Modeling Human Values with Social MediaYelena Mejova
IC2S2 2019 Tutorial by Kyriaki Kalimeri and Yelena Mejova. Overview of theories on values and examples of studies that track values using social media in domains of politics, religion, and nutritional health.
Psychology 102: Social processes, society & cultureJames Neill
This lecture provides an overview of several social psychology topics, particularly: what is social psychology, social influence (including conformity, obedience, and resistance), group decision-making, aggression, pro-social behaviour, altruism, conflict, and peace psychology
Modeling Human Values with Social MediaYelena Mejova
IC2S2 2019 Tutorial by Kyriaki Kalimeri and Yelena Mejova. Overview of theories on values and examples of studies that track values using social media in domains of politics, religion, and nutritional health.
Psychology 102: Social processes, society & cultureJames Neill
This lecture provides an overview of several social psychology topics, particularly: what is social psychology, social influence (including conformity, obedience, and resistance), group decision-making, aggression, pro-social behaviour, altruism, conflict, and peace psychology
1. In Jules Henry’s view, how are values and drives related to e.docxcorbing9ttj
1.
In Jules Henry’s view, how are values and drives related to each other? (Points : 1)
Values determine how people behave, while drives are ways of acting that are required by circumstances.
Values are what people care enough to follow through on, while drives are followed out of necessity.
Values are ideals that people do not necessarily pursue, while drives are the motives people actually pursue.
They are synonyms.
Question 2.
2.
Which of the following best characterizes culture? (Points : 1)
A culture is a homogeneous system.
A culture can best be described as a simple listing of various characteristics.
A culture is a dynamic system.
Some cultures are dynamic, while others are stable.
Question 3.
3.
Which of the following theoretical perspectives distinguishes cultural anthropology from other disciplines? (Points : 1)
Humanism
Holism
Materialism
Ethnocentrism
Question 4.
4.
Which of the following is true of a belief system’s influence on how people think? (Points : 1)
Beliefs have no relationship to feelings.
In every culture, some beliefs are set forth as proper ways of thinking.
Beliefs are controlled by reality, not by culture.
Individuals may freely deviate from others in their beliefs with no likelihood of punishment.
Question 5.
5.
Sir Edward Burnett Tylor’s concept of survivals is best defined by which of the following? (Points : 1)
Cultural traits change the least because they are the means by which a society copes with its environment.
Primitive cultures have avoided extinction as more complex ways of life developed.
Evidence of major catastrophic events in the past.
Remnants of earlier social customs and ideas aid in reconstructing the evolutionary past of societies.
Question 6.
6.
Which of the following best defines culture? (Points : 1)
Learned system of beliefs, feelings, and rules that organize people’s lives
The pattern of a people’s customs
A people’s rules for living, based on a pattern of legal concepts
Biologically predetermined behavior patterns
Question 7.
7.
Ruth Benedict’s major contribution to the history of anthropology was which of the following ideas? (Points : 1)
Cultural traits have functions.
Ways of life are integrated wholes.
Cultures are dynamic.
Not all customs are functional.
Question 8.
8.
Values are (Points : 1)
descriptions of what is true or false.
feelings about what is true or false about the world.
feelings about what should or should not be considered good or bad.
feelings about personal likes and dislikes.
Question 9.
9.
Which of the following is NOT true of how children learn their culture? (Points : 1)
Acceptable behavior is often contrasted with unacceptable behavior.
Children observe and imitate others.
A sense of cooperation with.
Ethical Issues for Administrators: What is Ethics FALL17brucemiller9901
I understand what defines a value.
I understand what defines moral/ethical principles.
I understand how we develop our values.
I understand how our values shape our morals/ethical ethos.
I understand why it is important to understand our values in order to make sound moral/ethical decisions.
Ethical Issues for Administrators: What is Ethics: FA17brucemiller9901
I understand what defines a value.
I understand what defines moral/ethical principles.
I understand how we develop our values.
I understand how our values shape our morals/ethical ethos.
I understand why it is important to understand our values in order to make sound moral/ethical decisions.
Ethical Issues for Administrators: What is Ethics FALL17brucemiller9901
I understand what defines a value.
I understand what defines moral/ethical principles.
I understand how we develop our values.
I understand how our values shape our morals/ethical ethos.
I understand why it is important to understand our values in order to make sound moral/ethical decisions.
1. In Jules Henry’s view, how are values and drives related to e.docxcorbing9ttj
1.
In Jules Henry’s view, how are values and drives related to each other? (Points : 1)
Values determine how people behave, while drives are ways of acting that are required by circumstances.
Values are what people care enough to follow through on, while drives are followed out of necessity.
Values are ideals that people do not necessarily pursue, while drives are the motives people actually pursue.
They are synonyms.
Question 2.
2.
Which of the following best characterizes culture? (Points : 1)
A culture is a homogeneous system.
A culture can best be described as a simple listing of various characteristics.
A culture is a dynamic system.
Some cultures are dynamic, while others are stable.
Question 3.
3.
Which of the following theoretical perspectives distinguishes cultural anthropology from other disciplines? (Points : 1)
Humanism
Holism
Materialism
Ethnocentrism
Question 4.
4.
Which of the following is true of a belief system’s influence on how people think? (Points : 1)
Beliefs have no relationship to feelings.
In every culture, some beliefs are set forth as proper ways of thinking.
Beliefs are controlled by reality, not by culture.
Individuals may freely deviate from others in their beliefs with no likelihood of punishment.
Question 5.
5.
Sir Edward Burnett Tylor’s concept of survivals is best defined by which of the following? (Points : 1)
Cultural traits change the least because they are the means by which a society copes with its environment.
Primitive cultures have avoided extinction as more complex ways of life developed.
Evidence of major catastrophic events in the past.
Remnants of earlier social customs and ideas aid in reconstructing the evolutionary past of societies.
Question 6.
6.
Which of the following best defines culture? (Points : 1)
Learned system of beliefs, feelings, and rules that organize people’s lives
The pattern of a people’s customs
A people’s rules for living, based on a pattern of legal concepts
Biologically predetermined behavior patterns
Question 7.
7.
Ruth Benedict’s major contribution to the history of anthropology was which of the following ideas? (Points : 1)
Cultural traits have functions.
Ways of life are integrated wholes.
Cultures are dynamic.
Not all customs are functional.
Question 8.
8.
Values are (Points : 1)
descriptions of what is true or false.
feelings about what is true or false about the world.
feelings about what should or should not be considered good or bad.
feelings about personal likes and dislikes.
Question 9.
9.
Which of the following is NOT true of how children learn their culture? (Points : 1)
Acceptable behavior is often contrasted with unacceptable behavior.
Children observe and imitate others.
A sense of cooperation with.
Ethical Issues for Administrators: What is Ethics FALL17brucemiller9901
I understand what defines a value.
I understand what defines moral/ethical principles.
I understand how we develop our values.
I understand how our values shape our morals/ethical ethos.
I understand why it is important to understand our values in order to make sound moral/ethical decisions.
Ethical Issues for Administrators: What is Ethics: FA17brucemiller9901
I understand what defines a value.
I understand what defines moral/ethical principles.
I understand how we develop our values.
I understand how our values shape our morals/ethical ethos.
I understand why it is important to understand our values in order to make sound moral/ethical decisions.
Ethical Issues for Administrators: What is Ethics FALL17brucemiller9901
I understand what defines a value.
I understand what defines moral/ethical principles.
I understand how we develop our values.
I understand how our values shape our morals/ethical ethos.
I understand why it is important to understand our values in order to make sound moral/ethical decisions.
This presentation demonstrates that the propensity *exposure interaction using randomized scenario data could not be reproduced in a population of adults.
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https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
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2. TESTING MORAL FOUNDATIONS THEORY
INDIVIDUALIZING AND BINDING VALUES, MORAL
EMOTIONS AND MORAL JUDGMENTS
DRA. ANN DE BUCK & PROF. DR. LIEVEN PAUWELS
2
3. MFT multidimensional and functional approach to the
moral domain
“….interlocking sets of values, virtues, norms, practices,
identities, institutions, technologies, and evolved
psychological mechanisms that work together to suppress or
regulate selfishness and make social life possible”
(Haidt & Kesebir, 2010: p.800)
3
MORAL FOUNDATIONS THEORY (MFT; HAIDT & JOSEPH, 2004)
(e.g. Alexander, 1987; Batson, 2016; Bowles & Gintis, 2011; Tomasello, 2016; Wrangham, 2019; Wright, 1994)
4. MFT- FOUR CLAIMS (GRAHAM ET AL., 2012)
(1) Nativism- Nature provides a first draft of the moral mind-
organized in advance of experience;
(2) Cultural learning- The first draft gets edited during
development within a particular culture;
(3) Intuitionism- Moral judgment happens fast, intuitive and is
affect laden;
(4) Pluralism- There are several innate mental structures – moral
foundations – adaptations to long-standing threats and
opportunities in social life.
4
8. PRESENT STUDY
• Convenience sample of n=2410 undergraduates at
Ghent University
• Online survey
• 1/3 of sample were men
• Mean age= 19.85 (SD=2.87)
• Dutch translation of the 20-items MFQ
• Different scenario’s
8
9. MORAL FOUNDATIONS QUESTIONNAIRE (MFQ-20)
Part 1. Moral relevance items (responded to using the following response options: 1=not at all relevant to 5= extremely
relevant)
When you decide whether something is right or wrong, to what extent are the following considerations relevant to
your thinking? Please rate each statement using this scale:
Examples:
Care- Whether or not someone suffered emotionally
Fairness- Whether or not some people were treated differently than others
Loyalty- Whether or not someone’s action showed love for his or her country
Authority- Whether or not someone showed a lack of respect for authority
Sanctity- Whether or not someone did something disgusting
Liberty- Whether or not someone had the freedom to make her/his own choices
Part 2. Moral judgment items (responded to using the following response options: 1=completely disagree to 5= completely
agree)
Please read the following sentences and indicate your agreement or disagreement
Examples:
Care- Compassion for those who are suffering is the most crucial virtue
Fairness- Justice is the most important requirement for a society
Loyalty- I am proud of my country’s history
Authority- Men and women each have different roles to play in society
Sanctity- People should not do things that are disgusting, even if no one is harmed
Liberty- It is wrong when one person has too much power over other people
9
10. SCENARIO: DISAPPROVAL OF THEFT
SCENARIO 1: theft by finding (€500)
(violation of interpersonal principle (Batson, 2016; Hoffman, 1984))
“Dominique is standing at an ATM somewhere in town, another person is withdrawing money while talking on the
phone. When the other person has finished, he walks away.
Suddenly, Dominique sees that 5 x 100 euro notes are stuck in the ATM slot. The other person forgot to take the
money out! Dominique takes the money. Immediately afterwards the other person returns and asks if Dominique
found €500 in the ATM. Dominique answers: "No, I didn’t find anything“.
• Judgment Do you think what Dominique does, is wrong?
• Moral anger When you think about what Dominique does, does that behavior make you angry?
• Anticipated guilt Suppose you were to act like Dominique, would you feel guilty afterwards for what you did?
(Response options: 1= Absolutely not – to – 5= Yes, absolutely)
10
11. SCENARIO: DISAPPROVAL OF INCEST
SCENARIO 2: incest scenario
(violation of propriety principle (Batson, 2016; Haidt, 2012))
“Julie and Mark are brother and sister. They are traveling together in France on summer vacation from college. One
night they are staying alone in a cabin near the beach. They decide that it would be interesting and fun if they tried
making love. At the very least it would be a new experience for each of them. Julie was already taking birth control
pills, but Mark uses a condom too, just to be safe. They both enjoy making love, but they decide not to do it again.
They keep that night as a special secret, which makes them feel even closer to each other. What do you think about
that? Was it OK for them to make love?”
• Judgment Do you think what Julie and Mark do, is wrong?
• Moral anger When you consider what Julie and Mark are doing, does their behavior evoke disgust in you?
• Anticipated guilt Suppose you were to act like Julie and Mark, would you feel guilty afterwards for what you did?
(Response options: 1= Absolutely not – to – 5= Yes, absolutely)
11
16. HIGHLIGHTS
• Support for a more parsimonious two-factors model
individualizing and groupish moral foundations
• Relationship between moral foundations and moral judgment
(partially) mediated by moral emotions
• Individualizing foundations strongly associated with empathy
• Moral emotions are proximate mechanisms to moral judgment
whereas moral foundations are distal mechanisms
16
17. REFERENCES
Agnew, R. (2014). Social concern and crime: Moving beyond the assumption of simple self‐interest. Criminology, 52(1), 1-32. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12031
Bottoms, A. (2002). Morality, crime, compliance and public policy. In A. Bottoms & Michael H. Tonry (Eds.), Ideology, crime and criminal justice: A symposium in honour of Sir Lean Radzinowicz. Willan.
Bottoms, A., & Michael H. Tonry (2002). Preface. In A. Bottoms & Michael H. Tonry (Eds.), Ideology, crime and criminal justice: A symposium in honour of Sir Leon Radzinowicz. Willan.
Curry, O. S., Jones Chesters, M., & Van Lissa, C. J. (2019). Mapping morality with a compass: testing the theory of ‘morality-as-cooperation’ with a new questionnaire. Journal of Research in Personality,
78, 106-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2018.10.008
Franks, A. S., & Scherr, K. C. (2015). Using moral foundations to predict voting behavior: Regression models from the 2012 U.S. presidential election. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 15, 213-
232.
Graham, J., Nosek, B. A., Haidt, J., Iyer, R., Koleva, S., & Ditto, P. H. (2011). Mapping the moral domain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(2), 366-385.
https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0021847
Haidt, J. (2012). The righteous mind: why good people are divided by politics and religion. Penguin Books Ltd.
Haidt, J. (2017). Moral Foundations Theory. https://moralfoundations.org/
Haidt, J., & Graham, J. (2007). When morality opposes justice: conservatives have moral intuitions that liberals may not recognize. Social Justice Research, 20(1), 98-116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-
007-0034-z
Haidt, J., & Joseph, C. (2004). Intuitive ethics: how innately prepared intuitions generate culturally variable virtues. Daedalus: Special Issue on Human Nature, 133(4), 55-66.
Haidt, J., & Kesebir, S. (2010). Morality. In S. T. Fiske, D. T. Gilbert, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (p. 797-832). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy002022
Harper, C. A., & Hogue, T. E. (2019). The role of intuitive moral foundations in Britain’s vote on EU membership. Journal of Community and Applied social Psychology, 29, 90-103.
Harper, C. A., & Rhodes, D. (2021). Reanalysing the factor structure of the moral foundations questionnaire. British Journal of Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12452
Hu, L-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1-55.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Iurino, K., & Saucier, G. (2020). Testing measurement invariance of the Moral Foundations Questionnaire across 27 countries. Assessment, 27,365-372.
Kivikangas, J. M., Lönnqvist, J.-E., & Ravaja, N. (2017). Relationship of moral foundations to political liberalism-conservatism and left-right orientation in a Finnish representative sample. Social Psychology,
48, 246-251.
Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. (Fourth edition). The Guilford Press.
Leitgöb, H., Eifler, S., & Weymeirsch, J. (2020). Ein Instrument zur Erfassung allgemeiner Moralvorstellungen (ALLMOR). Soziologische Forschungsberichte, 17. Katholische Universität, Eichstätt-
Ingolstadt. http://www.ku.de/ggf/soziologie/eichstaetter-beitraege-zur-soziologie/
Marcus, G. (2004). The birth of the mind: how a tiny number of genes creates the complexities of human thought. Ingram Publisher Services US.
Messner, S. F. (2012). Morality, markets, and the ASC: 2011 presidential address to the American Society of Criminology. Criminology, 50(1), 5-25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2011.00264.x
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2012). Mplus. Statistical analysis with latent variables. User’s Guide. Seventh Edition.
Nilsson, A., & Erlandsson, A. (2015). The moral foundations taxonomy: structural validity and relation to political ideology in Sweden. Personality and Individual Differences, 76, 28-32.
Suhler, C. L., & Churchland, P. (2011). Can innate, modular “foundations” explain morality? Challenges for Haidt’s Moral Foundations Theory. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(9), 2103-2116.
https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2011.21637
Wikström, P.O.H (2017). Character, circumstances, and the cause of crime: towards an analytical criminology. In A. Liebling, S. Maruna, & L. McAra (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of criminology, (pp. 501-
521). Oxford University Press.
Yilmaz, O., Harma, M., Bahçekapili, H. G., & Cesur, S. (2016). Validation of the Moral Foundations Questionnaire in Turkey and its relation to cultural schemas of individualism and collectivism. Personality
and Individual Differences, 99, 149-154.
17
19. 4 SCENARIOS
SCENARIO 1: stealing €500 at ATM
“Dominique is standing at an ATM somewhere in town. Before Dominique, another person is withdrawing money while talking on the phone.
When the other person has finished, he walks away.
Suddenly, Dominique sees that 5 €100 notes are stuck in the ATM slot. The other person forgot to take the money out! Dominique takes the
money. Immediately afterwards the other person returns and asks if Dominique found €500 in the ATM. Dominique answers: "No, I didn’t find
anything".
SCENARIO 2: fair treatment – breaking a promise
“Lucas is a master student. For his thesis, he wants to interview 50 ex-prisoners. However, he does not have much time to transcribe the
interviews so he asks two fellow students, William and Robert, to help him. He makes an agreement with both of them to pay them €80 each
for one day's work. William and Robert get to work quickly. Robert, who works faster, transcribes twice as much as William. At the end of the
day, Lucas, the master student, pays Robert €80, as agreed. To William, Lucas says there is no money left and he gives him €15.”
SCENARIO 3: punishing a free rider
“Four students, Bruno, Maithé, Victor and Lisa, worked together on a group task. Bruno invested a total of about 16 hours in the group task,
Maithé invested 14 hours, Victor about 18 hours and Lisa invested 2 hours in the group task. Bruno, who is quite annoyed with the situation,
posts an unflattering photo of Lisa on a popular social networking site saying 'This is Lisa = someone who takes advantage of other people's
efforts. We hate freeriders!' He sends the photo to all his friends asking them to share it.”
SCENARIO 4: incest scenario (Haidt, 2012)
“Julie and Mark are brother and sister. They are traveling together in France on summer vacation from college. One night they are staying
alone in a cabin near the beach. They decide that it would be interesting and fun if they tried making love. At the very least it would be a new
experience for each of them. Julie was already taking birth control pills, but Mark uses a condom too, just to be safe. They both enjoy making
love, but they decide not to do it again. They keep that night as a special secret, which makes them feel even closer to each other. What do you
think about that? Was it OK for them to make love?” 19
Editor's Notes
MFT is a theory of morality, explaining its origins, development and cultural variations
Created in 2004 by Haidt and colleagues who surveyed the literatures in evolutionary psychology and anthropology
It builds on the work of both Alan Fiske and Richard Shweder
MFT: morality is multidimensional
The theory holds a functional approach to morality,
Such as that morality serves to promote group cooperation and cohesion
While such an evolutionary account of morality is not unique, but is provided by other scholars as well
In this talk, the focus is on MFT only
MFT can be summarized in four claims
Morality is the product of evolutionary processes : nature provides a first draft of the moral mind
That the authors conceptualize as : organized in advance of expertise, built-in but not unmalleable,
Which means that a lot of emphasis is placed on experience
2) Morality is strongly influenced by learning and culture,
Nature provides a first draft of the moral mind, provides moral capacities
but learning plays a key role in shaping moral beliefs, values, attitudes within a particular culture
3)Moral judgement happens fast, intuitive and is characterized by specific moral emotions
4) There are many moral foundations, sources of moral intuitions
Haidt and colleagues identied six moral foundations that are likely to be responses to adaptive challenges that faced our ancestors for a very long time
This table lays out MFT current theorizing
The heading lists the five moral foundations or moral modules for which the authors think evidence is best
The first row lists corresponding adaptive challenges (threads opportunities) that faced our ancestors for millions of years,
If our ancestors faced these challenges for hundreds of thousands of years, then natural selection would favor those psychological modules helped to get things right, rapidly and intuitively
creating conditions that favored the reproductive success of individuals who were able to solve the problems more effectively
The second row gives the original triggers : social pattern that such a module should detect
For example: the care/harm foundations relies on the adaptive challenge of caring for vulnerable offspring, females whose intuitive reactions to their children were optimized to detect signs of suffering, distress raised more children to adulthood than less sensitive mothers
The third row lists examples of the new triggers, in fact the sort of things that trigger the relevant foundations for people in a modern western society
The fourth row lists some emotions that are part of the output of each foundation, when the foundation is activated they elicit characteristic emotions, empathy – anger – guilt – disgust
The fifth last row lists some of the virtues that we use to characterize people who trigger a particular moral foundation in our minds
These are the five moral foundations for which the authors think evidence is best
However, recently, another very good candidate for foundationhood is added :
Liberty/oppression: which is about the feelings of reactance and resesentment people feel toward those who dominate and restrict their liberty
Apart from a six factor model, a more parsimonious two factor model has been proposed representing a theoretical distinction between
Individualizing foundations emphazise the individual as the center of moral concern
These foundations center on rights and autonomy and a heightened sensitivity to moral violations in the domains of care, fairness and liberty
binding foundations center on social order and social groupishness and a heightened sensitivity to moral violations in the domains of loyalty – authority – sanctity
Bringing the theorizing together
We proposed a conceptual model tapping into the two-factors model as moral foundations for moral judgment what is right or wrong to do
MFT predicts that moral foundations underlie moral judgment of what is right or wrong to do
Also that moral foundations are characterized by specific emotions,
And that Emotions are part of the output of the moral foundations when these are triggered
we propose specific emotions as intermediairy variables in the relation between foundations and moral judgement
Data were collected from undergraduates at Ghent University
Who participated in an online survey in 2019
The survey incorporated the dutch translation of the 20 item short version MFQ
participants (N = 195) were asked to rate their emotions in response to moral violation vignettes
MFQ exists in a 20-item short form
and is the scale under study here
MFQ is divided into two subscales:
The first: moral relevance : subjects state how relevant a collection of issues are to them when making a moral decision
Such as: whether or not someone suffered emotionally (mapping on to the care foundation)
The second section : moral judgment: subjects are asked to rate their level of agreement with a range of moral statements,
Such as, I am proud of my country’s history (mapping on to the loyalty foundation)
Each subscale includes 10 items, two for each foundation
Categorically scored on a 5-point response scale
Disgust has been identified as the prototypical response when individuals are asked to imagine sex with close
genetic relatives
It has been suggested that sexual disgust is an evolved solution to the adaptive problem
of avoiding biologically costly mates and sexual behaviors
close kin (e.g., siblings might possess many attributes desir
Able in a mate, but they are not
suitable mating partners because close inbreeding increases the probability of producing less healthy offspring
Previous research has found that women are generally more sensitive to disgust than men
we predicted that sex differences in disgust
sensitivity should vary across domains. Specifically, we predicted
that the largest sex difference would be found in the sexual
domain. This prediction stems from a consideration of the different
costs associated with sexual reproduction for men and women
MFT intends to explain the origins of and variation in moral judgments based on innate modular foundations
Here, we shared some of the results of a partial test of the theory
Our results tend to support a more parsimonious two-factors model consisting of individualizing and binding moral foundations.
We found that the relationship between the moral foundations and moral judgement were (partially) mediated by moral emotions.
Especially, empathic concern and anger were strongly associated with individualizing foundations but not with binding foundations whereas disgust was related to both.
We argue that moral emotions are important proximate mechanisms.