Demand response is the largest underutilized reliability resource in North America. Historic demand response programs have focused on reducing overall electricity consumption (increasing efficiency) and shaving peaks but have not typically been used
for immediate reliability response. Many of these programs have been successful but demand response remains a limited resource. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) report, Assessment of Demand Response and Advanced Metering (FERC 2006) found that only five percent of customers are on some form of demand response program. Collectively they represent an estimated 37,000 MW of response
potential. These programs reduce overall energy consumption and they also reduce stress on the power system at times of peak loading. More recently demand response has begun to be considered, and in some cases actually
used, to directly supply reliability services to the power system. Rather than reducing
overall power system stress by reducing peak loading over multiple hours these programs
are targeted to immediately respond to specific reliability events. This is made possible
by advances in communications and controls and has benefits for the power system and
the load.
Connection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networks
This document is the fifth edition of the Fuel Cell Handbook published by the U.S. Department of Energy. It was published in October 2000 under a contract with EG&G Services Parsons Inc. and Science Applications International Corporation. The handbook provides an overview of fuel cell technology, descriptions of different types of fuel cells including polymer electrolyte, alkaline, and phosphoric acid fuel cells, and their performance characteristics.
This document is the 2012 International Energy Efficiency Scorecard report published by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE). The report analyzes and scores 12 major economies on their energy efficiency across national efforts, buildings, industry and transportation. It finds that the top-scoring countries demonstrate solid performance across all sectors, while no country achieves a perfect score and all have room for improvement. The United States scores relatively low overall due to weaknesses in national efforts, buildings and transportation. The report makes recommendations for how countries can advance energy efficiency to boost economic competitiveness.
Xcel Energy announced earnings of $151 million or $0.36 per share for Q1 2006, up from $121 million or $0.29 per share in Q1 2005. Regulated utility earnings increased to $162 million due to rate increases in Colorado, Wisconsin and an interim increase in Minnesota, partially offset by higher expenses and warmer weather. Commodity trading margins increased to $12 million. Management reaffirmed 2006 earnings guidance of $1.25-1.35 per share.
The document acknowledges contributions from organizations that assisted in producing a Department of Energy report on wind energy. It provides notice that the report was prepared in compliance with information quality guidelines and peer review processes. It also includes disclaimers about product endorsements and limitations on legal liability by the U.S. government. Contact information is provided for accessing the report electronically or purchasing it from the National Technical Information Service.
This document provides guidance on conducting energy assessments for commercial buildings in India. It was developed by the International Resources Group under the USAID ECO-III Project with input from the Bureau of Energy Efficiency and other experts. The document outlines a three-step process for energy assessments: pre-assessment, assessment, and post-assessment. It describes tools and procedures to use at each step, including screening tools, data collection, benchmarking, requesting proposals from energy auditors, and conducting preliminary, comprehensive, and detailed assessments. The goal is to help building owners understand their energy use and identify opportunities for cost-effective savings.
LITHIUM
VALLEY
Establishing the Case for Energy Metals and
Battery Manufacturing in Western Australia
Source: https://www.rdaperth.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/RDA4491-LITHIUM-REPORT-2018_LOWRES.pdf
Connection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networksConnection of wind farms
to weak AC networks
This document is the fifth edition of the Fuel Cell Handbook published by the U.S. Department of Energy. It was published in October 2000 under a contract with EG&G Services Parsons Inc. and Science Applications International Corporation. The handbook provides an overview of fuel cell technology, descriptions of different types of fuel cells including polymer electrolyte, alkaline, and phosphoric acid fuel cells, and their performance characteristics.
This document is the 2012 International Energy Efficiency Scorecard report published by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE). The report analyzes and scores 12 major economies on their energy efficiency across national efforts, buildings, industry and transportation. It finds that the top-scoring countries demonstrate solid performance across all sectors, while no country achieves a perfect score and all have room for improvement. The United States scores relatively low overall due to weaknesses in national efforts, buildings and transportation. The report makes recommendations for how countries can advance energy efficiency to boost economic competitiveness.
Xcel Energy announced earnings of $151 million or $0.36 per share for Q1 2006, up from $121 million or $0.29 per share in Q1 2005. Regulated utility earnings increased to $162 million due to rate increases in Colorado, Wisconsin and an interim increase in Minnesota, partially offset by higher expenses and warmer weather. Commodity trading margins increased to $12 million. Management reaffirmed 2006 earnings guidance of $1.25-1.35 per share.
The document acknowledges contributions from organizations that assisted in producing a Department of Energy report on wind energy. It provides notice that the report was prepared in compliance with information quality guidelines and peer review processes. It also includes disclaimers about product endorsements and limitations on legal liability by the U.S. government. Contact information is provided for accessing the report electronically or purchasing it from the National Technical Information Service.
This document provides guidance on conducting energy assessments for commercial buildings in India. It was developed by the International Resources Group under the USAID ECO-III Project with input from the Bureau of Energy Efficiency and other experts. The document outlines a three-step process for energy assessments: pre-assessment, assessment, and post-assessment. It describes tools and procedures to use at each step, including screening tools, data collection, benchmarking, requesting proposals from energy auditors, and conducting preliminary, comprehensive, and detailed assessments. The goal is to help building owners understand their energy use and identify opportunities for cost-effective savings.
LITHIUM
VALLEY
Establishing the Case for Energy Metals and
Battery Manufacturing in Western Australia
Source: https://www.rdaperth.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/RDA4491-LITHIUM-REPORT-2018_LOWRES.pdf
This document presents the final report of the 2013 Residential Customer Profile Study for the electric and gas program administrators of Massachusetts. The study provides a summary of energy efficiency program participation, savings and incentives at the residential sector level across all PAs. Key findings include:
1) Over 1.3 million premises participated in electric programs, achieving over 300,000 MWh of savings. Over 800,000 premises participated in gas programs, achieving over 13 million therms of savings.
2) Participation, savings and incentives are analyzed and mapped at the census block group level, providing the first statewide view of impacts across PA territories.
3) Patterns of participation in multiple initiatives are examined, finding a significant portion of participants
The document discusses guidelines for designing and constructing passive houses in Ireland according to the Passivhaus standard. It defines key aspects of the Passivhaus standard, including minimizing heat losses and maximizing heat gains to reduce the need for active space heating and cooling systems. It also covers how the Passivhaus standard has evolved in Europe and Ireland. The guidelines provide information on the passive house design process, principles of reducing heat losses and gains, energy balance calculations, a prototype passive house design for Ireland, and cost considerations.
This document establishes rules for distribution services and open access in the Philippines pursuant to the Electric Power Industry Reform Act of 2001. It defines key terms and outlines the general services provided by Distribution Utilities including connection assets and services, supply to the captive market, and distribution wheeling service. It establishes rules for new connections and modifications, metering, billing of captive customers, distribution wheeling, and guidelines for establishing regulated service rates. The document provides a comprehensive framework to introduce competition in distribution services and open access in compliance with national energy reform laws and regulations.
This document provides requirements for implementing self-organizing network (SON) and operations and maintenance (O&M) use cases as recommended by the NGMN Alliance. It describes requirements for self-configuration use cases like planning and optimizing radio parameters for new network nodes. It also outlines requirements for self-optimization use cases such as neighbor cell list optimization and interference control. Additional sections cover fault management and correction requirements as well as O&M related SON use cases. The document is intended to provide vendors with guidelines for developing SON solutions that are generic, align with 3GPP standards, and address key use cases identified by mobile network operators.
Developing preventive maintenance plans with RCMBruno De Wachter
Preventive maintenance has a great impact on performance, risk, costs and energy consumption of assets. It should be customised for each asset, because every asset works under different circumstances and has another criticality. One of the major shifts in point of view in preventive maintenance within these last few decades is that it should be aimed at fulfilling the organisational strategy.
Maintenance involves all the activities needed to keep an asset functioning according to the demands of the organisation. It includes not only overhauls or exchange of parts, but also calibration, inspection, cleaning, lubrication, functional tests and more. Simply replacing or restoring components after fixed intervals is called predetermined maintenance. This is often not an effective strategy, because only a minor part of all failure modes are time related. Most failure modes do not have a rising probability with rising component age. In these cases condition monitoring or function test may provide a good solution.
RCM is a good and generally accepted methodology to select preventive maintenance tasks. Because it is too time consuming to conduct it for every asset in an organisation, faster methods have been developed, such as Industrial RCM, which uses templates with failure modes and preventive maintenance actions for standard components.
This Application Note describes how to select the right mix of preventive maintenance tasks for an asset system, using RCM, Industrial RCM and Preventive Maintenance Set Up (PM Set Up).
This document is a table of contents for an N(i)2 FAQ that addresses questions about the N(i)2 Suite's architecture, CMDB, queries and reports, request management, discovery, incident management, infrastructure management, change management, usability, administration, API, and integration with third party products. The table of contents lists 12 sections that the FAQ will cover related to these topics and provides a brief description of the types of questions that may be answered in each section.
GRE English Vocabulary 2500 大师级必胜GRE词汇- Advance Level English Vocabulary Acco...LEGOO MANDARIN
GRE English Vocabulary 2500 大师级必胜GRE词汇- Advance Level English Vocabulary According GRE past papers 分级英语词汇, latest 2021 version,BEST PRICE @ http://edeo.biz/13234
The Graduate Record Examinations is a standardized test that is an admissions requirement for many graduate schools in the United States and Canada and few in other countries. The GRE is owned and administered by Educational Testing Service. Wikipedia
The Graduate Record Examination, or GRE, is an important step in the graduate school or business school application process. The GRE is a multiple-choice, computer-based, standardized exam that is often required for admission to graduate programs and graduate business programs (MBA) globally.
GRE English Vocabulary 2500 - Advance Level English Vocabularies According GRE past papers; GRE Vocabulary 2500 V2021-Advance Level English Vocabularies According GRE past papers
大师级必胜GRE词汇 GRE English Vocabulary 2500 分级英语词汇
Sunny Dispositions: Modernizing Investment Tax Credit Recapture Rules for Sol...GW Solar Institute
DOWNLOAD HERE: http://solar.gwu.edu/Research/Meister_Sunny_Dispositions_ITC_Recapture.pdf
Joel Meister, GW BA ‘07 and a third-year student in the GW Law School (currently working at the Solar Energy Industries Association), provided research on the subject of modernizing certain tax rules that affect the solar energy industry. In his paper, ”Sunny Dispositions: Modernizing Investment Tax Credit Recapture Rules for Solar Energy Project Finance After The Stimulus”, Meister examines how solar project developers will grapple with the transition from the expired Section 1603 Treasury Grant Program to the Investment Tax Credit that requires “recapture” of tax benefits if a company sells or transfers its solar system within five years of installation. Meister traces the genesis of the recapture rules and explores the negative implications of the recapture rules for the solar industry.
This document provides an environmental review of QER Pty Ltd's oil shale technology demonstration plant in Gladstone, Queensland. It finds that QER's facility has demonstrated better environmental performance than the previous large-scale oil shale processing plant. Key factors contributing to the improved performance include lower air emissions, fewer odours, better waste management, and increased community support compared to the previous technology. The review identifies issues relevant to any future expansion and provides lessons for managing environmental impacts of oil shale development.
This document provides a 3-sentence summary of the given document:
The document is the user's guide and reference for PL/SQL Release 2 (9.2) from Oracle Corporation, covering the main features and functionality of PL/SQL such as blocks, variables, cursors, control structures, modularity, and error handling. It was last updated in March 2002 and has John Russell listed as the primary author along with several contributing authors. The document is copyrighted by Oracle Corporation and contains proprietary information regarding PL/SQL that is provided under a license agreement.
This comprehensive guide from the Department of Energy will answer your questions about purchasing renewable energy for your home, business, non-profit, or government agency. Includes clear diagrams, charts, and useful anecdotes.
Democratic Republic of the Congo - Energy OutlookRachit Kansal
The Democratic Republic of the Congo is a very resource-rich country, with the second largest rainforest basin in the world and an abundance of hydro resources.
The country is now at crossroads. Going down one path can guarantee its citizens robust energy security and make it a strong energy exporter. The other path could lead to over-exploitation of its resources, environmental destruction and higher economic disparity.
This report examines various scenarios in the country's future, each of which prioritize different goals and policies.
This document summarizes the findings of a documentation exercise on the integrated community case management (iCCM) program in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). It provides background on the iCCM approach and an overview of the DRC program. Key findings from analyzing data collected through document reviews, interviews, and focus groups at national, regional, district and community levels are presented. The analysis identified successes of the DRC program including strong leadership and coordination, effective technical documents, and integrated management of major childhood illnesses at community sites. It also noted bottlenecks such as the lack of a long-term extension plan and weakening advocacy. The document concludes with lessons learned that may help other countries implement iCCM programs, such as establishing supportive policies
This document provides an overview of sustainable energy issues in Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). It discusses topics such as energy access, energy efficiency, and renewable energy. Some key points include:
- Energy access remains a challenge in parts of Central Asia and the Western Balkans due to unreliable electricity grids and heating issues in the winter. This can negatively impact human development.
- Many countries in the region have significant potential to improve energy efficiency, especially in buildings. However, policy and financing barriers still exist for greater implementation of energy efficiency measures.
- Renewable energy is growing but still makes up a small percentage of the overall energy mix in most countries. Greater development of renewables can provide energy security
This report is NanoMarkets’ latest report analyzing the CIGS industry and its prospects for the future. NanoMarkets has been covering the CIGS space since CIGS’ earliest days and this report should be regarded as a major guide to the future of CIGS, compiled with an insider’s knowledge. It examines the future of this important solar panel technology from both the standpoint of the technical and the commercial. And it does so with a background in which it seems likely that many of the subsidies that have helped solar in the past will fade away and that the world economy will not return to the strong growth of the last decade for quite some time.
This document discusses assessing and managing the risk of arc flash from electrical equipment. It begins with definitions of arc flash and discusses common causes like live working, system design errors, and human factors. It then describes how factors like proximity, duration, equipment condition and location, and short circuit current affect the dangers of arc flash. The document concludes by discussing risk assessment and various risk control methods to manage arc flash safety.
This document provides an overview of the International Energy Outlook 2023 report published by the U.S. Energy Information Administration. It includes the table of contents which lists the topics covered in the report such as increasing global population and income, growth in renewable energy, and changes in energy demand by sector. The report models different cases exploring uncertainties around economic growth, oil prices, and zero-carbon technology costs. It also analyzes how factors like policies, resources, and costs will drive different regions' transitions to meet electricity demand growth through 2050.
Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System
Blackout in the United States and Canada Causes and RecommendationsPower System Operation
The North American electricity system is one of
the great engineering achievements of the past 100
years. This electricity infrastructure represents
more than $1 trillion (U.S.) in asset value, more
than 200,000 miles—or 320,000 kilometers (km)
of transmission lines operating at 230,000 volts
and greater, 950,000 megawatts of generating
capability, and nearly 3,500 utility organizations
serving well over 100 million customers and 283
million people.
Modern society has come to depend on reliable
electricity as an essential resource for national
security; health and welfare; communications;
finance; transportation; food and water supply;
heating, cooling, and lighting; computers and
electronics; commercial enterprise; and even
entertainment and leisure—in short, nearly all
aspects of modern life. Customers have grown to
expect that electricity will almost always be available
when needed at the flick of a switch. Most
customers have also experienced local outages
caused by a car hitting a power pole, a construction
crew accidentally damaging a cable,
Role of Alternative Energy Sources: Natural Gas Technology AssessmentMarcellus Drilling News
This document analyzes the role of natural gas power in the United States. It discusses natural gas power plant performance characteristics, the natural gas resource base and supply/demand outlook, and environmental and cost analyses of natural gas power generation. Specifically, it examines the efficiency and emissions of natural gas combined cycle and simple cycle plants. It also evaluates the domestic natural gas supply from conventional and unconventional sources like shale gas, and projects growing natural gas demand and a balanced supply/demand outlook through 2035. Environmental impacts like greenhouse gas, water, and air emissions across the natural gas life cycle are quantified. Finally, the document conducts a life cycle cost analysis of natural gas power generation technologies.
A report compiled by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) in response to a request from the Dept. of Energy analyzing the effects that an increase in natural gas exports would have on the U.S. market.
This document presents the final report of the 2013 Residential Customer Profile Study for the electric and gas program administrators of Massachusetts. The study provides a summary of energy efficiency program participation, savings and incentives at the residential sector level across all PAs. Key findings include:
1) Over 1.3 million premises participated in electric programs, achieving over 300,000 MWh of savings. Over 800,000 premises participated in gas programs, achieving over 13 million therms of savings.
2) Participation, savings and incentives are analyzed and mapped at the census block group level, providing the first statewide view of impacts across PA territories.
3) Patterns of participation in multiple initiatives are examined, finding a significant portion of participants
The document discusses guidelines for designing and constructing passive houses in Ireland according to the Passivhaus standard. It defines key aspects of the Passivhaus standard, including minimizing heat losses and maximizing heat gains to reduce the need for active space heating and cooling systems. It also covers how the Passivhaus standard has evolved in Europe and Ireland. The guidelines provide information on the passive house design process, principles of reducing heat losses and gains, energy balance calculations, a prototype passive house design for Ireland, and cost considerations.
This document establishes rules for distribution services and open access in the Philippines pursuant to the Electric Power Industry Reform Act of 2001. It defines key terms and outlines the general services provided by Distribution Utilities including connection assets and services, supply to the captive market, and distribution wheeling service. It establishes rules for new connections and modifications, metering, billing of captive customers, distribution wheeling, and guidelines for establishing regulated service rates. The document provides a comprehensive framework to introduce competition in distribution services and open access in compliance with national energy reform laws and regulations.
This document provides requirements for implementing self-organizing network (SON) and operations and maintenance (O&M) use cases as recommended by the NGMN Alliance. It describes requirements for self-configuration use cases like planning and optimizing radio parameters for new network nodes. It also outlines requirements for self-optimization use cases such as neighbor cell list optimization and interference control. Additional sections cover fault management and correction requirements as well as O&M related SON use cases. The document is intended to provide vendors with guidelines for developing SON solutions that are generic, align with 3GPP standards, and address key use cases identified by mobile network operators.
Developing preventive maintenance plans with RCMBruno De Wachter
Preventive maintenance has a great impact on performance, risk, costs and energy consumption of assets. It should be customised for each asset, because every asset works under different circumstances and has another criticality. One of the major shifts in point of view in preventive maintenance within these last few decades is that it should be aimed at fulfilling the organisational strategy.
Maintenance involves all the activities needed to keep an asset functioning according to the demands of the organisation. It includes not only overhauls or exchange of parts, but also calibration, inspection, cleaning, lubrication, functional tests and more. Simply replacing or restoring components after fixed intervals is called predetermined maintenance. This is often not an effective strategy, because only a minor part of all failure modes are time related. Most failure modes do not have a rising probability with rising component age. In these cases condition monitoring or function test may provide a good solution.
RCM is a good and generally accepted methodology to select preventive maintenance tasks. Because it is too time consuming to conduct it for every asset in an organisation, faster methods have been developed, such as Industrial RCM, which uses templates with failure modes and preventive maintenance actions for standard components.
This Application Note describes how to select the right mix of preventive maintenance tasks for an asset system, using RCM, Industrial RCM and Preventive Maintenance Set Up (PM Set Up).
This document is a table of contents for an N(i)2 FAQ that addresses questions about the N(i)2 Suite's architecture, CMDB, queries and reports, request management, discovery, incident management, infrastructure management, change management, usability, administration, API, and integration with third party products. The table of contents lists 12 sections that the FAQ will cover related to these topics and provides a brief description of the types of questions that may be answered in each section.
GRE English Vocabulary 2500 大师级必胜GRE词汇- Advance Level English Vocabulary Acco...LEGOO MANDARIN
GRE English Vocabulary 2500 大师级必胜GRE词汇- Advance Level English Vocabulary According GRE past papers 分级英语词汇, latest 2021 version,BEST PRICE @ http://edeo.biz/13234
The Graduate Record Examinations is a standardized test that is an admissions requirement for many graduate schools in the United States and Canada and few in other countries. The GRE is owned and administered by Educational Testing Service. Wikipedia
The Graduate Record Examination, or GRE, is an important step in the graduate school or business school application process. The GRE is a multiple-choice, computer-based, standardized exam that is often required for admission to graduate programs and graduate business programs (MBA) globally.
GRE English Vocabulary 2500 - Advance Level English Vocabularies According GRE past papers; GRE Vocabulary 2500 V2021-Advance Level English Vocabularies According GRE past papers
大师级必胜GRE词汇 GRE English Vocabulary 2500 分级英语词汇
Sunny Dispositions: Modernizing Investment Tax Credit Recapture Rules for Sol...GW Solar Institute
DOWNLOAD HERE: http://solar.gwu.edu/Research/Meister_Sunny_Dispositions_ITC_Recapture.pdf
Joel Meister, GW BA ‘07 and a third-year student in the GW Law School (currently working at the Solar Energy Industries Association), provided research on the subject of modernizing certain tax rules that affect the solar energy industry. In his paper, ”Sunny Dispositions: Modernizing Investment Tax Credit Recapture Rules for Solar Energy Project Finance After The Stimulus”, Meister examines how solar project developers will grapple with the transition from the expired Section 1603 Treasury Grant Program to the Investment Tax Credit that requires “recapture” of tax benefits if a company sells or transfers its solar system within five years of installation. Meister traces the genesis of the recapture rules and explores the negative implications of the recapture rules for the solar industry.
This document provides an environmental review of QER Pty Ltd's oil shale technology demonstration plant in Gladstone, Queensland. It finds that QER's facility has demonstrated better environmental performance than the previous large-scale oil shale processing plant. Key factors contributing to the improved performance include lower air emissions, fewer odours, better waste management, and increased community support compared to the previous technology. The review identifies issues relevant to any future expansion and provides lessons for managing environmental impacts of oil shale development.
This document provides a 3-sentence summary of the given document:
The document is the user's guide and reference for PL/SQL Release 2 (9.2) from Oracle Corporation, covering the main features and functionality of PL/SQL such as blocks, variables, cursors, control structures, modularity, and error handling. It was last updated in March 2002 and has John Russell listed as the primary author along with several contributing authors. The document is copyrighted by Oracle Corporation and contains proprietary information regarding PL/SQL that is provided under a license agreement.
This comprehensive guide from the Department of Energy will answer your questions about purchasing renewable energy for your home, business, non-profit, or government agency. Includes clear diagrams, charts, and useful anecdotes.
Democratic Republic of the Congo - Energy OutlookRachit Kansal
The Democratic Republic of the Congo is a very resource-rich country, with the second largest rainforest basin in the world and an abundance of hydro resources.
The country is now at crossroads. Going down one path can guarantee its citizens robust energy security and make it a strong energy exporter. The other path could lead to over-exploitation of its resources, environmental destruction and higher economic disparity.
This report examines various scenarios in the country's future, each of which prioritize different goals and policies.
This document summarizes the findings of a documentation exercise on the integrated community case management (iCCM) program in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). It provides background on the iCCM approach and an overview of the DRC program. Key findings from analyzing data collected through document reviews, interviews, and focus groups at national, regional, district and community levels are presented. The analysis identified successes of the DRC program including strong leadership and coordination, effective technical documents, and integrated management of major childhood illnesses at community sites. It also noted bottlenecks such as the lack of a long-term extension plan and weakening advocacy. The document concludes with lessons learned that may help other countries implement iCCM programs, such as establishing supportive policies
This document provides an overview of sustainable energy issues in Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). It discusses topics such as energy access, energy efficiency, and renewable energy. Some key points include:
- Energy access remains a challenge in parts of Central Asia and the Western Balkans due to unreliable electricity grids and heating issues in the winter. This can negatively impact human development.
- Many countries in the region have significant potential to improve energy efficiency, especially in buildings. However, policy and financing barriers still exist for greater implementation of energy efficiency measures.
- Renewable energy is growing but still makes up a small percentage of the overall energy mix in most countries. Greater development of renewables can provide energy security
This report is NanoMarkets’ latest report analyzing the CIGS industry and its prospects for the future. NanoMarkets has been covering the CIGS space since CIGS’ earliest days and this report should be regarded as a major guide to the future of CIGS, compiled with an insider’s knowledge. It examines the future of this important solar panel technology from both the standpoint of the technical and the commercial. And it does so with a background in which it seems likely that many of the subsidies that have helped solar in the past will fade away and that the world economy will not return to the strong growth of the last decade for quite some time.
This document discusses assessing and managing the risk of arc flash from electrical equipment. It begins with definitions of arc flash and discusses common causes like live working, system design errors, and human factors. It then describes how factors like proximity, duration, equipment condition and location, and short circuit current affect the dangers of arc flash. The document concludes by discussing risk assessment and various risk control methods to manage arc flash safety.
This document provides an overview of the International Energy Outlook 2023 report published by the U.S. Energy Information Administration. It includes the table of contents which lists the topics covered in the report such as increasing global population and income, growth in renewable energy, and changes in energy demand by sector. The report models different cases exploring uncertainties around economic growth, oil prices, and zero-carbon technology costs. It also analyzes how factors like policies, resources, and costs will drive different regions' transitions to meet electricity demand growth through 2050.
Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System Maintaining Reliability in the Modern Power System
Blackout in the United States and Canada Causes and RecommendationsPower System Operation
The North American electricity system is one of
the great engineering achievements of the past 100
years. This electricity infrastructure represents
more than $1 trillion (U.S.) in asset value, more
than 200,000 miles—or 320,000 kilometers (km)
of transmission lines operating at 230,000 volts
and greater, 950,000 megawatts of generating
capability, and nearly 3,500 utility organizations
serving well over 100 million customers and 283
million people.
Modern society has come to depend on reliable
electricity as an essential resource for national
security; health and welfare; communications;
finance; transportation; food and water supply;
heating, cooling, and lighting; computers and
electronics; commercial enterprise; and even
entertainment and leisure—in short, nearly all
aspects of modern life. Customers have grown to
expect that electricity will almost always be available
when needed at the flick of a switch. Most
customers have also experienced local outages
caused by a car hitting a power pole, a construction
crew accidentally damaging a cable,
Role of Alternative Energy Sources: Natural Gas Technology AssessmentMarcellus Drilling News
This document analyzes the role of natural gas power in the United States. It discusses natural gas power plant performance characteristics, the natural gas resource base and supply/demand outlook, and environmental and cost analyses of natural gas power generation. Specifically, it examines the efficiency and emissions of natural gas combined cycle and simple cycle plants. It also evaluates the domestic natural gas supply from conventional and unconventional sources like shale gas, and projects growing natural gas demand and a balanced supply/demand outlook through 2035. Environmental impacts like greenhouse gas, water, and air emissions across the natural gas life cycle are quantified. Finally, the document conducts a life cycle cost analysis of natural gas power generation technologies.
A report compiled by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) in response to a request from the Dept. of Energy analyzing the effects that an increase in natural gas exports would have on the U.S. market.
This document provides application notes for AT commands used to control the Bluetooth functionality of the OVC3860 chip. It describes 50 AT commands for various Bluetooth operations like pairing, connecting, calling functions, audio control, memory access, and testing features. The document is intended as a supplemental reference for the official OVC3860 datasheet.
This report evaluates an advanced lighting controls project installed at a Blue Diamond Growers refrigerated warehouse. It finds:
1) Installation of LED fixtures and motion sensors reduced annual energy consumption by 36% compared to the original lighting.
2) Monitored lighting load profiles showed motion sensors further reduced consumption by 6% compared to the LED fixtures alone.
3) Occupant surveys found satisfaction with the new lighting system and motion controls. Installers said the technology, design, and installation went well.
This document provides an overview of the current state and challenges facing South Africa's electricity sector. It notes that while Eskom has achieved low prices and high electrification rates, the distribution segment faces significant inefficiencies and financial troubles. It also points out that South Africa now faces a tight supply-demand balance, requiring substantial new investment in generation. The document argues that structural reforms should focus on improving investment incentives and that regulatory authority over prices needs to remain coherent and independent. Overall, the electricity sector has been well-run but faces serious challenges that require policy action and cooperation to address.
This document provides an overview of the current state and challenges facing South Africa's electricity sector. It notes that while Eskom has achieved low prices and high electrification rates, the distribution segment faces significant inefficiencies and financial troubles. It also points out that South Africa now faces a tight supply-demand balance, requiring substantial new investment in generation. The document argues that structural and policy options should be evaluated based on their ability to incentivize this needed investment. It raises concerns about the proposed Electricity Regulation Bill which could undermine regulatory coherence and independence.
This chapter discusses the benefits of using cable system diagnostics. It provides background on current asset management approaches, including the use of "bathtub curves" to model failure rates over time. The chapter then examines different cost elements involved in cable system lifecycles. It provides examples estimating the costs and benefits of commissioning tests and diagnostic programs. The estimates suggest diagnostics can reduce outage costs by identifying problems earlier. The chapter concludes that diagnostics allow more accurate forecasting and assessment of asset health, resource needs, and program efficacy compared to a "run to failure" approach.
This document provides a summary of a 7th edition handbook on fuel cells published by the U.S. Department of Energy in 2004. The handbook contains detailed information on fuel cell technologies including polymer electrolyte fuel cells, alkaline fuel cells, phosphoric acid fuel cells, molten carbonate fuel cells, and solid oxide fuel cells. It discusses fuel cell components, performance, applications, and systems-level designs. The handbook serves as a comprehensive technical resource for understanding fuel cell technology fundamentals and the current state of development.
ORNL econ analysis of repurposed EV batteries for Stationary ApplicationsUCSD-Strategic-Energy
The objective of this ORNL study is to explore the various possible markets for the secondary use of Li-ion batteries removed from electric or hybrid electric vehicles (EVs or HEVs) after they can no longer conform to vehicle specification but still have substantial functional life. This report is the first phase of the study, and the scope is limited to secondary use of Li-ion batteries in power system applications. The primary focus of this report is the cost competitiveness of these batteries for power grid applications. Original equipment manufacturers such as General Motors, Nissan, and Toyota offer long-term warranties for the battery packs in their vehicles. The expectation is that once battery efficiency (energy or peak power) decreases to 80%, the batteries will be replaced. The rationale is that a 20% reduction in the vehicle range, imposed by the decrease in efficiency, would be unacceptable to consumers. Based on various forecasts for market penetration of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and EVs over the next 10 years, it is estimated that a large number of PHEVs and EVs will be approaching the 80% battery efficiency level by 2020. These batteries can be recycled or used in other less demanding applications provided a business case can be made for their secondary use. For this economic analysis, data have been gathered on the projected cost of new batteries in 2020 and the projected supply of HEVs, EVs, and PHEVs over the next decade. These data were then used to determine the potential supply of batteries for secondary use and the acceptable refurbishing costs. Based on this, a proposed sale price for the secondary-use batteries has been developed. This price and the system prices for various grid applications were used to calculate potential benefits. In this analysis, the battery pack was assumed to have a lifetime of either 5 or 10 years because the secondary life is dependent largely on application. The applications that offer the most attractive value proposition for secondary use of EV batteries over the entire range of value and cost assumptions used in this report include area regulation, transmission and distribution (T&D) upgrade deferral, and electric service power quality. Those applications should be targeted for additional in-depth analysis and initial deployment of used EV batteries as they become available in the market. However, these markets will presumably not be enough to absorb the entire volume of secondary-use EV batteries predicted for 2020 and beyond. The cost of the applications is determined by the cost of the used batteries, balance of system cost, refurbishment cost, transportation cost, and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs. The transportation cost will depend on whether used batteries are treated as hazardous materials or hazardous waste. When calculating the cost of a particular application, the peak power requirement and the energy capacity of the storage system were defined based on simi
Promoting Behavior-Based Energy Efficiency in Military Housingrogernauth
This revised handbook provides guidance for promoting behavior-based energy efficiency in U.S. military housing. It discusses the drivers for energy efficiency in military housing, including budget constraints. It recommends planning a campaign by establishing goals, understanding the local context, identifying desired behaviors, selecting communication channels, and incentivizing participation. The handbook also covers designing the campaign, evaluating its impact, and sustaining energy-efficient behaviors over time to achieve long-term savings. The overall aim is to reduce energy use and costs at military bases through community engagement programs.
This report provides a method for calculating the renewable net short for California loadserving
entities and identifies data sources and input values for the calculation.
Renewable net short is an estimate of the gap (or net short) between current levels of
renewable energy production and target levels established by state policy for some
future date. Estimates of renewable net short are required to determine the amount of
new renewable generation capacity that must be built and/or delivered from out-of-state
sources to meet the Renewables Portfolio Standard target. This also includes
evaluating the electricity infrastructure requirements for integrating new generation
additions, and identifying market mechanisms that must be modified to provide the
ancillary services that would be required to maintain reliable system operations.
The document discusses issues with medium voltage cable systems. It provides historical context on the evolution of cable construction from the 1800s to present day. Key developments include the transition from paper to polymer insulation and the introduction of water tree resistant materials. The document also notes that while cable technology aimed to increase reliability, the process did not always achieve expected benefits, driving the need for cable system diagnostics. Failure rates of early cables are shown in graphs. Various tables outline the generations of cable construction and materials used over time.
FICCI strongly believes that the creation of a strong and secure supply chain in India for the solar sector will enable creation of jobs, reduce foreign exchange outflow and lead to increase in investments and sustainable growth of the sector in the long run. There is a strong need to incentivize investments in creating the domestic supply chain with help from both domestic and global players, and to facilitate collaborative arrangements towards enhancing research and development efforts. There is also a strong case for international companies with extensive technology and experience globally to participate in building a strong supply chain in India and be part of India's solar growth story.
This Report on Securing the Solar Supply Chain highlights demand opportunities and key issues for the solar manufacturing supply chain and provides policy recommendations to enable creation of a strong supply chain for solar energy in India.
This document provides a proposed logistics system for the year 2025 called the Battlespace Responsive Agile Integrated Network (BRAIN). It discusses capabilities needed across four core logistics processes: acquisition, materiel management, transportation, and maintenance. For acquisition, it recommends streamlining regulations to empower users to directly purchase items from manufacturers. For materiel management, it suggests increased reliability, miniaturization and on-site manufacturing. For transportation, it proposes reducing footprint through efficient engines and miniaturization. For maintenance, it recommends improved reliability and modular design. The goal is to provide total asset visibility and seamless support from "cradle to grave" through an integrated automated logistics system.
This document provides guidelines for energy efficient building design. It covers lighting, electric power and distribution, building envelope, air conditioning systems, and boiler and hot water systems. For lighting, it recommends efficient lamp types and design approaches to reduce energy use. It sets maximum power density limits for interior and exterior lighting. For other building systems, it provides requirements for equipment efficiency and design criteria to improve energy performance. The guidelines aim to reduce building energy use while maintaining occupant comfort.
This document provides a comprehensive review of current strategies and research on how increased penetration of variable renewable generation impacts power system operating reserves. It begins with an overview of power system operations and the different categories of operating reserves, including regulating reserves, following reserves, contingency reserves, and ramping reserves. It then surveys operating reserve practices in North America and Europe. Finally, it discusses findings from large-scale renewable integration studies and academic research on proposed new methodologies for operating reserves at high renewable penetration levels. The key findings are that variable generation increases the need for certain reserves like regulating reserves, while decreasing the need for others like contingency reserves, and that alternative reserve allocation methods may be needed for power systems with large amounts of renewable energy.
ICF Energy Efficiency in HOME Affordable Housing ManualICF_HCD
This document provides a manual for incorporating energy efficiency into housing developments funded by HUD's HOME Investment Partnerships Program (HOME). The manual is intended to help Participating Jurisdictions, community organizations, and subrecipients implement energy efficiency practices and ENERGY STAR standards. It offers guidance on strategies for new construction, rehabilitation of existing housing, and calculating potential energy and cost savings from various measures. The manual also identifies funding partners and programs that can help overcome barriers to energy efficiency. Finally, it provides climate-specific recommendations for common efficiency upgrades in different regions covered by HUD's San Francisco office.
Similar to Demand Response For Power System Reliability (20)
The document provides highlights and key insights from the DNV Energy Transition Outlook 2021 report. It finds that:
1) Global emissions are not decreasing fast enough to meet Paris Agreement goals, and warming is projected to reach 2.3°C by 2100 despite renewable growth.
2) Electrification is surging, with renewables like solar and wind outcompeting other sources by 2030 and providing over 80% of power by 2050, supported by technologies like storage.
3) Energy efficiency gains lead to flat global energy demand after the 2030s, with a 2.4% annual improvement in energy intensity outpacing economic growth.
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Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide Power System Restoration Guide
Big data analytics Big data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analyticsBig data analytics
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SVC PLUS Frequency Stabilizer Frequency and voltage support for dynamic grid...Power System Operation
SVC PLUS
Frequency Stabilizer
Frequency and voltage support for dynamic grid stability
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Balancing services help maintain the frequency of the power grid by providing short-term energy or capacity reserves. They include balancing energy, which system operators use to maintain grid frequency, and balancing capacity, which providers agree to keep available. Different balancing services have varying activation speeds to respond to frequency deviations. Harmonization efforts in Europe are working to establish common balancing markets and platforms for cross-border exchange of reserves.
The Need for Enhanced Power System Modelling Techniques & Simulation Tools Power System Operation
The Need for Enhanced Power System Modelling Techniques & Simulation Tools The Need for Enhanced Power System Modelling Techniques The Need for Enhanced Power System Modelling Techniques & Simulation Tools The Need for Enhanced Power System Modelling Techniques & Simulation Tools & Simulation Tools
Power Quality Trends in the Transition to Carbon-Free Electrical Energy SystemPower System Operation
Power Quality
Trends in the Transition to
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A Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) is a long-term contract between an electricity generator and purchaser that defines the conditions for the sale of electricity. PPAs provide price stability and help finance renewable energy projects by guaranteeing revenue. There are physical PPAs, which deliver electricity directly, and virtual PPAs, which financially settle the contract without physical delivery. PPAs benefit both renewable developers by enabling project financing, and buyers seeking long-term electricity price certainty and renewable attributes.
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Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
Comparative analysis between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquapon...bijceesjournal
The aquaponic system of planting is a method that does not require soil usage. It is a method that only needs water, fish, lava rocks (a substitute for soil), and plants. Aquaponic systems are sustainable and environmentally friendly. Its use not only helps to plant in small spaces but also helps reduce artificial chemical use and minimizes excess water use, as aquaponics consumes 90% less water than soil-based gardening. The study applied a descriptive and experimental design to assess and compare conventional and reconstructed aquaponic methods for reproducing tomatoes. The researchers created an observation checklist to determine the significant factors of the study. The study aims to determine the significant difference between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquaponics systems propagating tomatoes in terms of height, weight, girth, and number of fruits. The reconstructed aquaponics system’s higher growth yield results in a much more nourished crop than the traditional aquaponics system. It is superior in its number of fruits, height, weight, and girth measurement. Moreover, the reconstructed aquaponics system is proven to eliminate all the hindrances present in the traditional aquaponics system, which are overcrowding of fish, algae growth, pest problems, contaminated water, and dead fish.
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
Applications of artificial Intelligence in Mechanical Engineering.pdfAtif Razi
Historically, mechanical engineering has relied heavily on human expertise and empirical methods to solve complex problems. With the introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis (FEA), the field took its first steps towards digitization. These tools allowed engineers to simulate and analyze mechanical systems with greater accuracy and efficiency. However, the sheer volume of data generated by modern engineering systems and the increasing complexity of these systems have necessitated more advanced analytical tools, paving the way for AI.
AI offers the capability to process vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and make predictions with a level of speed and accuracy unattainable by traditional methods. This has profound implications for mechanical engineering, enabling more efficient design processes, predictive maintenance strategies, and optimized manufacturing operations. AI-driven tools can learn from historical data, adapt to new information, and continuously improve their performance, making them invaluable in tackling the multifaceted challenges of modern mechanical engineering.
2. This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States
Government. Neither the United States government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees,
makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy,
completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents
that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial
product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily
constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or
any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or
reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.
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3. ORNL/TM-2006/565
Demand Response For Power System
Reliability: FAQ
Prepared for the
Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability
Transmission Reliability Program
U.S. Department of Energy
Phil Overholt
Principal Author
Brendan Kirby
December 2006
Prepared by
OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831-6070
managed by
UT-BATTELLE, LLC
for the
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725
4. iii
CONTENTS
Page
1. INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................1
2. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS..........................................................................2
A What types of response can load provide? ..................................................................... 2
B What are the reliability services?....................................................................................2
C Which reliability services might responsive loads provide? .............................................3
D How are ancillary services characterized?.......................................................................5
E How often are spinning reserves called upon? What response length is required................6
F Why are some loads a particularly good match for power system reliability requirements?.8
G Why would loads rather provide reliability response than peak reduction?........................9
H How are ancillary services valued and what are the prices?..............................................9
I Why is regulation always the highest priced ancillary service? ........................................13
J What determines contingency reserve market prices? .....................................................15
K What characteristics are required for load to provide reliability services? What types of
loads have these characteristics?................................................................................15
L Can load response really provide the critical spinning reserve reliability function? Isn’t it
better to let load provide peak reduction and replacement reserves? .............................16
M Do responsive loads have the technical capability to provide regulation? .......................16
N Do current reliability rules discriminate against responsive load?...................................19
O Should system operators encourage and facilitate load response?...................................19
P Why not deploy responsive loads sequentially to meet the duration requirement? ............20
Q How is it that a responsive load can provide more capacity by supplying spinning reserve
than by providing peak reduction? .............................................................................21
R Will using responsive loads hurt power system stability?...............................................23
S Do customer overrides and voluntary response reduce the reliability value of load
response? .................................................................................................................24
T Is real-time monitoring needed or practical for responsive load? Does statistical response
help?........................................................................................................................24
U Will demand response forecast errors adversely impact reliability? ................................26
V Should demand response be treated as a regulated asset?...............................................27
W Do NERC rules address demand response?..................................................................28
X How do Regional Reliability Councils treat reliability demand response?.......................28
Y Do capacity markets help or hurt demand response?......................................................29
Z Why is it so difficult for new technologies to gain acceptance in supplying power system
reliability?................................................................................................................31
AA Is co-optimization compatible with demand response? ...............................................32
3. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMENDATIONS............................................................34
ACKNOWLEDGMENT....................................................................................................35
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................36
5. iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 All five basic types of demand response impact power system reliability..............2
2 Response time and duration differentiate ancillary services....................................5
3 Frequency immediately drops and spinning reserves respond autonomously in this
example where two nuclear plants tripped in ERCOT. ...........................................6
4 WECC experienced 77 events where frequency dropped by more than 0.1 hz
between January 1994 and February 2001...............................................................7
5 ISOs differ in the frequency of their use of contingency reserves but reserve
deployment is typically fairly short. ........................................................................7
6 Ideally, spinning and non-spinning reserves should be restored within 30 minutes
to prepare the system for the next contingency. ......................................................8
7 Monthly average regulation prices are typically (but not always) somewhat lower
than energy prices. .................................................................................................10
8 Ancillary service prices in all markets follow a pattern where regulation is most
expensive and replacement reserve is least expensive...........................................11
9 Regulation is always the most expensive ancillary service as shown by these 2005
monthly average ancillary service prices...............................................................12
10 June 2005 average hourly ancillary service prices show a consistent pattern. ......12
11 Regulation costs are dominated by generator opportunity costs. Cost at night can
be higher than during the day.................................................................................14
12 Regulation provides the minute-to-minute balancing of generation and load.......17
13 Thermal generators often fail to follow regulation commands closely. ................18
14 The 250 MW regulation requirement of a 30,000 MW control area (left) is
significantly reduced in terms of swing duration and swing frequency with the
deployment of a simulated 50 MW of ideal regulation resource (right)................18
15 Which response best supports power system reliability? ......................................21
16 Significant spinning reserve capability remains even when demand reduction is in
effect, as shown in this 8/14/2002 curtailment. .....................................................22
17 WECC system stability is enhanced when 300 MW of responsive load (upper blue
curve) replaces an equal amount of generation (lower red curve). Stability runs
performed by Donald Davies of WECC................................................................23
18 Statistics from the LIPA Edge program show that manual override is not a
problem during the spinning reserve time frame. The air-conditioning load
matches the total load daily profile, as shown on this Monday, July 29, 2002. ....25
19 Larger numbers of individually less reliable responsive loads can provide greater
aggregate reliability than fewer large generators...................................................26
20 Ancillary services contribute to capacity requirements just as peak load
requirements do......................................................................................................30
21 The air-conditioning load matches the total load daily profile, as shown on this
Monday, July 29, 2002...........................................................................................31
6. v
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Definitions of Real-Power Ancillary Services......................................................4
2 Annual average and maximum ancillary service prices from four markets for
five years.............................................................................................................13
3 Current and pending ancillary service markets (adapted from MISO 2006)......29
7. vi
ACRONYMS
CAISO California Independent System Operator
ERCOT Electric Reliability Council of Texas
FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
ISO-NE Independent System Operator of New England
ISO Independent System Operator
LIPA Long Island Power Authority
MISO Midwest Independent System Operator
MRO Midwest Reliability Organization
MW megawatt
MWh megawatt-hour of energy
NERC North American Electric Reliability Council
NYISO New York Independent System Operator
PJM PJM Interconnection L.L.C.
RFC Reliability First Corporation
RRO regional reliability organization
RTO regional transmission organization
WECC Western Electricity Coordinating Council
8. 1
1. INTRODUCTION
Demand response is the largest underutilized reliability resource in North America.
Historic demand response programs have focused on reducing overall electricity
consumption (increasing efficiency) and shaving peaks but have not typically been used
for immediate reliability response. Many of these programs have been successful but
demand response remains a limited resource. The Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission (FERC) report, Assessment of Demand Response and Advanced Metering
(FERC 2006) found that only five percent of customers are on some form of demand
response program. Collectively they represent an estimated 37,000 MW of response
potential. These programs reduce overall energy consumption and they also reduce stress
on the power system at times of peak loading.
More recently demand response has begun to be considered, and in some cases actually
used, to directly supply reliability services to the power system. Rather than reducing
overall power system stress by reducing peak loading over multiple hours these programs
are targeted to immediately respond to specific reliability events. This is made possible
by advances in communications and controls and has benefits for the power system and
the load.
Unfortunately, preconceptions concerning load response capabilities, coupled with
misunderstandings of power system reliability needs, are limiting the use of responsive
loads. In many places loads are prohibited from providing the most valuable reliability
services in spite of their being evidence that their response can be superior to that of
generators. This is denying the power system of a valuable reliability resource. It is also
denying loads the ability to sell valuable services.
This report addresses a number of common misconceptions concerning responsive load
and power system reliability interactions. It is structured as a set of short questions and
answers and is intended for power system operators, planners, regulators, load owners,
and other interested parties.
The report is organized into three chapters. Chapter 1 is this introduction. Chapter 2
contains questions and answers on demand response and power system reliability.
Chapter 3 provides conclusions and recommendations.
9. 2
2. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
A. What types of response can load provide?
There are five basic types of load response as shown in Figure 1. All of them have some
impact on power system reliability; some have a greater impact than others. Energy
efficiency reduces consumption during all hours and typically reduces the need for
generation and transmission. It is not focused on times of greatest power system stress
and may not provide as cost effective reliability response to specific reliability problems
as more directed alternatives. Price responsive load and peak shaving both target specific
hours when response is desired: the former facilitates voluntary market response to price
signals while the latter utilizes direct control commands. Both types can be used to
address capacity inadequacy caused by a lack of generation or a lack of transmission.
Reliability response (contingency response) and regulation specifically target power
system reliability needs and offer the greatest reliability benefit per MW of load from
loads that are capable of providing these types of response.
B. What are the reliability services?
Reliability services are “extra” functions which must be performed in order to reliably
supply the electric power that customers actually value. Restructuring of the electric
power industry has required that these various functions, previously provided by the
vertically integrated utility, be unbundled to facilitate competition. FERC defined the
• Energy Efficiency programs reduce electricity consumption
and usually reduce peak demand
• Price Response programs move consumption from day to
night (real time pricing or time of use)
• Peak Shaving programs require more response during peak
hours and focus on reducing peaks every high-load day
• Reliability Response (contingency response) requires the
fastest, shortest duration response. Response is only
required during power system “events” – this is new and
slowly developing
• Regulation Response continuously follows the power
system’s minute-to-minute commands to balance the
aggregate system – this is very new and may have the
potential to dramatically change production costs, especially
for aluminum and chlor-alkali
Figure 1 All five basic types of demand response impact power system reliability.
10. 3
ancillary services as those functions performed by the equipment and people that generate,
control, and transmit electricity in support of the basic services of generating capacity,
energy supply, and power delivery. These services are required to respond to the two
unique characteristics of bulk-power systems: the need to maintain a balance between
generation and load in near real-time and the need to manage power flows through
individual transmission facilities by redispatching generation and load. (Hirst and Kirby,
2003)
FERC specifically recognized six key ancillary services in its landmark Order 888 (FERC
1996): (1) Scheduling, System Control and Dispatch Service; (2) Reactive Supply and
Voltage Control from Generation Sources Service; (3) Regulation and Frequency
Response Service; (4) Energy Imbalance Service; (5) Operating Reserve - Spinning
Reserve Service; and (6) Operating Reserve - Supplemental Reserve Service. Table 1
lists the key real-power ancillary services, the ones that ISOs generally buy in
competitive markets.
Ancillary services provide the system operator with control over the real-time
generation/load balance. Traditionally generators have dominated supplying ancillary
services allowing system operators to control the supply of energy to match the current
demand. This balance of supply and demand can be done equally effectively by
controlling the load side of the equation.
C. Which reliability services might responsive loads provide?
The services which responsive loads may be willing and able to provide are noted in blue
in Table 1. Each load must evaluate the costs and benefits of providing each ancillary
service but more expensive services are, naturally, typically more attractive to sell.
Scheduling, System Control and Dispatch Service is the provision of the system operator
control center etc. This is not a service that loads or generators can provide.
Reactive Supply and Voltage Control from Generation Sources Service deals with the
supply and control of dynamic reactive power. This is needed to maintain stable voltages
throughout the power system. Some loads with large solid state drives may be able to
provide dynamic reactive power to the power system and they should discuss this with
their transmission provider. Reactive power requirements are much more location
specific than real power requirements so each case tends to require individual
negotiations.
Regulation and Frequency Response Service provides the continuous minute-to-minute
balancing of generation and load under normal conditions. This is the most expensive
ancillary service. Most balancing authorities dedicate about 1% to 1.5% of their
generation to supplying regulation. In regions with independent system operators and
ancillary service markets it is the most expensive ancillary service. Some loads may be
capable of supplying regulation.
11. 4
Table 1 Definitions of Real-Power Ancillary Services
Service Description
Service
Response Speed Duration Cycle Time Market Cycle
Price Range*
(average/max)
$/MW-hr
Normal Conditions
Online resources, on automatic generation control, that can respond rapidly to system-
operator requests for up and down movements; used to track the minute-to-minute
fluctuations in system load and to correct for unintended fluctuations in generator
output to comply with Control Performance Standards (CPSs) 1 and 2 of the North
American Electric Reliability Council (NERC 2006)
Regulating
Reserve+
~1 min Minutes Minutes Hourly
35-40#
200-400
Similar to regulation but slower. Bridges between the regulation service and the hourly
energy markets.
Load
Following or
Fast Energy
Markets ~10 minutes 10 min to hours
10 min to
hours
Hourly -
Contingency Conditions
Online generation, synchronized to the grid, that can increase output immediately in
response to a major generator or transmission outage and can reach full output within
10 min to comply with NERC’s Disturbance Control Standard (DCS)
Spinning
Reserve
Seconds to <10
min
10 to 120 min
Hours to
Days
Hourly
6-17
100-300
Same as spinning reserve, but need not respond immediately; resources can be offline
but still must be capable of reaching full output within the required 10 min
Non-Spinning
Reserve
<10 min 10 to 120 min
Hours to
Days
Hourly
3-6
100-400
Same as supplemental reserve, but with a 30-60 min response time; used to restore
spinning and non-spinning reserves to their pre-contingency status
Replacement
or
Supplemental
Reserve <30 min 2 hours
Hours to
Days
Hourly
0.4-2
2-36
Other Services
The injection or absorption of reactive power to maintain transmission-system voltages
within required ranges
Voltage
Control
Seconds Seconds Continuous Year(s) $1-$4/kvar-yr
Generation, in the correct location, that is able to start itself without support from the
grid and which has sufficient real and reactive capability and control to be useful in
energizing pieces of the transmission system and starting additional generators.
Black Start
Minutes Hours
Months to
Years
Year(s) -
* Prices are approximate ranges in $/MW-hr for 2005 and include California, ERCOT, and New York.
+
Ancillary services which loads may wish to sell are shown in blue
#
Up and down regulation prices for California and ERCOT are combined to facilitate comparison with
the full-range prices of New York
12. 5
Energy Imbalance Service is really an accounting function that accommodates any
differences between scheduled and actual transactions. It is not a “service” that individual
generators or loads provide. Load following is a related service that compensates for the
inter- and intra-hour changes in demand. This is the slower counterpart to regulation.
Operating Reserve - Spinning Reserve Service is generation (or responsive load) that is
poised, ready to respond immediately, in case a generator or transmission line fails
unexpectedly. Spinning reserve begins to respond immediately and must fully respond
within ten minutes. Enough contingency reserve (spinning and non-spinning) must be
available to deal with the largest failure that is anticipated. Some regions allow
appropriate loads to supply spinning reserve but many currently do not.
Operating Reserve – Non-Spinning Reserve Service, is similar to spinning reserve
except that response does not need to begin immediately. Full response is still required
within 10 minutes. Appropriately responsive loads are typically allowed to supply non-
spinning reserve.
Replacement or Supplemental Reserve is an additional reserve required in some
regions. It begins responding in 30 to 60 minutes. It is distinguished from non-spinning
reserve by the response time frame. Appropriately responsive loads are typically allowed
to supply replacement or supplemental reserve.
D. How are ancillary services characterized?
The five real-power ancillary services are distinguished by the response speed, duration,
and frequency of deployment. Exact definitions vary somewhat from region to region but
the general characteristics for these services and voltage control are shown in Figure 2.
0.1 1 10 100
TIME (MINUTES)
Regulation
Load Following or Energy Imbalance
Spinning Reserve
Non-Spinning Reserve
Replacement or Supplemental Reserve
Voltage Control
Contingency Operations
Normal Operations
Figure 2 Response time and duration differentiate ancillary services.
13. 6
Two services (regulation and load following or energy imbalance) continuously balance
the system under normal conditions. Regulation provides the minute-to-minute balancing
through automatic generation control. Load following and energy imbalance address the
intra- and inter-hour balancing requirements.
Three services (spinning reserve, non-spinning reserve, and replacement or supplemental
reserve) are continuously poised to respond but are only deployed in the event of a
contingency; the sudden failure of a generator or transmission line.
E. How often are spinning reserves called upon? What response length is
required?
Spinning reserves continuously stand ready to respond whenever a generator or
transmission line fails. They deploy autonomously and automatically through if the
failure is large enough to shift system frequency outside of the governor deadband, as
shown in Figure 3.
The system operator can also order spinning reserves to respond if the contingency is not
large enough to depress system frequency but is large enough to adversely impact the
real-power interchange between control areas (area control error – ACE). If the
contingency is small enough the system operator may be able to address it with regulation
and changes to the economic dispatch.
Figure 4 shows the number times between January 1994 and February 2001 where
WECC frequency dropped by more than 0.1 hz. WECC averaged slightly fewer than one
0.1 hz frequency event per month during this seven year period. Figure 5 shows the
actual use of contingency reserves from both frequency excursions and system operator
deployments for New York, New England, and California. Both California and New
England deploy contingency reserves about twice per month. New York uses contingency
reserves about ten times more frequently.
5 9 .9 0
5 9 .9 2
5 9 .9 4
5 9 .9 6
5 9 .9 8
6 0 .0 0
6 0 .0 2
6 0 .0 4
5 :5 0 6 :0 0 6 :1 0 6 :2 0 6 :3 0
T IM E (p m )
FREQUENCY
2 6 0 0 -M W
G e n e ra tio n
L o s t A G C R E S P O N S E
G O V E R N O R R E S P O N S E
Figure 3 Frequency immediately drops and spinning reserves respond
autonomously in this example where two nuclear plants tripped in ERCOT.
14. 7
Figure 4 WECC experienced 77 events where frequency dropped by more than 0.1
hz between January 1994 and February 2001.
Figure 5 also shows that in all three balancing areas the contingency reserve deployment
is typically short, averaging around ten minutes, but is occasionally longer.
Figure 5 ISOs differ in the frequency of their use of contingency reserves but
reserve deployment is typically fairly short.
0:00
0:10
0:20
0:30
0:40
0:50
1:00
1 51 101 151 201
NYISO, ISO-NE, & CAISO Reserve Deployment Events
DeploymentDuration
NYISO Deployed Reserves 239 times in 2002
Average deployment was under 11 minutes
Average time between deployments was 1.5 days
ISO-NE activated shared reserves 19 times in 2005
Average duration was under 11 minutes
Average time between deployments was 19 days
CAISO dispatched reserves 26 times in 2005
Average duration was under 9 minutes
Average time between deployments was 14 days
NYISO
ISO-NE
CAISO
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24
Frequency Drop (hz)
NumberofEvents
15. 8
Reliability rules typically require spinning (and non-spinning) reserve resources to be
capable of sustaining their response for two hours. This requirement is somewhat at odds
with the way the set of reserves are designed to work together and the requirement that
the power system restore its reserves within 60 to 90 minutes to be prepared for the next
contingency. Figure 6 shows the coordinated response of the ancillary services. The
system operator tries to restore the reserves as quickly as possible to prepare the system
to withstand the next contingency.
Figure 6 Ideally, spinning and non-spinning reserves should be restored within 30
minutes to prepare the system for the next contingency.
F. Why are some loads a particularly good match for power system reliability
requirements?
The power system need for rapid response that typically lasts ten to thirty minutes but
which can occasionally last longer, shown in Figure 6 and Figure 5, matches the response
capability of some loads quite well. (Kirby 2003) Air conditioning loads, for example, are
capable of numerous short curtailments and infrequent sustained curtailments. They can
be rapidly restarted and are ready to immediately respond again should another
contingency arise. They do not have ramping time, minimum on time, or minimum off
time limits that constrain some generators.
Some responsive loads are technically superior to generation when supplying spinning
reserve, the ancillary service requiring the fastest response. Many can curtail
consumption faster than generation can increase production. The only time delay is for
the control signal to get from the system operator to the load; much faster than the 10
minutes allowed for generation to fully respond. When responding to system frequency
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Minutes
Contingency
Occurs
Spinning & Non-Spinning Reserve
Frequency
Response
Reserves "Should"
be Restored
Reserves
"Must" be
Restored
(NERC)
Market Response
Reserves
"Must" be
Restored
(WECC)
Replacement or Supplemental Reserve
16. 9
deviations the curtailment can be essentially instantaneous. Communications delays are
not encountered because frequency is monitored at the load itself.
G. Why would loads rather provide reliability response than peak reduction?
Supplying contingency reserves is technically more attractive to some loads than
providing peak reduction because the response duration and response frequency are
shorter. Peak reduction requires actually responding, typically for multiple hours per day,
often for multiple days in a row, during times when the load could be performing a useful
function for its owner. Air conditioning loads provide a good example. Peak load
reduction is typically required at exactly the time when the air conditioning itself is most
needed. In fact, the power system peak is typically created by the air conditioning load.
Providing contingency reserves requires that the load be poised to respond immediately if
a power system emergency occurs but to operate normally otherwise. This imposes a
technical communications and control requirement on the load but does no otherwise
interfere with loads normal function.
Supplying faster, shorter, ancillary services is often more attractive economically as well.
Ancillary service prices value response speed rather than duration.
H. How are ancillary services valued and what are the prices?
Hourly markets exist in several regions for up to five ancillary services: regulation (up
and down in some markets), spinning reserve, non-spinning reserve, and replacement
reserve. Regulation is always the most expensive service followed by spinning reserve,
non-spinning reserve, and replacement reserve. Some markets split regulation into
regulation up and regulation down. This distinction is semantic rather than technical.
Regulation prices in split markets can be compared with combined markets simply by
adding the up and down prices.
Ancillary service costs are driven primarily by opportunity cost. In order to sell into the
ancillary service markets, generators must withhold capacity from the energy market. The
cost the generator has to charge (or bid) to supply a reserve service is based primarily on
the difference between the generator’s production cost and the energy sale price for that
hour. A generator with a production cost of $50/MWH, for example, would bid $10/MW-
hr to sell spinning reserve if the energy price was $60/MWH ($60/MWH revenue -
$50/MWH cost = $10/MWH profit or $10 per MW of generating capacity profit each
hour from energy sales). At any price higher than $10/MW-hr for spinning reserve the
generator makes more profit by forgoing the energy sale and selling spinning reserve.
Conversely, at any price below $10/MW-hr for spinning reserve the generator would lose
money by staying out of the energy market.
One consequence of this linkage between energy and ancillary service markets is that
ancillary service prices are inherently more volatile than energy prices. Contingency
17. 10
reserve prices, for example, are typically zero at night when numerous generators are at
minimum load and have capacity available at essentially no cost.
Note that the price unit for reserves is $/MW-hr. This is because the generator is selling
one MW of capacity (not energy) for one hour. The generator is standing ready to
produce but it is not necessarily producing. In fact, if the generator does deliver any
energy during the hour the cost of the energy will be settled separately, either at the
generator’s cost or at the spot energy price. Typically the energy component of the
ancillary services is not major. This terminology is not universal but it does make the
distinction between the energy and capacity components clear.
Hourly ancillary service market price data is available since September 2000 for
California, since October 2001 for New York, and since April 2003 for ERCOT. Monthly
averages of hourly prices are shown in Figure 7. Total regulation prices (regulation up
plus regulation down) are shown for California and ERCOT to make them comparable to
the New York regulation product which is a combined up and down service.
$0
$20
$40
$60
$80
$100
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
$/MW-hrand$/MWH
CA Regulation Total CA Energy
NY Regulation NY West Energy
ERCOT Regulation Total ERCOT Energy
Figure 7 Monthly average regulation prices are typically (but not always) somewhat
lower than energy prices.
Figure 7 shows that regulation prices, which include no fuel component, are in the same
range as real-time energy prices and are at times higher. Also, both energy and regulation
prices are volatile, even on a monthly average basis. Regulation price also tends to track
energy price, because of the lost opportunity cost.
18. 11
Figure 8 compares all of the ancillary services on a monthly average price basis. Again,
prices are volatile but over the 3.5 years regulation is always significantly more
expensive than spinning reserve which is more expensive than non-spinning reserve and
replacement reserve.
$0
$20
$40
$60
$80
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
$/MW-hr
CA Reg Tot CA Spin CA Non Spin CA Rep
NY Reg NY Spin NY Non Spin NY 30 Min
ERCOT Reg Tot ERCOT Responsive ERCOT Non Spin
Figure 8 Ancillary service prices in all markets follow a pattern where regulation is
most expensive and replacement reserve is least expensive.
Figure 9 expands the view of 2005 making it easier to compare the various services.
Figure 10 provides an average daily view from June 2005. Here the typical daily price
patterns can be seen. Contingency reserve prices are typically at or near zero overnight
when there is significant generating capacity that is backed down. Conventional thermal
plants that can not cycle off overnight drive the price of spinning reserve down. Fast start
plants keep the price of non-spinning reserve and replacement reserves at zero overnight.
The California total regulation price actually rises at night as the regulating units are
forced above minimum in order to have the capability to provide down regulation. Table
2 provides a numerical comparison of the average annual prices for each service in each
region.
19. 12
Figure 9 Regulation is always the most expensive ancillary service as shown by these
2005 monthly average ancillary service prices.
Figure 10 June 2005 average hourly ancillary service prices show a consistent
pattern.
$0
$10
$20
$30
$40
$50
$60
$70
$80
January
February
M
arch
April
M
ay
June
July
AugustSeptem
ber
O
ctoberN
ovem
berD
ecem
ber
$/MW-hr
CA Reg Tot CA Spin CA Non Spin CA Replacement
NY Reg NY Spin NY Non Spin NY 30 Min
ERCOT Reg Tot ERCOT Responsive ERCOT Non Spin
$0
$10
$20
$30
$40
$50
$60
$70
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00
$/MW-hr
CA Reg Tot CA Spin CA Non Spin CA Replacement
NY Reg NY Spin NY Non Spin NY 30 Min
ERCOT Reg Tot ERCOT Responsive ERCOT Non Spin
20. 13
Table 2 Annual average and maximum ancillary service prices from four markets
for five years.
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Annual Average and Maximum $/MW-hr
California
Regulation 26.9
111
35.5
164
28.7
166
35.2
188
38.5
399
Spin 4.3
250
6.4
92
7.9
125
9.9
110
8.4
225
Non-Spin 1.8
92
3.6
92
4.7
129
3.2
125
2.5
110
Replacement 0.90
80
2.9
55
2.5
90
1.9
36
1.5
70
ERCOT
Regulation 16.9
177
22.6
156
38.6
1451
25.2
351
Responsive 7.3
150
8.3
51
16.6
731
14.6
351
Non-Spin 3.2
249
1.9
400
6.1
510
4.2
125
New York East
Regulation 18.6
99
28.3
195
22.6
99
39.6
250
55.7
250
Spin 3.0
150
4.3
55
2.4
44
7.6
64
8.4
171
Non Spin 1.5
45
1.0
3
0.3
3
1.5
64
2.3
171
30 Minute 1.2
45
1.0
3
0.3
3
0.4
4
0.6
31
New York West
Regulation 18.6
99
28.3
195
22.6
99
39.6
250
55.7
250
Spin 2.8
150
4.2
55
2.4
44
4.9
50
6.0
45
Non Spin 1.4
45
1.0
3
0.3
3
0.6
13
0.9
38
30 Minute 1.2
45
1.0
3
0.3
3
0.4
4
0.6
31
I. Why is regulation always the highest priced ancillary service?
The direct costs for generators supplying regulation include a degraded heat rate and
increased wear and tear on the unit. The dominant expense, however, is the lost
opportunity cost associated with maneuvering the generator in the energy market so that
it has capacity available to sell in the regulation market. For example, a 600-MW
generator with a full power energy production cost of $15/MWh would have to bid
21. 14
$27/MW-hr of regulation if the energy market were clearing at $30/MWh. This is to
compensate the generator for the lost profit in the energy market when it reduces output
in order to create maneuvering room to supply regulation and to compensate for the
reduced efficiency (~1.6% regulating heat rate penalty for this generator) associated with
the remaining output’s still being sold into the energy market. Figure 11 shows how a
generator’s cost (and bid price) to supply regulation depends upon the current energy
price. Note too that this generator is limited to supplying only about 12 MW of regulation
(~2% of its rated capacity). This is because regulation is a quick service and the unit
ramp rate, rather than the total available capacity, limits the peak amount of regulation it
can provide. For this reason regulation is generally spread across several generators.
Opportunity costs similarly dominate contingency reserve prices.
Figure 11 Regulation costs are dominated by generator opportunity costs. Cost at
night can be higher than during the day.
There is also an opportunity cost when the energy market price is below the generator’s
marginal production cost. When energy prices are low (typically at night) and generators
are at minimum load, they incur a cost for running above minimum load in order to
supply down regulation. For example, a generator with a 150-MW minimum load and an
energy production cost of $18/MWh would have to bid $54/MW-hr of regulation if the
energy market were clearing at $14/MWh because it would be losing $4/hr for each of
the 162 MW (150 MW minimum load + 12 MW of regulation = 162 MW average
operating point) it must sell into the energy market to get its base operating point high
enough to provide room to regulate down.
Responsive load is likely to be a regulation price taker because generators dominate the
regulation supply at present. If responsive load becomes a significant player in the
regulation market the regulating loads’ direct and opportunity costs will become
important for determining the hourly regulation price.
REGCST
0
25
50
75
100
125
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
SPOT ENERGY PRICE ($/MWh)
REGULATIONPRICE($/MW-hr)
600-MW unit:
15 - $18/MWh,
2% of capacity
for regulation
Regulation penalty
Cost if unit comitted for energy
Cost if unit can shut down
22. 15
J. What determines contingency reserve market prices?
Contingency reserve cost drivers are essentially a subset of the regulation cost drivers.
Because contingency reserves deploy infrequently there is no significant degradation in
heat rate and no increased wear-and-tear on the unit. Only the opportunity costs are
incurred because the unit must withhold capacity from the energy market.
On occasion a generator can incur additional costs to provide contingency reserves. For
example, a generator would have to bid a significant price to supply spinning reserve if
the generator’s production cost was higher than the market energy price and the generator
could otherwise shut down. In this case the spinning reserve bid would have to cover all
of the losses the generator was incurring in the energy market to operate at minimum load.
Similarly, a generator could incur some costs to supply non-spinning and supplemental or
replacement reserves if it was necessary to pay plant operators to standby.
Responsive loads play a significant role in supplying spinning reserves in Texas but they
are currently limited to supplying no more than 50% of the total requirement. Though
allowed to participate in the non-spinning and replacement reserve markets responsive
loads do not dominate those markets either. Consequently it is the generation cost drivers
that currently set ancillary service prices.
K. What characteristics are required for load to provide reliability services?
What types of loads have these characteristics?
Communications and control are the critical characteristics that determine if a load is
capable of providing reliability reserves. Load must be controllable if it is to supply
reliability services to the power system. The control must be fast and accurate. The load
must also have a way to receive deployment commands from the power system operator.
Faster services (spinning reserve and regulation) require automatic response to system
operator commands. Spinning reserve also requires that the load sense and respond
autonomously to reductions in power system frequency. The required response speed and
duration depend on which reliability service is being provided.
From the loads’ perspective important additional characteristics include sensitivity to
electricity price and storage capability. Storage of product or energy within the load is
valuable to free the load to respond to power system needs without hurting the loads’
primary function. Sensitivity to electricity prices is typically required to get the loads’
interest.
Air conditioning loads (residential and commercial, central and distributed) can be ideal
suppliers of spinning and non-spinning reserves. Many pumping loads are good
candidates (water, natural gas, and other gasses). Any industrial process with some
manufacturing flexibility is a good candidate (cement, paper, steel, aluminum, refining,
air liquefaction, etc.). The list is endless.
23. 16
Regulation is more difficult for loads to supply but electrolysis loads such as aluminum
and chlor-alkali production appear to be excellent candidates.
L. Can load response really provide the critical spinning reserve reliability
function? Isn’t it better to let load provide peak reduction and replacement
reserves?
The inherent physical response capability of some loads is a better match to the fast, short,
less frequent physical response requirements of spinning reserve than it is to the longer
duration, more frequent response requirements of peak reduction or replacement reserves.
For some loads, the advanced warning given before response is required for the slower
services has little benefit. Advances in communications and control technologies make
the fast response possible. Residential air conditioning loads, for example, can provide
significantly more spinning reserve response, for example, than they can provide peak
reduction.
One fundamental characteristic that helps determine which service a responsive load can
best provide is the amount of storage the load has available. Storage may be in terms of
widgets a factory is producing, the thermal mass of a building, pressure in a gas pipeline,
water in a reservoir, or any other result electricity is used to produce. There is typically
enough thermal storage in a residence, for example, to allow the air conditioner to be
turned off for ten to twenty minutes. Longer interruptions may be acceptable if they are
infrequent. This matches the power system’s requirements for spinning reserves which
are often deployed for ten minutes and infrequently deployed or an hour or more. Peak
reduction typically requires response lasting many hours and occurring for at least several
days in a row. Providing advanced warning does little to increase the residences’ ability
to sustain longer response. Many (but not all) commercial and industrial loads have
similar characteristics.
Blocking responsive loads from providing the services that they are best matched to
provide is bad for the power system and bad for the loads. It denies the power system of
an excellent reliability resource for the most critical reliability needs. It denies the loads
the ability to supply the most valuable response service.
M. Do responsive loads have the technical capability to provide regulation?
Regulation, the minute-to-minute varying of generation or consumption at the system
operator’s command in order to maintain the control area’s generation/load balance, is
the most difficult ancillary service for loads to provide. Automatic generation control
(AGC) commands are typically sent from the system operator to the regulating generators
about every four seconds (Figure 12). Regulation is also the most expensive ancillary
service so it may be the most attractive service to sell for loads that are capable of
supplying it.
Some loads may have the inherent capability to provide regulation. Loads that are
electronically controlled potentially could follow automatic generation control commands.
24. 17
Loads with large adjustable speed drives or solid state power supplies are candidates.
Product quality must be independent of the rate of electricity consumption to allow the
power system operator to adjust the load’s consumption. Energy efficiency can be
impacted by the rate of electricity consumption. Efficiency reductions simply impact the
cost of regulation from the process.
Excess production capacity is required for loads to provide regulation. The load must
back down from full production and average lower production in order to have sufficient
capacity move up in load when directed by the system operator. Similarly, the load can
not be at minimum production because there must be room to reduce consumption when
directed.
A number of load types may have the capability and inclination to provide regulation:
• Induction & ladle metallurgy furnaces 1,000MW
• Air liquefaction 1,000MW
• Gas & water pumping with variable speed motor drives
• Electrolysis: >14,000MW
− Aluminum 6,500MW
− Chlor-alkali 4,500MW
− Potassium hydroxide 1,000MW
− Magnesium, sodium chlorate, copper
Interestingly, it is likely that electronically controlled responsive loads could provide
regulation of significantly greater value than that provided by conventional generation.
15000
17500
20000
22500
25000
0:00 4:00 8:00 12:00 16:00 20:00 0:00
SystemLoad(MW)
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8:00 8:15 8:30 8:45 9:00
Regulation
15000
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SystemLoad(MW)
22200
22250
22300
22350
22400
8:00 8:15 8:30 8:45 9:00
Regulation
Figure 12 Regulation provides the minute-to-minute balancing of generation and
load.
25. 18
Thermal generators often do not follow regulation requests closely as shown in Figure 13.
A load with a solid state control may follow regulation commands perfectly. This may
reduce the power system’s regulation requirements. If the load incurs little incremental
cost for response (given the capital cost to make the load ready to respond, the
opportunity costs for changing production schedules, and the efficiency losses associated
with controlling the process) the load may become the preferred regulation resource.
Figure 14 compares the actual power system regulation requirement from a 30,000 MW
control area before and after an ideal 50 MW regulation resource was simulated. While
the total 250 MW regulation requirement is only reduced by 50 MW it is clear that the
remaining 200 MW of regulation is exercised far less after the 50 MW ideal regulator is
deployed. It may be appropriate to pay the ideal regulator more than other slower and less
accurate sources of regulation. Clearly more research is required to determine if this
speculation is accurate but given the cost of regulation the research is certainly justified.
0
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0 :0 0 6 :0 0 1 2 :0 0 1 8 :0 0 0 :0 0
Generator(M
R e q u e s t
L im its
A c tu a l O u tp u t
Figure 13 Thermal generators often fail to follow regulation commands closely.
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Figure 14 The 250 MW regulation requirement of a 30,000 MW control area
(left) is significantly reduced in terms of swing duration and swing frequency
with the deployment of a simulated 50 MW of ideal regulation resource (right).
26. 19
N. Do current reliability rules discriminate against responsive load?
There are a number of obstacles to the greater use of demand response. Many obstacles
are associated with the way power system reliability rules are written and the consequent
limitations imposed on load response when used as a resource. Reliability rules are often,
understandably, written around the capabilities of the supply resources. There is little
point in asking for response that is simply unavailable. This has little adverse impact
when there is a uniform pool of resources to draw from and when the resources have little
control over their response. It does have an adverse impact, however, when a new type of
resources (demand response) tries to enter the mix. When multiple types of resources
become available with varying capabilities and limitations the system requirements need
to be reevaluated and specified in terms of the basic power system reliability needs rather
than in terms of the capabilities of one type of resource. It is particularly important to
separate familiarity and comfort with past performance from genuine system
requirements.
There are many examples of features of reliability rules that accommodate generator
limitations that do not increase system reliability. They are necessary to enable generators
to provide the desired reliability response but they are not themselves directly related to
that desired reliability response. A partial list includes:
• Minimum run times
• Minimum off times
• Minimum load
• Ramp time for spinning reserve
• Accommodation of inaccurate response
• Limiting regulation range within operating range to accommodate coal pulverizer
configuration
It is not that these accommodations should be revoked. They are necessary to elicit the
reliability response the power system requires. Similar accommodations should be
afforded to other technologies based on their limitations, however. A partial list might
include:
• Maximum run time
• Value capacity that is coincident with system load
• Value response speed
• Value response accuracy
• Match metering requirements to resource characteristics
O. Should system operators encourage and facilitate load response?
This question is complicated by the natures of the corporate entities involved in today’s
power system. Regional reliability councils and ISOs are required to be independent and
not favor one technology or one solution over another. This is good. But this
independence may inadvertently place load response at a fundamental disadvantage.
Generation owners and investors will, naturally, advocate for their interests with
reliability and market rule setting bodies. They can and should expend considerable effort
27. 20
to do so because they are exclusively in the electric power business. Conversely, loads
are not primarily in the electric power business. They use electric power to facilitate their
primary objectives. They can not afford to expend the same effort on electric power
issues as generators. Companies that specialize in load response facilitate that response
but do not own the basic resources (the loads). Further, there are transmission and
generation planning organizations within almost every RTO, ISO, and regional council. It
would be rare indeed to find a responsive load planning organization with the same level
of support. This results in a situation with strong advocates for, and significant
infrastructure supporting, generation and transmission solutions but relatively little
support for load response solutions.1
In one sense demand resources are treated perfectly
equitably; they simply can not meet the published system requirements. In another sense
demand resources are treated inequitably because the reliability rules are often written
around generator capabilities rather than around system reliability requirements.
If there are societal benefits to be gained by using load response to enhance the reliability
and economy of the power system a simple neutrality that equally evaluates any
generation, transmission, or responsive load based proposal offered in the current
competitive environment may not be sufficient. Load response alternatives may need to
be advocated just as generation and transmission solutions are advocated. Because
society benefits from load response it may be appropriate for organizations that husband
the societal interests in the power system to insure that load response solutions are fully
considered, even absent a strong commercial advocate. This may be different than simply
insuring that any proposed alternatives get an equal hearing. (Kirby, 2006)
P. Why not deploy responsive loads sequentially to meet the duration
requirement?
Some loads would find it difficult to commit to regularly providing the two hour response
often included in the specification of spinning reserve response. An air conditioning load
might be able to regularly provide a 30 minute response but be willing to commit to a two
hour response only if that was called upon very infrequently. While considering this
apparent limitation in response capability it is important to keep in mind that contingency
response is typically required for only a few minutes. Times when longer response is
required are very important for power system reliability but they are infrequent. Also, the
two hour response requirement was instituted when generators were the only reserve
supplier. Generators are typically indifferent to the deployment response duration so there
was no incentive to critically determine the real response duration need. Specifying a
longer duration had no cost or consequence. In fact, some generators have a minimum
response limitation.
It is certainly possible for aggregations of responsive loads to meet any desired duration
requirement but this is not a good idea. Figure 15 shows two alternative approaches to
1
Ancillary service rules provide an example. Rules governing the provision of ancillary services by
generators often provide detailed accommodation to the limitations of generators. Minimum start times,
minimum run times, ramp rates, minimum loads, and regulation range limitations are all accommodated.
Similar accommodations for demand resources are only beginning to be made.
28. 21
using a fleet of responsive loads that can only supply 30 minutes of response each. In one
case (blue) the aggregation is split into four blocks which are scheduled to be deployed
sequentially to maintain the potential for two hours of response. In the other case (red)
the entire load is deployed immediately providing four times the response but for only 30
minutes. Establishing rules that require the load aggregator to present the system operator
with only the first response option make no sense. From a power system reliability
perspective this denies the system operator access to ¾ of an excellent spinning reserve
resource during the most critical initial stages of a system emergency. It also denies the
system operator the use of ¾ of the resource for the full length of the vast majority of
contingency reserve deployments. If the system operator prefers the longer response
during a specific event the “red” resource is always available to provide the longer “blue”
response; simply deploy the block groups sequentially by system operator command.
Establishing rules that require the load aggregator to present the system operator with the
longer response is also bad for the responsive loads because they only receive one quarter
of the payment that they would get if they were fully utilized. This makes it more
difficult to recover the capital cost for the communications and control equipment. While
it reduces (nearly eliminates) the response that most of the loads provide (groups 2-4) this
has little benefit for the loads. If they were unwilling or unable to respond they would not
be offering spinning reserve.
Q. How is it that a responsive load can provide more capacity by supplying
spinning reserve than by providing peak reduction?
Many loads can not curtail consumption for the multiple hours required to reduce the
peak load. They cycle on and off during the peak reduction, consuming less than they
would have on a normal day but still consuming some energy. They can respond quickly
enough to provide spinning reserve, however, and can sustain that response consuming
0:00 0:30 1:00 1:30 2:00 2:30
MWResponse
Group 1
Group 1
Group 4
Group 3
Group 2
Group 4Group 3Group 2
•A 2 hour response requirement
provides ¼ of the capability
•A 30 minute response
requirement retains both options
0:00 0:30 1:00 1:30 2:00 2:30
MWResponse
Group 1
Group 1
Group 4
Group 3
Group 2
Group 4Group 3Group 2
•A 2 hour response requirement
provides ¼ of the capability
•A 30 minute response
requirement retains both options
Figure 15 Which response best supports power system reliability?
29. 22
nothing for the duration of the contingency event. LIPA Edge is a typical peak demand
reduction project that provides a good example. It could provide nearly three times the
capacity in spinning reserve that it supplies for peak reduction.
Remotely controllable Carrier Comfort Choice thermostats coupled with two-way
communication provided by Silicon Energy and Skytel two-way pagers allows the Long
Island Power Authority (LIPA) to monitor capability and response as well as to control
load reductions. It also enables customers to control their individual thermostats via the
Internet, a benefit that motivates participation (LIPA 2002a). Currently controlling
25,000 residential units and 5,000 small commercial units provides 36 MW of peak load
reduction. (Marks 2006)
The blue curve in Figure 16 shows the aggregate air conditioning load on a hot summer
day. The green curve shows 25 MW of peak reduction that this system provides. The
entire load (blue curve) can be curtailed for a spinning reserve event, however, providing
75 MW of response. Detailed discussions with Carrier revealed that the technology is fast
enough to provide spinning reserve and provides ample monitoring capability at little or
no additional cost at times of heavy system loading; this is a significant benefit for
capacity-constrained Long Island. Significant spinning reserve capability remains even if
the system is being used for peak reduction.
Figure 16 Significant spinning reserve capability remains even when demand
reduction is in effect, as shown in this 8/14/2002 curtailment.
-10
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80
0:00 4:00 8:00 12:00 16:00 20:00 0:00
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Available Spinning Reserve Without
Demand Reduction Response
Available Spinning Reserve With
Demand Reduction Response
Demand Reduction Response
30. 23
R. Will using responsive loads hurt power system stability?
When implemented correctly load response can improve power system stability. Loads
providing spinning reserve must respond to power system frequency deviations, just as
spinning reserve generators do. It is true that load response does not include the
stabilizing inertia provided by large generators. Load can provide full response much
more quickly than generation, however. Generation typically takes the full ten minutes
allowed for ramping up spinning reserve response while responsive load can typically
provide its full response in cycles to seconds for a frequency disturbance. An example
where responsive load provides superior spinning reserve when compared with
generation can be seen in Figure 17. Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC)
interconnection frequency response is shown for the sudden loss of the Palo Verde unit 1
generator. The lower red curve shows system frequency response with generators
providing all of the spinning reserve. The upper blue curve shows that system frequency
would not dip as low and would recover more quickly if 300 MW of spinning reserve
were provided by a large pumping load instead of from generation. (Kueck and Kirby
2005)
Figure 17 WECC system stability is enhanced when 300 MW of responsive load
(upper blue curve) replaces an equal amount of generation (lower red curve).
Stability runs performed by Donald Davies of WECC.
31. 24
S. Do customer overrides and voluntary response reduce the reliability value of
load response?
Customer overrides are a concern but less so for loads providing ancillary services than
for loads providing peak load reduction. Load response programs often find that they
must accommodate voluntary response in order to increase participation. This is not
surprising. While the cost of electricity is important to most consumers it is only one of
many costs. Loads often find it impossible to make firm, long-term curtailment
commitments because there is some chance that external events (external to the power
system) will prevent them from reducing power consumption when requested. Even if a
customer is able to respond 99% of the time, the other 1% of the time may be perceived
to be of such high importance that the load is unwilling to participate in a curtailment
program. This reaction is surprisingly universal; it can be true for residential as well as
commercial and industrial customers. Manual override provides an alternative with
benefits for both the power system and the customer. The advantage to the power system
is that this option increases the load participation and likely reduces the required
compensation. The advantage to the customer is that it can opt out of a particular
curtailment if the inconvenience or cost for the specific event is unusually high.
The natural fear from the power system side is that many customers will always opt out.
Manual override is less of a problem when spinning reserve and contingency response is
being supplied than when the peak load is being reduced for two reasons. Contingency
event duration is shorter and natural human inertia and the slow temperature rise prevents
customer response within the typical spinning reserve deployment event as shown in
Figure 18 (Kirby 2003). But there is a technical solution as well. Carrier’s
ComfortChoice responsive thermostats, for example, offer the power system operator the
additional option of distinguishing between events that the customer can override and
events that the customer cannot. This provides the customer with the ability to opt out of
longer demand reduction events while blocking the override during shorter contingency
events.
T. Is real-time monitoring needed or practical for responsive load? Does
statistical response help?
Real-time supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) monitoring is currently
required for the large generators that typically provide reliability reserves to the power
system. Similar real-time monitoring is appropriate when large loads provide reliability
reserves. Traditional monitoring may be too expensive for large numbers of small
responsive loads, however, but it also may not be necessary to obtain the same level of
reliability we currently enjoy when large generators supply contingency reserves.
Contingency reserve resources are closely monitored for three distinct reasons: (1) to
inform the system operator of the availability of reserves before they are needed, (2) to
monitor deployment events in real time so that the system operator can take corrective
action in case of a reserve failure, and (3) to monitor individual performance so that
compensation motivates future performance. Because the same monitoring system
32. 25
provides all three functions, we often fail to distinguish between these functions. For
small loads, it may be better to look at each function separately.
The first two reasons to monitor generators in real time (to inform the system operator of
the resource availability and to inform the system operator of the resource actual
performance) are required because no matter how reliable any individual generator (or
load) is there is always a chance that the generator will fail to respond when needed.
When a large amount of reserves are being supplied by a single generator (or load) the
loss of that reserve has a significant reliability impact. The system operator must
immediately replace any unavailable or unresponsive resource.
Large aggregations of small resources inherently behave differently than small numbers
of large resources; monitoring requirements may therefore be different. While there is no
absolute guarantee that any physical resource will be able to provide a specific response
at any specific time, large generators have dedicated staff, extensive monitoring and
control, and strong economic incentives to actually provide the response they are
contracted to provide. Loads, especially small loads, do not have the same staffing or
equipment resources. Interestingly there is good reason to believe that the inherent
reliability of the response from aggregations of small loads is actually better than the
reliability of response from large generators. (Kirby, 2003)
Aggregations of small responsive loads can provide greater reliability than fewer
numbers of large generators, as illustrated in Figure 19. In this simple example,
contingency reserves are being supplied by six generators that can each provide 100 MW
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00
Hours Into Curtailment
DropoutRate
Commercial
Residential
Figure 18 Statistics from the LIPA Edge program show that manual override is
not a problem during the spinning reserve time frame.
33. 26
of response with 95% reliability. There is a 74% chance that all six generators will
respond to a contingency event and a 97% probability that at least five will respond,
which implies a nontrivial chance that fewer than five will respond. This can be
contrasted to the performance from an aggregation of 1200 responsive loads of 500 kW
each with only 90% reliability each. This aggregation typically delivers 540 MW (as
opposed to 600 MW) but never delivers less than 520 MW. As this example illustrates,
the aggregate load response is much more predictable and the response that the system
operator can “count on” is actually greater.
Monitoring requirements should be based on the reliability requirements of the system,
recognizing that large deterministic resources present a different monitoring requirement
than aggregations of small statistical resources in order to achieve the same system
reliability.
U. Will demand response forecast errors adversely impact reliability?
Power system operators do not usually think in terms of forecasting the availability of
reliability reserves. They contract for generator response and expect it to be there when
called upon. The statistical nature of aggregated load response, however, lends itself to
useful forecasting in place of real-time monitoring. Load response forecasting errors for
large aggregations of small responding loads are fortunately correlated with overall load
forecasting errors. If total load is higher than the forecast so are available contingency
reserves. When available contingency reserves are less than the forecast so is actual load
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Responding Reserve (MW)
Probability
6 - 100 MW Generators
95% Reliability
1200 - 500 KW Responsive Loads
90% Reliability
Figure 19 Larger numbers of individually less reliable responsive loads can provide
greater aggregate reliability than fewer large generators.
34. 27
and other generation which was scheduled to serve load is available to provide the
reserves.
Forecasting errors for load-supplied reserves can be more easily accommodated than
forecast errors for the total load. A 10% error in the load forecast for a 30,000 MW
balancing authority can result in a 3000 MW supply shortfall; a serious operating
problem. A 10% error in 600 MW of expected reserve response from responsive load can
be handled by derating the resource and calling for 10% more response than is needed.
This derating can be refined as experience is gained.
V. Should demand response be treated as a regulated asset?
Large loads that provide reliability services will likely want to be treated as commercial
entities in the ancillary service markets. Their participation will be motivated by the
markets’ financial rewards for performance. In that sense they are very like large
generators.
Small loads, especially residential loads, may be less motivated by and less able to
participate in commercial ancillary service markets on their own. Electricity is only a
small portion of their overall economic concerns. Still, they represent a large reliability
resource with technical capabilities that are well matched to the power system’s
reliability needs; a potentially large societal benefit. If commercial aggregators are unable
to combine loads and enable their market participation it may be appropriate to treat
responsive loads as a regulated resource.
Transmission is almost always a regulated asset. Transmission facilitates rather than
participates in the electricity market; it supports reliability. Costs are fully covered
through the rate base. It is not motivated by energy market performance. Some large
aggregations of small responsive loads have these characteristics as well. Some
responsive residential load programs offer little economic motivation. Instead customers
are motivated by a communal spirit of improving reliability, reducing pollution, and
holding down overall costs. These resources could be treated as regulated assets with the
capital and operating costs recovered through the rate base. The reliability response
would be provided to the system operator at no cost and used to reduce the amount of
purchased ancillary services.
Responsive load could be treated as a regulated reliability asset that the system operator
uses to optimize the operation of the power system. Load response would then be like
other transmission assets such as capacitor banks and FACTS devices; equipment that’s
cost is recovered by including it in the rate base or transmission tariff. This might be
especially appropriate in cases where the load response is not driven primarily by energy
market considerations and where the economic viability of the program is not driven by
the loads’ opportunity costs. The cost of residential load response providing contingency
reserves or peak reduction, for example, is dominated by the cost of communications and
control, not by the response payment to the customer. Many customers receive no
ongoing compensation. The communications and control could be considered part of the
35. 28
SCADA system and the resource offered to the system operator as one more tool for
maximizing transmission performance at minimal cost. Interestingly, involuntary load
shedding is treated exactly this way.
W. Do NERC rules address demand response?
There is surprisingly little in the North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC)
reliability rules concerning demand response in general or the use of demand response for
power system reliability. NERC is, of course, important to any discussion of power
system reliability. It is the industry organization which addresses power system reliability
for Canada, the U.S., and part of Mexico and has been selected by FERC to be the
national Electric Reliability Organization (ERO). The voluntary structure of NERC’s past
reliability rules is being replaced with enforceable reliability rules approved by FERC but
the process is only partially completed.
Demand response is not treated extensively in current NERC standards. The Modeling,
Data, and Analysis (MOD) standards and the Transmission Planning (TPL) standards
require those responsible for generating load forecasts to include (and document)
controllable demand side management in the forecast if it exists. Depending on
interpretation they may also require collecting data on demand side management
performance. The NERC standards do not provide guidance on how or how much load
response should be used. They only provide guidance on how to report load response
capability.
The NERC “Glossary of Terms Used in Reliability Standards” presents a concern.
(NERC 2006 A) In it “Spinning Reserve” is defined as “unloaded generation that is
synchronized and ready to serve additional demand” (emphasis added). In the recent past
the Glossary has not been considered to be binding and specific requirements have been
derived instead from the individual standards themselves. The increasing formality that is
part of NERC’s transformation into the ERO, coming under FERC jurisdiction, and
making NERC standards truly mandatory may give added legal weight to the Glossary. In
the worst case this could disqualify PJM and ERCOT’s use of demand response as
spinning reserve. Interestingly, the glossary also defines “Operating Reserves –
Spinning” as “The portion of Operating Reserve consisting of: Generation synchronized
to the system and fully available to serve load within the Disturbance Recovery Period
following the contingency event; or Load fully removable from the system within the
Disturbance Recovery Period following the contingency event.” It is not clear which
definition applies and if responsive load is allowed by NERC rules to supply spinning
reserve.
X. How do Regional Reliability Councils treat reliability demand response?
All of the regional reliability councils allow demand response to be used as non-spinning
and supplemental operating reserves. Most do not allow loads to provide spinning reserve
but two regions, the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) and Reliability First
Corporation (RFC) allow responsive load to provide spinning reserve. RFC changed its
36. 29
rules in the spring of 2006 to allow loads to participate in all of PJM’s ancillary service
markets.
ERCOT obtains ancillary services and balancing energy (15 minutes) through markets.
While ERCOT does simultaneous selection of ancillary service resources it does not
force ancillary service providers into the energy market. ERCOT allows loads to provide
spinning reserve but currently limits load to providing half of the total 2300 MW
requirement until system operators gain further experience (Mickey, 2006) ERCOT has
more loads offering to provide spinning reserve than they can accommodate. Responsive
loads include air compressors, liquid oxygen plants, oil well fields, a cooperative’s 15
MW residential feeder, and an aluminum smelting plant. (Kueck-Patterson, 2006)
Interestingly, though over 1600 MW of load offer to provide spinning reserve not a single
load has offered to provide balancing energy. This may indicate that load response
duration is more limited than response speed.
The Midwest Independent System Operator (MISO) is in the midst of ancillary service
market design and the supply rules are not yet clear.
Markets for ancillary services typically develop shortly after markets for energy are
established. The interdependence between the supply of energy and ancillary services
makes this natural. Table 3 summarizes the current state of load participation in ancillary
service markets.
Table 3 Current and pending ancillary service markets (adapted from MISO 2006)
Operating Reserves
Regulation Spinning Non-spinning
Supplemental
(10 min)
Long Term
Supplemental
(30 min)
Replacement
(60 min)
Co-
optimization
exemption
ISO-NE L L No
NYISO L L No
PJM L &C L &C L Yes
MISO C C C Not yet set
ERCOT L L L Yes
CAISO L Yes
– Market based
C – Cost based
F – Fixed monthly MVAR payment
L – Responsive load is allowed to participate
Y. Do capacity markets help or hurt demand response?
Peak reducing demand response is frequently treated well in regions with capacity
markets or capacity obligations. Reducing the peak demand has the added benefit that the
reserve margin is reduced as well. Responsive loads providing ancillary services often do
not fair as well. ISO-NE’s use of capacity markets designed around generation, for
37. 30
example, makes it difficult for responsive loads to receive the same payment that
generators receive and also reduce loads’ ability to participate in the ancillary service
markets. Forward capacity markets mean that reserve costs are mostly sunk in real time
and rational real time offers are expected to clear at $0. Further, ISO-NE utilizes forward
reserve auctions, two to five months in advance, to procure ten minute non-spinning
reserve and thirty minute operating reserves. These are difficult commitments for
responsive loads to make. These markets are designed to satisfy 95% of the reserve
requirements and include penalties for failure to respond in real time. Any resource can
participate but it must look like a low capacity generator with a high energy price and
capable of providing reserves 98% of the time. (DePillis, 2006)
A responsive load can also register as a Dispatchable Asset Related Demand (DARD), in
which case it will essentially be treated as a generator. The load can not restrict its
response to contingency events; energy and ancillary services are co-optimized based
upon the bid response price. Submitting a $999/MWH only partially mitigates the energy
deployment risk and also undesirably reduces contingency event deployments. (DePillis,
2006)
Demand response programs are also sometimes economically disadvantaged in areas with
formal capacity markets. Some markets impose an artificial requirement that response
must be available 24 hours a day, all season long, for example. This is reasonable when
the only source of response is generation whose availability is typically not time variant.
Some load is not available to respond in blocks of a set size but it is always available
when the power system is most heavily loaded and most stressed; at the time of the daily
load peak. Figure 20 shows the stack-up of required capacity in real time. Figure 21
shows the coincidence of air conditioning load with total system load, justifying crediting
Load
Regulation
Spinning Reserve
Non Spinning Reserve
Capacity Reserve
NeededinRealTime
Figure 20 Ancillary services contribute to capacity requirements just as peak load
requirements do.
38. 31
responsive air conditioning with full capacity credit. The ancillary services of regulation,
spinning and non-spinning reserve are needed just as much as capacity that is delivering
real-power to serve load. Responsive load that is always available at times of system peak
should receive full capacity credit.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 0:00
AvailableSpinningReserve(MW)
0
1000
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3000
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TotalLIPALoad(MW)
Spinning Reserve Available From
Responsive Air Conditioning
Total LIPA Load
Figure 21 The air-conditioning load matches the total load daily profile, as shown on
this Monday, July 29, 2002.
Z. Why is it so difficult for new technologies to gain acceptance in supplying
power system reliability?
The power industry is understandably and correctly risk averse in addressing reliability.
The integrated power system must function 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. The health,
safety, and economy of the nation depend on the reliability of the power system. On rare,
but not rare enough, occasions blackouts have cascaded to impact tens of millions of
people. The industry is wisely slow in adopting new technologies and new methods.
Restructuring of the industry has added a further complication for demand response.
While restructuring provides many benefits (including clearer market signals that loads
can respond to) it does make testing new technologies difficult. Reliability rules and
market structures are complex and in some ways delicate. This is more true in the
competitive market environment of today than it was in the vertically integrated
environment of the past. Market participants will, quite rightly, carefully analyze the
rules and behave in whatever manner maximizes their profits within those rules. System
reliability can be jeopardized if poorly thought out rules are put in place. Consequently
market designers and reliability engineers are cautious about changing rules without good
cause lest those changes have unintended consequences.
39. 32
Reluctance to change rules can adversely impact new technologies and generate a
chicken-or-egg problem. Technologies that are blocked from the market by current rules
can not develop. Undeveloped technologies do not represent sufficient market force to
warrant changing the rules to accommodate them. This is especially true for load
response technologies which often require cooperation among a large number of entities.
A load aggregator can not interest loads in being responsive until the rules allow the
specific response and state what is required to provide it. Market designers will not
consider changing market rules to accommodate load response technologies until they
clearly see that there are sufficient MWs of response to make the effort worthwhile.
Aggregators will not invest in response technology until the rules are clear and the loads
are willing to respond.
Testing new technologies is more difficult in the new restructured environment as well.
Most ISOs do not have research budgets. It is very difficult for them to decide to conduct
a limited test on a new technology. Their market rules are developed through large, slow
consensus processes. Any test has to be agreed upon through the same slow, deliberative
process. Simply allocating the cost of a test is often contentious and prevents progress.
AA. Is co-optimization compatible with demand response?
Co-optimization (also called joint optimization, simultaneous optimization, or rational
buying) minimizes the total cost of energy, regulation, and contingency reserves by
allowing the substitution of “higher value” services for “lower value” services. If a
generator offers spinning reserve at $8/MW-hr, for example, and other generators are
offering non-spinning reserve at $12/MW-hr the co-optimizer will use the spinning
reserve resource for non-spinning reserves (instead of the non-spinning reserves offered)
and pay it the spinning reserve clearing price. Co-optimization has many benefits. It
encourages generators to bid in with their actual costs for energy and each of the ancillary
services. When they do so the co-optimizer is able to simultaneously minimize overall
system costs and maximize individual generator profits.
Unfortunately, co-optimization can effectively bar responsive loads as well as emissions-
limited generators and water-limited hydro generators from offering to provide ancillary
services. An aggregation of commercial refrigerators might be ideal providers of spinning
reserve, for example. They could be instantaneously frequency responsive. They could
respond to system operator commands much faster and more accurately than
conventional generation. They might have nearly zero response cost (other than the initial
capital cost). They might be able to easily sustain response for 30 to 60 minutes. But they
would be completely unable to provide 8, 12, or 24 hour response. If there was a risk that
their attractive offer to provide spinning reserve could be exercised as an energy source
they would simply not enter the market. The power system would be denied the benefit of
this excellent reliability resource.
Many responsive loads differ from most generators in that the cost of response rises with
response duration. An air conditioning load, for example, incurs almost no cost when it
provides a ten minute interruption but incurs unacceptable costs when it provides a six
40. 33
hour interruption. Conversely a generator typically incurs startup and shutdown costs
even for short responses but only has ongoing fuel costs associated with its response
duration. In fact, many generators have minimum run times and minimum shutdown
times. This low-cost-for-short-duration-response (coupled with fast response speed)
makes some responsive loads ideal for providing spinning reserve but less well suited for
providing energy response or peak reduction.
Unfortunately current market rules in New York and New England let the ISOs dispatch
capacity assigned to reserves for economic reasons as well as reliability purposes. As
long as the ISO has enough spinning and non-spinning reserve capacity to cover
contingencies, it will dispatch any remaining resources economically regardless of
whether that capacity is labeled as contingency reserve or not. Ancillary service and
energy suppliers are automatically co-optimized.
This policy works well for most generators but causes severe problems for loads that
need to limit the duration or frequency of their response to occasional contingency
conditions.2
Loads can submit very high energy bids in an attempt to be the last resource
called but this is still no guarantee that they will not be used as a multi-hour energy
resource. Submitting a high cost energy bid also means that the load will be used less
frequently for contingency response than is economically optimal. Price caps on energy
bids further limit the ability of the loads to control how long they are deployed for.
The basic problem is that the co-optimizer is unable to recognize a cost curve that rises
with time. This is opposite from most generators’ characteristic of declining cost curves
(fixed transition costs spread over an increasing number of hours) which are
accommodated. Most generators incur startup or transition costs. Many ISOs allow
generators to specify these costs in their bids. These costs are spread over the length of
the deployment. If 100 MW of generation is used for an hour a $1000 startup cost would
add $10/MWH to the energy bid. The cost adder would be $5/MWH if the generation
were run for two hours. Even if the startup cost is not explicitly accommodated the
generator can factor it into the bid based on an expected operating duration. Generator
profits typically rise with longer deployments and co-optimization. There is no similar
accommodation of costs that rise with time.
Fortunately there is a simple solution. California had this problem with their rational
buyer but changed their market rules and now allows resources to flag themselves as
available for contingency response only. PJM allows resources to establish different
prices for each service and energy providing a partial solution. ERCOT does not have the
problem because most energy is supplied through bilateral arrangements that the ISO is
not part of. Energy and ancillary service markets are separate. Possibly as a consequence
half of ERCOT’s contingency response comes from responsive load (the maximum
currently allowed) while no loads offer to supply balancing energy.
2
Co-optimization often does not work for energy or emissions limited generators either.
41. 34
3. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMENDATIONS
Responsive load remains the largest underutilized reliability resource available to the
North American power system today. Many loads have response characteristics that are
technically well matched to the power system reliability needs. Unfortunately, market
and reliability rules were developed when generators were the only resources available to
the system operator. Consequently those rules often prohibit load response, especially for
the fastest, most critical, and most expensive reliability services.
This report examined a range of common concerns often expressed about load response.
The advantages and disadvantages of utilizing load response have been discussed.
Hopefully the report has shown that many of the commonly held biases against utilizing
load response for reliability are no longer valid. Demand response is not a perfect
reliability resource, but neither is generation. Some loads can respond much faster to
reliability events than most generators making them more valuable than generation.
Power system stability can be enhanced by the appropriate use of responsive load.
Providing reliability services is a better match to the physical capabilities of some
responsive loads than peak reduction or energy efficiency. Encouraging responsive loads
to provide reliability services, including spinning reserve, can free up generating capacity
to provide energy.
Reliability council rules should be changed to capture the full potential that load response
offers. The inherent characteristics of demand response should be accommodated, just as
the inherent characteristics of generation are accommodated. Recognize that some
responsive loads have maximum run times. Recognize the statistical nature of demand
response from aggregations of numerous small loads. Recognize that the monitoring and
communications requirements to maintain system reliability are fundamentally different
for aggregations of large numbers of small resources than they are for fewer large
resources. Recognize the coincidence of demand response capability and total system
load and allocate appropriate capacity credit to demand response. Accommodate
voluntary response and perform the research required to establish the level of reliable
response capability. Assure that co-optimizers properly recognize the capabilities and
characteristics of demand resources and do not let them force entities to provide services
they are not capable of providing. Develop better load response forecasting tools for
system operators to increase the usefulness and acceptability of demand response.
Enable a mechanism that allows regional organizations to test new technologies without
having to first permanently restructure markets. Include a mechanism to fund such tests.
Consider treating some demand response resources as regulated transmission assets
available for reliability response rather than as competitive entities acting in the energy
markets. Given the societal benefits, it may be appropriate for independent transmission
planning organizations to take a more proactive role in drawing demand response
alternatives into the resource mix. Existing demand response programs provide a
technical basis to build from.
42. 35
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was coordinated by the Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology
Solutions for the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy
Reliability. It is based upon research efforts concerning ancillary services and responsive
load which has been supported for many years by Phil Overholt and the Department Of
Energy. Thanks go to John Kueck, Fangxing Li, and Stan Hadley for reviewing a draft of
the paper.
43. 36
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