELLANEOUS - Conditions in summer are usually clear and pleasant, but owing to cold winters.
The main criteria for design in the cold and cloudy region aim at resisting heat loss by insulation and infiltration, and promoting heat gain by directly admitting and trapping solar radiation within the living space. And protection from dampness is also very important.
Sierpinski Triangle
This is the fractal we can get by taking the midpoints of each side of an equilateral triangle and connecting them. The iterations should be repeated an infinite number of times
Suppose the coast of Britain is measured using a 200 km ruler, specifying that both ends of the ruler must touch the coast. Now cut the ruler in half and repeat the measurement, then repeat again:
COASTLINE PARADOX
In the early 18th century , countries vied with each other to expand their empires and the aristrocracy emphasized its position with lavish displays of wealth and luxury.
ROCOCO STYLE:-
Pieces of furniture were smaller, lighter, and more curvaceous in form than earlier styles, often with curved cabriole legs and pad or claw and ball feet.
Free standing tables no longer had cross strechers and pedestal legs were replaced by cabriole legs with a double s- curve.
Недавно аудитория социальной сети для делового общения LinkedIn превысила отметку в 200 млн пользователей. По данным компании, ежедневно на сайте появляются более 170 тыс. новых аккаунтов. И это вполне ощутимо: кнопку report spam приходится нажимать практически ежедневно. Как не попасть в спам, рассылая предложения в LinkedIn?
Substitutivo comissão de finanças pl 0545_15 programa adote uma lixeiraClaudio Figueiredo
Substitutivo da Comissão de Finanças ao PL nº 545/15, de autoria do vereador Ricardo Chiabai (PPS), que prevê a instituição do programa “Adote uma Lixeira”.
SE & BIM 4. Implementatie bij BAM door Ton BuijinkCROW
SE & BIM: twee cruciale onderdelen van een succesvolle ketensamenwerking. Kansen en knelpunten in toepassing van SE en BIM. In samenwerking met INCOSE-NL.
Our bi-monthly insights report focuses on the theme of "contradiction" : Positive or Negative Gentrification, Alpha Females and Beta Males, the changing image of the filmmaker, Virginal Bondage fashion ...
Futuramen is a Berlin based, international insights and creative content production company. We consider ourselves cultural translators that do not believe that one perspective fits all even in a globalized world.
The Digital Social Contract
The Millennials and generation Z together comprise the most engaged, mobile, and enticing consumers of our time, but brands and agencies have largely misunderstood how these coveted digital natives interact.
We have missed a fundamental truth: There is a new social contract emerging—a digital social contract—that, like Rousseau’s original, has been proposed, ratified, and enforced by those it governs—most especially online video creators and their legions of fans who together stand at the apex of the digital revolution.
In Ogilvy & Mather's latest Red Paper, "The Digital Social Contract", Ogilvy's Jeremy Katz and Robert John Davis join with Alta Sparling and Bing Chen from Victorious to uncover the unspoken social rules governing the digital world and explain to brands how to thrive in it.
This pamphlet by Linda Carroli & JM John Armstrong captures scenes from our locality which show some of the nuances and subtleties of suburban environments. While there has been a blossoming of engagement with DIY and tactical urbanism, it tends to overlook the complexity and difficulty of suburban contexts. It also tends to overlook the activity that is already part of the suburban environment. This project endeavours to present personal accounts and narratives as a counter to the sometimes anti-suburban tone of current design, planning and academic discourse. It presents small scale encounters that indicate the suburbs operate at multiple scales and offer a diverse palette of engagements and actions.
This document may be edited, altered and updated from time to time. So please check back to redownload and re-read.
Digital divide: The brazilianisation of the worldJoana Andrade
The so-called "digital divide" is defined as the gap between countries with adequate access to modern information technology and those without. This divide is concerning because it seems to be widening and at the same time
making clear the difference between wealthy economic systems and the poverty of human kind in rest of the world for a long time.
The Art of Skid Row: A Campaign to Shift the Public Perception of Homelessness.Colton Boettcher
The Art of Skid Row is a tool to reference the need for a new system of housing. Through this book, the human element of Homelessness + Urban Poverty become a visceral experience. The Art of Skid Row is an awareness campaign designed to shift the public perception of homelessness. Homelessness is a human rights issue. The fundamental truth of homelessness is humans not having homes. Whatever arguments or roadblocks against the development of affordable housing across the planet; this book serves as a reminder to the human element of the issue we are discussing. With the vision of our partner photographers; we take you on a journey to understand the underlying roots, causes and experiences of homelessness.
CLASSIC
CONTEMPORARY
CROSS-CULTURAL
2
Invitation
to Sociology
Peter L. Berger
t' Berger, P. L. (2004). Invitation to Sociology. In J. J. Macionis, N. V. Benokraitis &
B. Ravelli (Eds.), Seeing Ourselves.. Classic, Contemporary and Cross-
Cultural Readings in Sociology (Canadian Edition) (pp. 6-9). Toronto:
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Using the sociological perspective changes how we perceive the surrounding world and
ourselves. Peter Berger compares thinking sociologically with entering a new and unfa-
miliar society—one in which "things are no longer what they seem." This article should
cause you to rethink your social world and become aware of issues you may have never
before considered.
...It can be said that the first wisdom of sociol-
ogy is this—things are not what they seem. This
too is a deceptively simple statement. It ceases
to be simple after a while. Social reality turns
out to have many layers of meaning. The discov-
ery of each new layer changes the perception of
the whole.
Anthropologists use the term "culture shock"
to describe the impact of a totally new culture
upon a newcomer. In an extreme instance such
shock will be experienced by the Western
explorer who is told, halfway through dinner, that
he is eating the nice old lady he had been chatting
with the previous day—a shock with predictable
physiological if not moral consequences. Most
explorers no longer encounter cannibalism in—
their travels today. However, the first encounters
Source: From Invitation to Sociology by Peter L. Berger.
Copyright 1963 by Peter L. Berger, Bantam, Doubleday
Dell Publishing Group, Inc. Reprinted with permission of
Bantam, Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc.
6
with polygamy or with puberty rites or even with
the way some nations drive their automobiles can
be quite a shock to an American visitor. With the
shock may go not only disapproval or disgust bU
a sense of excitement that things can really b
that different from what they are at home.
some extent, at least, this is the excitement of
first travel abroad. The experience of sociological:
discovery could be described as "culture shock"
minus geographical displacement. In qv
words, the sociologist travels at home-4i
shocking results. He is unlikely to find that 4.40
eating a nice old lady for dinner. But the discw'-
ery, for instance, that his own church has cont-,
erable money invested in the missile indus 01
that a few blocks-from his home there are ROO;
who engage in cultic orgies may not be drag
cally different in emotional impact. Yet we woutid
not want to imply that sociological discoveries`
are always or even usually outrageous to pia
sentiment. Not at all What they have in coparion-
with exploration in distant lands however, js:4'lije
•
Invitation to Sociology 7
sudden illumination of new and unsuspected
facets of human existence in society. This is the
excitement and, as we shall try to show later, the
humanistic ...
Chapter 4 Theories Responding to the Challenge of Cultural Re.docxrobertad6
Chapter 4: Theories Responding to the Challenge of Cultural Relativism from The Business
Ethics Workshop was adapted by Saylor Academy and is available under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license without attribution as requested by
the work's original creator or licensor. UMGC has modified this work and it is available under
the original license.
http://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/The%20Business%20Ethics%20Workshop.pdf
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
137
Chapter 4
Theories Responding to the Challenge of Cultural
Relativism
Chapter Overview
Chapter 4 "Theories Responding to the Challenge of Cultural Relativism" examines some theories guiding
ethical decisions in business. It considers reactions to the possibility that there are no universal
definitions of right and wrong, only different customs that change from one society to another.
4.1 What Is Cultural Relativism?
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
138
1. Define cultural relativism.
2. Show how cultural relativism defies traditional ethics.
Nietzsche and the End of Traditional Ethics
“God is dead,” the declaration attributed to Friedrich Nietzsche, stands along with “I think, therefore I
am” (René Descartes, 1641) as philosophy’s most popularized—and parodied—phrases. The t-shirt
proclaiming “Nietzsche is dead, signed, God” is funny, but it doesn’t quite answer what Nietzsche was
saying in the late 1800s. What Nietzsche meant to launch was not only an assault on a certain religion but
also a suspicion of the idea that there’s one source of final justice for all reality. Nietzsche proposed that
different cultures and people each produce their own moral recommendations and prohibitions, and
there’s no way to indisputably prove that one set is simply and universally preferable to another. The
suspicion that there’s no final appeal—and therefore the values and morality practiced by a community
can’t be dismissed as wrong or inferior to those practiced elsewhere—is called cultural relativism.
Example: For most of us, the killing of a newborn would be among the most heinous of immoral acts; a
perpetrator would need to be purely evil or completely mad. The Inuit Eskimos, however, regularly
practiced female infanticide during their prehistory, and it was neither evil nor insane. Their brutal living
conditions required a population imbalance tipped toward hunters (males). Without that gender
selecting, the plain fact was the entire group faced starvation. At another place and time, Bernal
Diaz’s The Conquest of New Spain recounts the Spanish invasion of the Americas and includes multiple
reports of newborns sacrificed in bloody ceremonies that made perfect sense to the locals, but left
Spaniards astonished and appalle.
Chapter 4 Theories Responding to the Challenge of Cultural Re.docxketurahhazelhurst
Chapter 4: Theories Responding to the Challenge of Cultural Relativism from The Business
Ethics Workshop was adapted by Saylor Academy and is available under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license without attribution as requested by
the work's original creator or licensor. UMGC has modified this work and it is available under
the original license.
http://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/The%20Business%20Ethics%20Workshop.pdf
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
137
Chapter 4
Theories Responding to the Challenge of Cultural
Relativism
Chapter Overview
Chapter 4 "Theories Responding to the Challenge of Cultural Relativism" examines some theories guiding
ethical decisions in business. It considers reactions to the possibility that there are no universal
definitions of right and wrong, only different customs that change from one society to another.
4.1 What Is Cultural Relativism?
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
Saylor URL: http://www.saylor.org/books Saylor.org
138
1. Define cultural relativism.
2. Show how cultural relativism defies traditional ethics.
Nietzsche and the End of Traditional Ethics
“God is dead,” the declaration attributed to Friedrich Nietzsche, stands along with “I think, therefore I
am” (René Descartes, 1641) as philosophy’s most popularized—and parodied—phrases. The t-shirt
proclaiming “Nietzsche is dead, signed, God” is funny, but it doesn’t quite answer what Nietzsche was
saying in the late 1800s. What Nietzsche meant to launch was not only an assault on a certain religion but
also a suspicion of the idea that there’s one source of final justice for all reality. Nietzsche proposed that
different cultures and people each produce their own moral recommendations and prohibitions, and
there’s no way to indisputably prove that one set is simply and universally preferable to another. The
suspicion that there’s no final appeal—and therefore the values and morality practiced by a community
can’t be dismissed as wrong or inferior to those practiced elsewhere—is called cultural relativism.
Example: For most of us, the killing of a newborn would be among the most heinous of immoral acts; a
perpetrator would need to be purely evil or completely mad. The Inuit Eskimos, however, regularly
practiced female infanticide during their prehistory, and it was neither evil nor insane. Their brutal living
conditions required a population imbalance tipped toward hunters (males). Without that gender
selecting, the plain fact was the entire group faced starvation. At another place and time, Bernal
Diaz’s The Conquest of New Spain recounts the Spanish invasion of the Americas and includes multiple
reports of newborns sacrificed in bloody ceremonies that made perfect sense to the locals, but left
Spaniards astonished and appalle ...
Transforming Brand Perception and Boosting Profitabilityaaryangarg12
In today's digital era, the dynamics of brand perception, consumer behavior, and profitability have been profoundly reshaped by the synergy of branding, social media, and website design. This research paper investigates the transformative power of these elements in influencing how individuals perceive brands and products and how this transformation can be harnessed to drive sales and profitability for businesses.
Through an exploration of brand psychology and consumer behavior, this study sheds light on the intricate ways in which effective branding strategies, strategic social media engagement, and user-centric website design contribute to altering consumers' perceptions. We delve into the principles that underlie successful brand transformations, examining how visual identity, messaging, and storytelling can captivate and resonate with target audiences.
Methodologically, this research employs a comprehensive approach, combining qualitative and quantitative analyses. Real-world case studies illustrate the impact of branding, social media campaigns, and website redesigns on consumer perception, sales figures, and profitability. We assess the various metrics, including brand awareness, customer engagement, conversion rates, and revenue growth, to measure the effectiveness of these strategies.
The results underscore the pivotal role of cohesive branding, social media influence, and website usability in shaping positive brand perceptions, influencing consumer decisions, and ultimately bolstering sales and profitability. This paper provides actionable insights and strategic recommendations for businesses seeking to leverage branding, social media, and website design as potent tools to enhance their market position and financial success.
Hello everyone! I am thrilled to present my latest portfolio on LinkedIn, marking the culmination of my architectural journey thus far. Over the span of five years, I've been fortunate to acquire a wealth of knowledge under the guidance of esteemed professors and industry mentors. From rigorous academic pursuits to practical engagements, each experience has contributed to my growth and refinement as an architecture student. This portfolio not only showcases my projects but also underscores my attention to detail and to innovative architecture as a profession.
Book Formatting: Quality Control Checks for DesignersConfidence Ago
This presentation was made to help designers who work in publishing houses or format books for printing ensure quality.
Quality control is vital to every industry. This is why every department in a company need create a method they use in ensuring quality. This, perhaps, will not only improve the quality of products and bring errors to the barest minimum, but take it to a near perfect finish.
It is beyond a moot point that a good book will somewhat be judged by its cover, but the content of the book remains king. No matter how beautiful the cover, if the quality of writing or presentation is off, that will be a reason for readers not to come back to the book or recommend it.
So, this presentation points designers to some important things that may be missed by an editor that they could eventually discover and call the attention of the editor.
Dive into the innovative world of smart garages with our insightful presentation, "Exploring the Future of Smart Garages." This comprehensive guide covers the latest advancements in garage technology, including automated systems, smart security features, energy efficiency solutions, and seamless integration with smart home ecosystems. Learn how these technologies are transforming traditional garages into high-tech, efficient spaces that enhance convenience, safety, and sustainability.
Ideal for homeowners, tech enthusiasts, and industry professionals, this presentation provides valuable insights into the trends, benefits, and future developments in smart garage technology. Stay ahead of the curve with our expert analysis and practical tips on implementing smart garage solutions.
Between Filth and Fortune- Urban Cattle Foraging Realities by Devi S Nair, An...Mansi Shah
This study examines cattle rearing in urban and rural settings, focusing on milk production and consumption. By exploring a case in Ahmedabad, it highlights the challenges and processes in dairy farming across different environments, emphasising the need for sustainable practices and the essential role of milk in daily consumption.
White wonder, Work developed by Eva TschoppMansi Shah
White Wonder by Eva Tschopp
A tale about our culture around the use of fertilizers and pesticides visiting small farms around Ahmedabad in Matar and Shilaj.
4. 1
nformal systems are characterized as problematic,
undesigned and emergent. The upsides to their
existence are very rarely taken into account, yet,
informality often achieves things formal systems
never could. The value of informal systems comes
from the unique human ingenuity that drives their
development. Because of this natural ingenuity all
human systems contain a level of informality, even
those, which are traditionally defined as formal.
Designers often refer to this informality as the
‘unintended consequences’, ‘misuse’ or ‘hacks’ of
design. The idea of people informally re-appropriating
design for new uses is antithetical to most definitions
of good design and planning. Informal systems,
although often problematic, are actually the
workarounds individuals use in reaction to failing
formal systems. Design can, therefore, look to these
systems as a method for diagnosing and redesigning
broken formal systems. Furthermore, if we know that
it is the natural reaction for humans to re-appropriate,
hack and change designed systems, then we can begin
to design and predict this evolution. We can use these
theories to manufacture emergent and resilient human
behaviors and bring the value of informality to the
design of human systems.
Abstract
I
COMMUNITY
CENTERS
NGOS
GOVERNMENT
WORKERS
COMMUNITY
LEADERS
“CRIMINALS” YOUTH
YOUTH
GROUPS
GOVERNMENT
FAVELA
6. PART ONE: BAZAARISTAN
4
fallen into the category of ‘informal’. A tag that carries a heavy load of
unwanted additional associations; illegal, unsafe, improper, undemocratic,
untaxed and undocumented. None of which are positive. Across the world
there are billions of people engaged in informal systems and informal
economies, just like favelas, many of which are highly valuable and
without which, our fragile societies would collapse. Yet, the informality
of them means they are often purposefully designed-out. Instead of the
rocky path favelas have trodden to viability and positive social status, they
could have been re-framed as a crowd-sourced, bottom-up alternatives to
low-cost housing. The purpose of this thesis is to attempt to define these
systems, identify their value for design and suggest how designers can
begin to design for informality, not against it.
WHAT IS INFORMALITY?
Informality is a difficult thing to define. It doesn’t quite mean illegal,
although informal workers often fall outside of the law, it also doesn’t
mean poor, as informal workers often earn more than their formal
counterparts. Informality is so difficult to define because it is an externally
imposed definition. The UK’s Small Business Council defines informal
work as follows:
“Informal work involves the paid production and sale of goods and
services that are unregistered by, or hidden from, the state for tax
and/or benefit purposes but which are legal in all other respects.”8
By this definition the only difference between a formal and informal
system is a governmental or social ruling, which is a very fine and
constantly shifting line. Waste pickers, or informal recyclers, during
the 17th century in the US were considered a necessary part of life, but
with the advent of formalized waste collection they drifted towards
informality.9
Today, across US urban centers it is easy to spot waste
pickers working to collect recyclable materials for deposit returns or re-
sale. Their function has stayed much the same, helping to reduce waste
and provide work for those who find other employment hard to find,
yet, they are now classed as informal. The definition of what is or isn’t
informal is constantly changing with social trends, legal precedents and
new policies.
Robert Neuwirth, in his book Stealth of Nations, reframes informality as
‘System-D’ or ‘System Débrouillard’, French for resilient, self-sufficient or
Informal waste picker, New York City.
Informal transaction, New York City.
Young children
playing in the favela
Paraisópolis, São Paulo
7. PART ONE: BAZAARISTAN
76
ingenious.10
The wonderful thing about this expression
is that it begins to define some of the benefits of
informality, rather than the presumed negatives. In
fact our ingenuity is often heralded as what makes us
uniquely human. It was our ability to repurpose rocks
and sticks into tools that led to our evolution from
‘cavemen’ to the high-functioning complex societies
we live in today.11
Now, we see this continuing drive,
ingenuity and determination most clearly in the
informal sector.
Across informal systems workers generate income,
deliver services, clear waste, create jobs, build
business, distribute goods and provide shelters; many
of the same aims that governments purport to provide.
The pervasive nature and huge successes that informal
economies display; clearly shows that informal
systems have value and, although often illegal, should
not be overlooked.
INFORMAL VALUE
Through our design-led research process and
creation of Mandou Bem, we uncovered the existing
informal system of youth activism, most notably in
the favelas of Brazil and Colonias of Texas. Informal
systems, however, exist across cities, cultures and
demographics from market sellers and grey market
importers in China, to waste pickers and under-
the-table delivery boys in New York city, to public
transport and water delivery in Lagos; informal
systems exist across all societies. We, formal society,
see them surrounding us and often shrug them off as
poverty, desperation or inferiority. In reality, these
informal systems and economies are highly valuable
from a cultural, business and ethical standpoint.
Markets, street sellers, panhandlers and hawkers
inhabit every city across the globe. It is the visibility of
informal street sellers that give so many places their
A hand made bicycle souvenir from favela artist, Barbella.
cultural vibrancy and booming tourist trade, from the heaving crowds
of Brick Lane market in London, to the knick-knacks sold under MASP
in São Paulo, to the caricaturists and informal artists filling Central
Park every summer. When tourists go abroad they often seek out local
culture and strive for cultural ‘realness’. The lack of authenticity and
global availability of big name brands makes their ‘souvenir-worthiness’
very low; we look for uniqueness, so we can attach meaning to an object,
treasure it and physically remember a special journey we took. What could
be more unique than a hand-crafted trinket sold by a local street seller? In
this culturally significant moment, we seek out people like informal sellers
so that we can get something ‘real’ and truly connect with another culture.
It is a common association when framed one way to view informality
as the ‘real’ culture of a place. In São Paulo, every middle class house is
fortified against street crime with walls and security guards.12
This made,
Megan’s and my, visit to the favelas a refreshing change. We saw little
moments like people laughing and talking on the streets, drinking coffee
at bars, sitting on benches and children playing with toys—all things that
are largely invisible in the rest of the city. It is unusual that in one moment
we enjoy an entire country’s culture through its informal systems, yet,
in the next, we write them off as unimportant, illegal and inferior.
Furthermore, these informal systems often prop up society. Across
New York, it is easy to spot a hunched figure rifling through a trash
can, pulling out recyclables and shoving them into a bulging plastic
bag. We find ourselves looking at these people with a sense of pity
and shame. The dirtiness of their informal work paints a negative
picture of them and their business. It has been estimated, however,
that informal waste pickers collect and recycle between 50% to 100%
of waste in many of the worlds cities.13
These informal waste pickers
provide cities like New York with a relatively low-cost service that
tends to be overlooked and even outlawed. Without their existence
many cities would be in a potential garbage crisis. Waste pickers are just
one example of an informal system that supports society and provides
services that, without which, cities would be greatly impoverished.
Not only do these systems support society, provide services and
stability, their economic value cannot be understated. For example,
the single street market, Rua 25 da Março,in São Paulo, pulls in four
hundred thousand people on weekdays, which adds up to $10 billion of
business a year in sales.14
This puts this one street market in the top 20
biggest businesses in Brazil.15
Neuwirth, in Stealth of Nations, imagines
Forbes list
11. $14.2 B.
$14.1 B.
$13.2 B.
$10 B.
$8 B.
$7.2 B.
$6.8 B.
$6.3 B.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Cosan
Food Processing
BRF
Food Processing
Oi
Telecoms
Rua 25 Da Março
Street Market
CSN
Iron & Steel
CPFL Energia
Electric Utilities
Cemig
Electric Utilities
Embracer
Aero & Defense
11—18 of Brazil’s largest companies by
revenue compared to the São Paulo
street market, Rua 25 Da Março.
Source: The Forbes List
and Stealth of Nations.
8. PART ONE: BAZAARISTAN
98
the entire world’s informal economies altogether as
though they were a single country. In his work, he
nicknames this hypothetical country ‘Bazaaristan’.
Neuwirth, estimates ‘Bazaaristan’ would have a
$10 trillion economy placing it in the same GDP
league as the United States and China. To be clear,
this does not include highly criminal activities such
as gun-running, drug dealing and other organized
crime, and is considered to be a very conservative
estimate of the value of informal economies.16, 17
It is easy to imagine that informal economies are
mainly in developing countries, yet, In the United
States many small businesses begin as informal
systems. Either due to high taxes, expensive licensing
or ignorance of formal systems, small businesses
often operate informally until they reach a scale
where formality is viable. The Women Entrepreneurs
of Baltimore say this is as high as 25% of all the
entrepreneurs that come to their meetings.18
Frederick
T. Stanley, of Stanley tools, started his career as a
peddler selling tools from the back of a Mule and
Dick Sears began Sears Roebuck by selling watches
on trains.19
The British Small Business Council
estimates that even in developed countries, like
France, the informal economy is as large as 23.2%
of the total economy. The same report also points
out that the informal economy is heavily engaged
in and consumed by wealthy sectors of society
and there is no evidence to show that informality
is correlated to race, wealth, social status or
unemployment.20
The global value of informal systems
is only just being realized in what was previously
thought to be a damaging economic practice.
Informality is also not a way of life, nor is it a
permanent state. Rather, it is often adopted for a
short period of time or as a partial state. Informality
is not just practiced by the habitually unemployed
or migrant workers. The majority of people engaged
in informal work are ‘income patching’ or getting by
on a combination of formal and informal incomes.21
Often, the lure of bar or restaurant work, in a city
like New York provides the opportunity to work
for cash and therefore work outside of the formal
taxation and wage systems. This provides a living
$16.72Trillion
$10Trillion
$13.37Trillion
$4T
$5T
Comparing the world’s largest economies (USA, China, India
and Japan) with the total GDP of all informal activity.
Source: CIA World Fact Book.
Categories of informal work in the UK.
Source: Small Businesses in the Informal Economy, SBC UK.
���
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47%
23%
5%
25%
of Informal work is
conducted by formal
small businesses.
In the UK
Micro
Entrepreneurs
Paid Favors
Pre-Organized
make up the remaining 53%
Ireland
Min.
Percentage of GDP
Minimum estimate Maximum estimateAverage Estimate
Max.Av.
Greece
Key
Italy
Portugal
France
USA
Spain
Belgium
Canada
Sweden
Denmark
Netherlands
Germany
Australia
Great Britain
Norway
Austria
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0% 25% 50%
Minimum, average and maximum estimates of informal economies as a percentage of total GDP in developed countries.
Source: Small Businesses in the Informal Economy, SBC UK.
for people ranging from illegal immigrants to
college graduates. In the UK, 47% of all informal
work is created by formal small business.22
So often informality skirts, subverts or breaks
laws and, is therefore considered to be immoral.
Yet, at the same time without informality, New
York City’s heavily informal restaurant industry
would collapse. Informal family businesses like
Sears would never exist and over a quarter of
France’s economy would disappear. The idea that
informality should be associated with marginalized
communities and poverty-stricken areas is therefore
clearly outdated and incorrect. A wider and deeper
understanding of informality is needed to appreciate
its features, functions, values and shortcomings.
9. PART ONE: BAZAARISTAN
1110
EMERGENT INFORMALITY
If we look at informal settlements on the systemic level and without
the lens of formality or informality, then we can move away from value
judgements like legitimate or illegitimate, legal or illegal and, instead,
discuss purpose and function. As Donella Meadows says in Thinking in
Systems “purposes are deduced from behavior not from rhetoric or stated
goals.”23
It is often the case that designers of everything from policies
to products, tell the world what their new design ‘does’. However, this
is just the rhetoric not the actual purpose. In reality designed objects
and systems have many unintended purposes. Informal systems have
no rhetoric only purpose, there is no formal or top-down design lead
to claim what the outcome is, or should be. This makes them highly
functional, without the deceptive or inaccurate design claims of pre-
supposed purpose informal systems are left to their own devices. This
means that because there is no enforcement of a specific usage, people
revert to what, we can perhaps call, ‘natural’ models of existence.
The famous computer scientist, Alan Turing’s, only biology paper
discusses morphology, or the interaction of microscopic particles to
make macroscopic patterns. He theorized that the same basic chemistry
guides everything from the creation of patterns on the scales of a fish to
the whirling arms of a spiral galaxy. Turing’s seminal paper introduced
this topic, which is now widely referred to as ‘emergence’. Emergent
phenomenon are defined as many independent, unaware and unthinking
particles interacting to create higher-order systems and patterns.24, 25
Humans are far from exempt from this emergent behavior. We see the
results of this commonly in traffic jams, which are often caused by one
individual slowing on the highway, causing a cascade of ever harder
braking behind them. This complex system happens as a combination of
technology and human interaction but is dependant on separate humans
(particles) making individual decisions (braking hard to avoid crashing).
The ungoverned and emergent interactions of human systems created
our modern society. The natural benefit of resource exchange encouraged
trade and created links between different communities. This created
cultural and economic exchange between these places and brought a
multitude of benefits. No-one designed this system—it just emerged from
a natural human desire to increase personal wealth and standing. This is
essentially the theme of the seminal economic text The Wealth of Nations.
Adam Smith, refers to this as the ‘invisible hand’ guiding the market.26
In human systems, value exchanges are essential to creating large
+
DESIGNER
DRIVER
MECHANIC
REGULATOR BUS PROVIDER
INFORMAL BUS
NETWORK
PASSENGER
MIDDLE MAN
MANUFACTURE END USER SECONDARY USER
CHAIN EXTENDER
DESIGN USER
PURPOSERHETORIC
$
$
$
$ Bus
Travel
Repairs
%$
“
Purposes are
deduced from
behavior not from
rhetoric or stated
goals.
”
Donella Meadows, Thinking in Systems
scale emergent systems. As independent, and often
self-serving creatures we want to gain something
out of every interaction we make. This does not
have to be necessarily monetary gain. Humans
are highly susceptible to many other forms of
currency including; social standing, reputation,
feeling good, services, resources or time.
The collective human production and exchange
of value is most raw in informal systems. Without
governance or intervention, massive systems of value
chains are free to grow and morph into any number
of shapes, which create a range of purposes. In Lagos
an otherwise unconnected group of individuals and
vehicles, becomes an informal bus network through
a series of individual value exchanges. In this system,
drivers, for example, know that if they get in a bus
and drive it they can pick up passengers, and that
these passengers will pay the driver for the service.
If bus routes become more regular then they also
become more predictable, which forms higher density
clusters of passengers along known routes. Drivers
pick up the most passengers when they avoid other
drivers’ routes and driving times, which creates an
evenly distributed service. This system is a real and
functioning bus network in Lagos. The individual
informal transactions create a system that transforms
people and value exchanges into drivers, bus routes,
fare regulators and passengers.27
It quickly becomes
apparent that without the help of design, policy
or planning, individuals acting independently can
naturally create balanced, highly-functional systems.
The science of complexity gives us an existing
framework to understand, diagnose and even model
these systems. In viewing human systems as a series
+
DESIGNER
DRIVER
MECHANIC
REGULATOR BUS PROVIDER
INFORMAL BUS
NETWORK
PASSENGER
DESIGN USER
$
$
$
$ Bus
Travel
Repairs
%$
A simplified system map and value chain of the Lagos informal bus system.
Rhetoric or purpose
12. 17
here is something deeply unsettling about
imagining humans as just interacting,
unthinking particles. We pride ourselves on our free
will and our ability to make decisions independent of
our basic biological needs. Something about the idea of
informal systems being as valuable as formal systems
challenges this notion. If unplanned human systems
can function, then why should we plan or design at
all? Perhaps it is this deep sub-conscious self-doubt
that encourages and perpetuates the demonization of
informal systems.
While the assumptions that informality is always
bad is incorrect, the assumption that formal planning
is therefore useless is also wrong. Informal systems,
unsurprisingly, do not always grow into an optimal
solution. In Ghana, following the same stigma and
stereotypes imposed on most informal systems
the practice of night-soil collecting is so socially
shunned that almost no one will do it. Being a night-
soil collector involves collecting weekly sewage from
peoples houses around the town. They pull the sewage
out of the back of houses through a small door, which
is accessible from the outside. Night-soil collectors,
take money from each household at the end of the
month and earn around 3 times more than the average
unskilled labourer in Ghana. In a country without
formal sewage systems, the alternative to night-soil
collecting means leaving the house to pay for public
toilets, defecating in a bag and dropping it in a ditch
or walking to an open defecation field. Despite the
incomparable service night-soil collectors offer and
the high potential pay, social stigma towards night soil-
collectors is so high that people force them to work at
night and are unwilling to do this dirty job themselves.
In the case of Mr. Atia, a night-soil collector in Kwahu-
Tafo, Ghana, even his own children will not take up his
PARTTWO
The Death of
the DesignerDesign’s battle against the informal sector.
T
Activist youth from the
Colonias, Texas, USA
15. PART TWO: THE DEATH OF THE DESIGNER
2322
Hacking
Products like Lego leverage this DIY human
ingenuity to make a toy with potentially unlimited
variations and iterations. The creation of
interlocking micro-pieces creates a low barrier
to entry for children to tangibly manifest their
imagination—a DIY product for children. As a
result, Lego has become the world’s largest toy
brand, the worlds most popular toy and even the
world’s largest tire manufacturer. 43, 44, 45
Products like Lego create a low-barrier to
repurposing. Although a Lego model comes with
a suggested form, the barrier to remaking and
expanding on this form is so low that even a six
year-old can do it. Lego requires this low-barrier
as there is little final utility for Lego creations.
Compare this to computing platforms such as
Arduino and Processing, which have much greater
final utility and therefore a higher payoff for users.
This allows them to be successful despite forcing
users to learn electronics and a coding language to
interact with their products.
All systems have this tension between barriers
to repurposing and potential utility. This could
be thought of as a walled garden. If the wall is
especially high it is difficult to climb, but if the
garden is full of delicious fruit then it might be
worth climbing. If the garden, however, is mainly
full of thorns with a few grassy areas the wall
would have to be very low for you to want to climb
over and get inside. At the advent of an informal
settlement, the risks and benefits of not building
their own community are at the scale of life and
death. In this context people quickly abandon the
formal systems and resort to drastic unplanned and
ingenious behaviors no matter what the barriers to
entry are.
These barriers to entry often perpetuate an
assumption that design is ‘successful’. If something
User
Barrier to Hacking
Potential Utility
HIGH BARRIER HIGH REWARD
LOW BARRIER HIGH REWARD
HACKING IS DIFFICULT
HACKING IS EASY
HACKING IS NOT WORTH IT
HIGH BARRIER
LOW REWARD
works just well enough for people not to complain,
or to be able ‘hack it’ then it will continue to be used,
inspite of its imperfectness. However, as soon as you
lower the barriers to ‘hacking’ and repurposing you
realize that every design is flawed. The IKEA Hackers
website neatly demonstrates this. IKEA seemingly has
a product for every situation and every home, and their
products are often built with modular components to
increase compatibility. Yet, inspite of this, people have
found the components inadequate for a wide range of
uses. The fact that IKEA furniture comes flat packed
and unassembled has lowered the barriers of entry just
enough to encourage people to ‘hack’ their products.
This has led to a remixing and repurposing of multiple
products to create improved solutions in specific
contexts.46
Products solve this problem through modularity,
or the creation of interacting pieces that converge
to create higher-order forms, whether they are Lego
models, or IKEA furniture. This modularity helps to
ease the imperfectness of products. Lego and IKEA
find a balance between formal design and informal
hacking. Lego is both a designed product, and an
informal play-tool. IKEA builds formal products
that require informal construction and can be easily
repurposed and “hacked”. And the success of these
solutions is because they rely on, instead of playing
down, human ingenuity—they design space for
informality.
Death of the Designer
There is a perpetual tension between humanity and
governance; the heterogenous nature of humanity
requires unique products and solutions, yet, the
hierarchical, top-down and cost-saving nature of
business and government requires the efficiency
and speed of uniformity. Design is the mediation of
the homogeneous needs of big organizations and the
heterogeneous needs of individual people. Informality
is the workaround an individual creates to massage
a designed product, service or system to better meet
their own unique needs. Informality, is in a sense, an
essential component of the design process. When a
designer unleashes a ‘thing’ (in the loosest sense of
the word) upon the world, they can make claims as
to its purpose (actually rhetoric) but it is for the user
to decide what it’s real purpose is. In other words,
informality is the right of the user to interpret a
designed object in the way they see fit. As Roland
Barthes claims, in his famous literary critique the
Death of the Author, “the birth of the reader must be
ransomed by the death of the Author” 47
so too must
the birth of the user come at the cost of the death of the
designer.
DESIGNER USER
17. 27
here is a shift from thinking of design as a
practice of things to a practice of “protocols,
platforms, services and systems.”48
Design now
creates work in sectors as diverse as public health,
government services, humanitarian relief, public
education and infrastructure. These are all highly
complex, interwoven systems of people and policy
that are designed with a purpose in mind, but often
create unintended consequences and results. When
dealing with public policy and large-level systems,
despite a greater degree of heterogeneity we see a ‘one
size fits all’ style approach. If a system isn’t working
for someone, and the risks of hacking or repurposing
the system are lower than the potential utility or
benefits, then informal alternatives will appear. The
way these large-scale system policies are currently
designed means that this informality is seen as failure.
Hacking is seen as taking advantage, finding loop-
holes, corruption or abuse. The repurposing of land for
informal settlements is viewed as collective theft, not
as “zone-hacking”.
Unfortunately, when a government designs a
system, unlike products, they rarely encourage ‘correct
usage’, rather, they discourage perceived misuse.
This makes the barriers to entry extremely high.
By ‘hacking’, or repurposing a governmental policy
you risk imprisonment, fines and social stigma. It is
only because of the extreme conditions surrounding
informal settlements that there is chance for informal
policy, space and ‘zone-hacking’ to exist.
However, informal policies and urban planning, like
‘slums’, achieve a number of things that governments
often fail to provide for: central and affordable shelter,
pedestrian-oriented planning, high public transport
usage, high social capital, diverse space usage,
organic or slow iterative architecture and voluminous
PARTTHREE
InterdependenceDesigning with and for informality.
T
18. PART THREE: INTERDEPENDENCE
2928
cultural production.49
Not only do they achieve all these benefits but
they do it incredibly quickly and at a fraction of the cost of most urban
projects, inspite of the common government efforts to stop their
progress. Informality can be viewed as a human need to exercise their
own creativity and better fit products and services to their own unique
requirements. This is seen as a success story when focused on Lego, Linux
or IKEA, but as a negative quality when looking at informal settlements,
informal business or waste pickers.
Designing with Informality
Informality only exists as an extension of the formal world. Informality
is the reaction to incorrect systemic purpose for individuals. Informality
subverts the rules and regulations to create new systems that don’t
fit within formal frameworks. It is therefore possible to argue that
informality is a response to the broken systems of formality. In the case
of the favelas, the formal world could not provide low cost housing and
informal settlements subsequently arose; for small businesses formal
tax laws and regulations devour start-up capital and stifle growth so
informal businesses start; and with waste pickers high barriers to
formal employment and the failures of current waste collection, provide
them with informal work. If these informal systems are the collective
repurposing and redesign of broken systems on a massive scale then,
instead of ignoring or demonizing these spaces, shouldn’t this be the first
place design looks to diagnose and fix these systemic problems?
Returning back to the example of the disappearing night-soil collectors
in Ghana we have a prime case study of how design can intervene within
informal systems. Ideo.org, alongside Unilever, is piloting a new system to
continue the practice of night-soiling but legitimize it in a way that makes
it sustainable. Alongside improved technology and home sanitation the
Clean Team project is rebranding the night-soil collector. One of their core
impact metrics is focused on their personal wellbeing and social status.
Hopefully, in drawing out and rebranding this informal worker as a formal
and important service, Clean Team can perpetuate the positive benefits of
the informal system while removing the negative. This project exemplifies
how design can transform existing negative informal systems into
preferred situations. Design’s role can be to examine informal systems
and extend, amplify, re-connect or tease-out the positive elements while
minimizing, removing or disconnecting the negative components. 50 51
Design also has a role in the diagnoses of the positive elements of an
informal system. Through Mandou Bem, and before
that Mark, we used design to build knowledge around
existing informal systems. As codified and categorized
by Meagan, design is a powerful tool for discovering
and uncovering positives. This is an essential first
step in any intervention, especially within an informal
system. Mandou Bem uncovered and amplified the
existing system of youth activism in both favelas and
Colonias. We hope this project serves as a further
case study to show the results that design can have
when, through an unbiased approach, you identify and
amplify valuable aspects of informal systems.
Designing for Informality
There are copious examples of designers leaving room
for informality, emergence and human ingenuity in
products and even services, to great acclaim. Yet,
in policy, urban planning and other large human
systems-design, informality is given very little space.
As design shifts into a mode of building large-scale
systems, designers, need to develop a level of trust
for our human users. Instead of treating unexpected
consequences of systemic design as misuse we need
to openly design room for informality to grow, and
to create resilient and efficient networks. The two
systems of formal design and informal repurposing
are interdependent—both systems require the other to
function optimally.
Mandou Bem attempts to leverage this
interdependence by encouraging informal youth to
get active in their community and become part of the
formal voice for policy change. The platform is also
only a framework for emergent content that allows
youth to express themselves in a variety of ways. The
hope of Mandou Bem is to communicate the value of
informality through the voices of the youth and help
them redesign and hack the formal policies that so
often oppress them.
Design’s New Role
Informality is undeniably a huge part of modern
society—it transcends culture, wealth, development
and disciplines. Furthermore, it has incredible
economic and cultural significance, often more so
than parallel formal systems. Informality even has
strengths that formal design often seeks to replicate,
such as efficiency and resilience.
There are many design precedents where
repurposing and hacking is celebrated as human
ingenuity and creativity. Informality is just as
much a representation of this ingenuity, yet it is
often demonized and ignored, specifically in the
context of large scale human systems, such as
informal settlements. Unfortunately, informality
is too often mistaken for illegal, unintended or
inferior consequences of a formal system. In
actuality, informality is the name we give to specific
workarounds or hacks practiced by people when
formal systems fail. Instead of ignoring these informal
systems, design should look to them to help diagnose
and rebuild failing systems. Informality, however, has
significant problems and fails in its own way, which is
why it too requires top-down design.
Design and informality are therefore interdependent
systems. Moreover, leaving space for informality has
wide ranging beneficial consequences. Design, as a
practice needs to, therefore, respect human ingenuity
in systems and leave more room for informality in
the design of everything from products to policies.
Mandou Bem is an attempt at designing for this formal,
informal interdependence.
“
Informality is a
response to the broken
systems of formality.
”
20. 3332
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