International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
The Dramatic Journey of Multicultural Theatre in Turkeyinventionjournals
Among the instruments that reflects cultural integrity and originality the art of theatre holds an important place in a community’s value system. Turkish theatre is rich in terms of authentic samples exhibiting the multicultural structure in the early Imperial and early Republican periods.In the scientific and cultural institutionsthat gain an identitywith the new Republic, there has been enormous progress for the creation of an original theatre tradition.However, with late Imperial and late Republican periods the changing social dynamics through external influences gradually remove culture and theatre from local and traditional. The recent domination of globalization has produced more concrete contradictions; theatre, in practice, has turned towards the samples that demonstrate its disengagement from the common symbolic space of multicultural structure.This article aims to examine the cultural decomposition andpopularization which cause a contradictory situation in the historical process and toraise awareness about returning to the common symbolic space.
Universal Human Laws in The Waste Land (T.S. Eliot)Dilip Barad
Functionalism explains human society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent elements; namely norms, customs, traditions, and institutions.
A functionalist reading of myths might extract the universal human laws.
This presentation attempts to identify some Universal Human Laws in T.S. Eliot's modern epic 'The Waste Land'
The Dramatic Journey of Multicultural Theatre in Turkeyinventionjournals
Among the instruments that reflects cultural integrity and originality the art of theatre holds an important place in a community’s value system. Turkish theatre is rich in terms of authentic samples exhibiting the multicultural structure in the early Imperial and early Republican periods.In the scientific and cultural institutionsthat gain an identitywith the new Republic, there has been enormous progress for the creation of an original theatre tradition.However, with late Imperial and late Republican periods the changing social dynamics through external influences gradually remove culture and theatre from local and traditional. The recent domination of globalization has produced more concrete contradictions; theatre, in practice, has turned towards the samples that demonstrate its disengagement from the common symbolic space of multicultural structure.This article aims to examine the cultural decomposition andpopularization which cause a contradictory situation in the historical process and toraise awareness about returning to the common symbolic space.
Universal Human Laws in The Waste Land (T.S. Eliot)Dilip Barad
Functionalism explains human society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent elements; namely norms, customs, traditions, and institutions.
A functionalist reading of myths might extract the universal human laws.
This presentation attempts to identify some Universal Human Laws in T.S. Eliot's modern epic 'The Waste Land'
"I will ask the reader to set aside some familiar categories for evaluating fiction—stylistic intricacy, psychological subtlety, epistemological complexity—and to see the sentimental novel not as an artifice of eternity answerable to certain formal criteria and to certain psychological and philosophical concerns, but as a political enterprise, halfway between sermon and social theory, that both codifies and attempts to mold the values of its time" (Tompkins 126).
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER) is an intentional online Journal in English monthly publishing journal. This Journal publish original research work that contributes significantly to further the scientific knowledge in engineering and Technology.
Shen Te as an ‘Alter Ego’ of Shui Ta in Brecht’s The Good Woman of Setzuan: A...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: The paper analyses the main character, Shen Te in the play The Good Woman of Setzuan on
dealing various works and businesses in the society. The study investigates the attitudes of men towards others
in different affaires of the society. It also discusses the understatement of being done on Shen Te. The special
emphasis of the paper goes with the performances and excellences of the protagonist performed in the play. The
executed services of Shen Te for the gods are not less valuable than that of other people of the society as Shui
Ta, the alter ego of herself. Her achievement and humankind should be valued like other members of the
society. She should no longer be distressed. Thus, the focal point of the researcher is to examine how the effort
and enthusiasm of an individual can be more valuable for having a smooth community to ensure peaceful lives
in the world.
KEYWORDS: Literary Style, Alter Ego, Complex Identity, Frustration, Social Change, Class Struggle
Culture and anarchy is a notorious philosophical work written by the celebrated Victorian poet and critic Mathew Arnold. This essay was first published in ‘Cornhill Magazine’ during 1867-’68. Its full name is “Culture and Anarchy: An Essay in Political and Social Criticism”.
Lauren raine portfolio a work in progressLauren Raine
From 1/15/2022 Presentation at Conference on Current Pagan Studies at Claremont School of Theology - "The Art of Lauren Raine". Retrospective of 50 years of cross disciplinary work of artist Lauren Raine MFA
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
"I will ask the reader to set aside some familiar categories for evaluating fiction—stylistic intricacy, psychological subtlety, epistemological complexity—and to see the sentimental novel not as an artifice of eternity answerable to certain formal criteria and to certain psychological and philosophical concerns, but as a political enterprise, halfway between sermon and social theory, that both codifies and attempts to mold the values of its time" (Tompkins 126).
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research(IJCER) is an intentional online Journal in English monthly publishing journal. This Journal publish original research work that contributes significantly to further the scientific knowledge in engineering and Technology.
Shen Te as an ‘Alter Ego’ of Shui Ta in Brecht’s The Good Woman of Setzuan: A...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: The paper analyses the main character, Shen Te in the play The Good Woman of Setzuan on
dealing various works and businesses in the society. The study investigates the attitudes of men towards others
in different affaires of the society. It also discusses the understatement of being done on Shen Te. The special
emphasis of the paper goes with the performances and excellences of the protagonist performed in the play. The
executed services of Shen Te for the gods are not less valuable than that of other people of the society as Shui
Ta, the alter ego of herself. Her achievement and humankind should be valued like other members of the
society. She should no longer be distressed. Thus, the focal point of the researcher is to examine how the effort
and enthusiasm of an individual can be more valuable for having a smooth community to ensure peaceful lives
in the world.
KEYWORDS: Literary Style, Alter Ego, Complex Identity, Frustration, Social Change, Class Struggle
Culture and anarchy is a notorious philosophical work written by the celebrated Victorian poet and critic Mathew Arnold. This essay was first published in ‘Cornhill Magazine’ during 1867-’68. Its full name is “Culture and Anarchy: An Essay in Political and Social Criticism”.
Lauren raine portfolio a work in progressLauren Raine
From 1/15/2022 Presentation at Conference on Current Pagan Studies at Claremont School of Theology - "The Art of Lauren Raine". Retrospective of 50 years of cross disciplinary work of artist Lauren Raine MFA
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
OSMC 2015:The road to lazy monitoring with Icinga 2 and Puppet by Tom de VylderNETWAYS
Tom will show you how to leverage configuration management to increase your productivity.
Although he will use Puppet as an example, it should be easy to adapt these tips and tricks to your particular environment.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Seminário apresentado para a disciplina História Antiga I, do curso de licenciatura em História, sobre o teatro Grego e uma das mais célebres histórias da escrita literária sobre a Grécia.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Folklore in English literature. RESEARCH/DissertationSachinKumar945617
if u want to make research/dissertation, ppt etc from me contact me
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A Chimeric Utopia Torn Between Two Lands: Is Autonomy Under Quarantine in The...inventionjournals
Having written four collections of poetry, more than fifteen novels, short stories, and books for children, criticism, screenplays and edited anthologies, Ursula Le Guin is a renowned American science fiction writer. Le Guin’s works are considered to change the notions of what fantasy and science fiction can perform and she is also considered to be a remarkable spinner of fantastic tales through which she can make the readers take note of the words and cultural assumptions. Through the lens of its narrator, Shevek, Le Guin crystallizes the difference between education and indoctrination in The Dispossessed. The aim of this study was to propose a critical analysis of indoctrination in the field of education and to analyze concepts of politics, ideology, culture, freedom, equality and their interrelationship with the concept of education. In the novel, both the Anarresti and the Urrasti’s educational means to educate their people were revealed. The analysis clarified some factors that might be unstable for any utopian community and even threatening for democratic and other values in a given society.
This article seeks to demonstrate that cultural nationalism has been a significant ideological force in African literary writings in general and poetry in particular. It endorses a distinctive communitarian vision of the nation and has repeatedly been espoused by many a literary academic as a remarkable effort towards the re-establishment of coherence and integrity in African traditional life and institutions. While recognising the beauty of traditional life, this approach turns a blind eye to the endemic challenges that these nations are grappling with. Taking Okot’s Song of Lawino and Song of Ocol as the literary points of reference, I have delineated the character of cultural nationalism, the leadership role of the colonised intellectual, and its recurring emergence in alternation with escapist idealism. Using Fanonian theory, I have argued that rather than idolise the past in what may be largely interpreted as idealist escapism, Okot’s intent in the two poems selected for this study is to offer a truthful, accurate and objective representation of the real African world. He divorces his poems, Sengorian and Negritudist as they may seem, from rigid cultural historicism and espouses the marginalised perspective that Africa’s culture is a product of shared heritage and the desire for liberation should not blind us to the dynamism of our culture and the reality that neocolonialism has ushered in a new political culture that should worry us more than the coloniser’s. It is not enough for us to look only backwards in our quest for cultural revolution.
Era Of Good Feelings Essay. PPT - Era of Good Feelings: 1815-1829 PowerPoint ...Bridget Zhao
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Contemporary Drama in the Arab World: Commencement and Evolution (1) المسرح ا...Al Baha University
Drama has echoed and paralleled the life, customs, conduct, and general living traditions of society from its dim commencements on the ancient auditoriums and the banks of the Nile in olden Egypt approximately six thousand years ago. Drama is an advanced and simple means of recording and documenting human effort. There are many central playwrights significantly contributed to the progress and evolution of Arabic drama and theater and tended to perform dramatic representations within many Arabic countries throughout time and place.
This study is an attempt to shed light on two pioneer dramatists who were the first innovators, paving the way for the development of Arabic drama and theater. The first is the Lebanese Marun An-Naqqash, and the second is the Syrian Ahmad Abu Khalil Al-Qabbani. The paper is analytically and critically charted with an introduction. Then, it deals with a brief notion on the meaning of drama, focusing mainly on poetic drama and the origin and development of Arabic Drama. The central part copes with the two pioneers, An-Naqqash, and Al-Qabbani, shedding light on the struggle they made to give life to a very famous genre called drama. The paper reaches the end with a brief conclusion and recommendations if any.
American Research Journal of Humanities & Social Science (ARJHSS) is a double blind peer reviewed, open access journal published by (ARJHSS).
The main objective of ARJHSS is to provide an intellectual platform for the international scholars. ARJHSS aims to promote interdisciplinary studies in Humanities & Social Science and become the leading journal in Humanities & Social Science in the world.
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International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)
1. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention
ISSN (Online): 2319 – 7722, ISSN (Print): 2319 – 7714
www.ijhssi.org Volume 2 Issue 10 ǁ October 2013ǁ PP.30-39
Ritual in Feminism; Feminism in Ritual: Osita Ezenwanebe’s
Shadows on Arrival
Lekan Balogun
Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
ABSTRACT: In the heart of Africa, cultural heritage and social vision as argued by Olu Obafemi, are often
merged as literature and/or theatre. They are deployed as instruments for social change and the awakening of
social consciousness, through the exploration and utilization of ritual imagination and folklore as both
technical framework and visional hallmarks, which are very striking. This paper dwells on the utilization of
such cultural trope to engage the issue of feminism and its major stimulus, patriarchy and to dilate on the sociopolitical and, even postcolonial situation as reflected in the society in recent time. Through a discourse of
Shadows on Arrival, a feminist/womanist play, the paper also shows that cultural materials can effectively
function to engage in contemporary discourse, which is not only germane but central to the understanding of
our specific socio-cultural realities.
KEYWORDS: culture, discourse, feminism, postcolonoialism, ritual, womanism.
I. INTRODUCTION
In ritual dramas, the plot and structure development are geared towards the attainment of a certain
sense of well-being. Even if the deployment of ideas and episodes do not pre-empt the denouement of a
performance, the ordering is such that a particular outcome is re-assured. There is a longing towards a
resolution of chaos, be it personal, communal or cosmic (Layiwola 26) [1].
In providing a definition for ritual that will also incorporate its theatrical nature, Schechner unwittingly
identifies five distinct elements. He notes that rituals have been considered as part of the evolutionary
development of animals (human beings in this sense); as structures with formal qualities and definable
relationships; as symbolic systems of meaning; as performative actions or processes and as experience. These
categories overlap(228)[2].There is no doubt that ritual as performance and as experience interjects with theatre,
especially if one considers Tambiah’s opinion of ritual as a “culturally constructed system of symbolic
communication, constituted of patterned and ordered sequences of words and acts, often expressed in multiple
media”(119)[3]. As such, one finds that in ritual, like theatre too, behaviour is arranged, condensed, exaggerated
and made rhythmic (231)[4].
From the classical Greek era of Sophocles and Aeschylus, through renaissance England’s Shakespeare,
Kyd and Marlowe, to contemporary Africa’s Soyinka, Ola Rotimi and J.P Clark, one can agree with Layiwola
that “nowhere is the life of the modern man more ritualized than in theatre”(29)[5]. This foregrounds the
universality of the dramatic experience, which often finds expression in the culture and practice of the society in
which it is produced. Like their men, two African female dramatists, Zulu Sofola and Ama Ata Aidoo, have
equally demonstrated awareness and versatility of the women folk, in the appropriation of ritual and cultural
materials, in order to dilate on the socio-political and, even postcolonial situations in their society.
In recent time, another strong female voice on the literary cum performance landscape in Nigeria is no doubt Osita
Ezenwanebe, whose humanism, as expressed in some of her plays, such as Giddy Festival, Daring Destiny and The Dawn of
Full Moon, is further entrenched by her recent work, Shadows on Arrival, in which a strong cultural belief of the Ibo society
from where she hails, becomes the central point of conflict in what she describes as “a celebration of the strength of women
in traditional African society and secondarily a statement on abuse of office”(1)[6]. Much as one agrees with the playwright
that the play is “primarily about the strength of traditional African womanhood”, yet one perceives another dimension to the
play-text’s intentions; that is, championing the inviolability of the sacred values and traditions, which have held people
together; the sanctity of a cultural practice that is gradually being eroded by Western/ foreign values, represented by
materialism, greed and misplaced trust against the background of the feminist/womanist concern that is the central thematic
preoccupation. This will form the focus of this paper, which examines the text against the background of its socio-cultural
milieu as presented by the playwright.
www.ijhssi.org
30 | P a g e
2. Ritual in Feminism; Feminism in Ritual: Osita...
II. INTERFACE OF RITUAL AND LITERATURE
The sound of the town crier’s ogene...shatters the stillness of the morning...It is in preparation for the
initiation of a new priestess (30) [7].
In “Ritual Imagination in selected plays of J.P Clark, Ola Rotimi and Wole Soyinka”, Eghagha draws
inspiration from Sofola’s “Tragic themes in a Nigerian Ritual Drama: The Igwe as case study”, to posit that the
title of his own thesis was informed by the frame of mind and unity in vision guided by certain social,
environmental and cultural currents which inform the imaginative works of the chosen writers (5-6) [8]. It is in
this light that the title of this section of the paper is taken. Therefore, Ritual imagination, in this context, also
refers to the socio-cultural orientation found in the micro-cosmos presented in the play-text which view all
actions as transcendental phenomena (5)[9].
In other word, much as Western education, capitalist materialism, foreign religious fervour and
democratic principles are holding sway in our society today, the play-text reveals that human beings are still
concerned with the essence, the deep and the religious structures of the cosmos(5)[10]. This state of mind is
certainly not strictly African, as Jahn attempts to make it appear when he sees “a structure of mind common to
members of the black race, informing a collective vision of the world”(51)[11]; to which Irele has rightly
responded and debunked(49-67)[12].Soyinka has further reaffirmed the ‘global belief’ in the ritual origin and
essence of human beings, as expressed through literature and specifically theatre (42-43) [13].
Ritual imagination, as it relates to Shadows on Arrival, finds expression in Eghagha’s description of its
imbibing constructs that are found in interpersonal relationships, inter-communal relationships, intra-family
conflicts including relationships between Man and Deity, as well as between man and his community. It also
finds expression in the characters’ interpretation of natural and supernatural events, which include infringement
of taboos, daily incidents and occurrences (6)[14].This relates to the ambience created by the playwright in the
play-text. Through Umueze community, Ezenwanebe creates “a traditional society that has a strong sense of
cosmic harmony which thrives through ritual placations of gods, spirits and ancestors to maintain and sustain
the hegemony”(Ladele 42)[15].
It recalls the society created by Sofola in Wedlock of the Gods. A society of ritual and cultural law is
vividly presented, in which two exuberant lovers, Uloko and Ogwoma, play out their desire against values that
are as old as life. By defiling customs through unholy adventure, the lovers and the aggrieved mother-in-law,
Odibei, who takes laws into her hand by avenging her son’s death, are locked in a macabre dance of shame and
death. Sofola expounds what Obafemi describes as “resultant tragic consequences that await defiers and rebels
of traditional systems, codes and ethics”(159)[16]. No doubt, the vision behind her drama-- most especially
Wedlock of the Gods and King Emene—is marked by, and grounded in, “her abiding conviction of the
inviolability of cultural and traditional paradigms, such as myth, rituals and mores”(159)[17].
Another good example is provided by Aidoo in Anowa in which a popular Ghanaian folk legend is
utilized to engage some recurrent problems and issues confronting women; more specifically, issues of women
empowerment, freedom and personal sense of dignity, which are often subordinated under the whims and
caprices of the male-folk. This is no doubt the tendency of a patriarchal society in which women are considered
and treated as the “Other”. Anowa grapples with the complexity of the social values of Yebi, the environment of
the conflict. Symbolism is perpetual and striking in this drama. Also, mysticism and ritual combine to
emasculate the central character, whose attempt to establish a distinct identity for herself by following her
heart’s desire is truncated by oppressive laws and taboos [18]. Thus, while Sofola champions Womanism,
Aidoo gives a glimpse of feminist contention, even though both plays appropriate ritual and cultural materials
recognizable by the society from which they source material for their dramaturgy.
Through Shadows on Arrival, Ezenwanebe examines a cultural belief and values being eroded by the
combination of materialism, greed, and evil machination of symbols, which represent cultural pillars of the
traditional world. The sacrosanct nature of ritual practice and cultural belief is aligned with the celebration of
the virtues of women as nation-builders and pillars of trust and support in the family structure. Through the
drama, the playwright takes a cue from Sofola and Aidoo to show how, through ritual imagination, African and
Greek dramas have connected with Elizabethan theatre in an interesting way.
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i. Feminism/Patriarchy: Still “our” Concern?
Several definitions have been offered for feminism. However, Bell Hooks’ definition connects
favourably with the intention of this paper. She says “simply put, feminism is a movement to end sexism, sexist
exploitation, and oppression”(2)[19]. She further argues that feminism is not all about women trying to
negotiate equality with men, which is a notion promoted by both individuals and patriarchal media. Rather,
feminism derives from a consciousness that emphasizes the importance of learning about patriarchy as “a
system of domination, institutionalized and perpetrated over women, making them to be exploited and
oppressed”(23)[20].
Patriarchy, simply put, is the rule of the male—father/son. It is a system that continually puts the
woman down. It derives its source of strength from socio-cultural and, often, political practices that define the
social fabric and structure of the society where it is entrenched. Engaging this text from this point of view, that
is subsumed in ritual and character application of symbols, Osita Ezenwanebe draws attention to the changing
faces of control that emanates directly from the system of patriarchy that a society, Umueze community in this
context, practices. Johnson provides a vivid conception of control that relates to this idea. She says
Under patriarchy, control shapes not only the broad outline of social life but also men’s inner lives. It
does this through its central place in the definition of masculinity: a real man is in control or at least gives the
impression of being in control. The more men see control as central to their sense of life, well-being worth, and
safety, the more driven they feel to go after it and organize their inner and outer lives around it (27)[21].
In the relationships that Ezenwanebe sets up in the text, we find Johnson’s argument relevant that since
men’s control over women is what patriarchal manhood is all about, a reversal like what the central character
attempts is often deemed unnatural. She states
A woman perceived as controlling a man is typically labelled a ‘castrating bitch’ or a ‘ball-buster’, and
the man she supposedly controls is looked down upon as ‘hen-pecked’, a ‘pussy-whipped’ and barely a
man at all. But there are no insulting terms for a man who controls a woman--by having the last word,
and not letting her work outside the home, deciding when she’ll have sex, or limiting her time with
other women, or the woman he controls. There is no need for such words because men controlling
women is what patriarchal manhood is all about (27-28)[22].
Being a social construct, the strength of patriarchy is predicated on the society’s assigned roles for both male
and female; masculinity and the predominant for the male and the female subordinated in order to legitimize the
male’s control and power. The system also feeds on social belief, religious affiliation and in recent time being
promoted through the media.
In order to challenge this age-long social and cultural practice, Ezenwanebe contrives the play in the form of
discourse hinged on the theoretical framework of the feminist/womanist hue. Based, however, on the cultural tropes she has
adopted, her idea of discourse can be examined from the definition offered by Burr who explains that “a discourse refers to a
set of meanings, metaphors, representations, images, stories, statements and so on that in some way together produce a
particular version of events. It refers to a particular picture that is painted of an event (or a person or class of persons), a
particular way of representing it or them in a certain light”(48)[23]. This definition helps us to view the textual narrative in
the light of a contemporary engagement with an issue that is still very recent and relevant. It also helps to foreground the
work in the mould of social construction that bothers on enabling a better understanding of how a discourse, of this nature,
shapes understanding of people and objects. As Burr explains it “a productive line of enquiry has focussed upon the
performative [and literary] qualities of discourse, that is, what people are doing with their talk or writing, what they are
trying to achieve”(47)[24].
III. SHADOWS ON ARRIVAL: MERGING FEMINIST/RITUAL THOUGHT
When a woman gets hold of the hood in manhood, of what use is the man?(22) In the introduction to the essay
“Images of the Colonial State in African Literature: A Prolegomenon”, Olorunleke observes that artists, especially writers
are wont to perceive themselves as a special breed of humanity imbued with extra-sensitive antennae with which they
monitor the tremors in the society (118)[25]. African writers are particularly noted for doing this through cultural celebration
as aesthetic principle that is equally pragmatic. Culture carries the values---ethical, moral and aesthetic---by which people
conceptualize or see themselves and their place in history and the universe (77)[26].Writers, as members of the society,
respond in their own unique ways, that are obviously valid and central to the understanding of the happenings around them.
With experiences, which cut across clime and time, helping to foreground the facts of its relevance, literature, especially
theatre becomes one form of that artistic/literary consciousness (Plekhanov, preface)[27]. From this kind of perspective,
Eagleton’s idea becomes important. He writes that
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Literature...is vitally engaged with the living situations of men and women: it is concrete rather than
abstract, displays life in all its variousness and rejects barren conceptual enquiry for
the feel and
taste of what is to be alive(16)[28]
Without any doubt, literature occurs only in a social context as part of culture, in a milieu (Welleck &
Warren 105)[29]. This is because it functions within a social convention and literary context and as such, it is
“conceived as social action by people rather than as a static entity in its own right” (Finnegan 270)[30]. Perhaps
this point informed the highly iconoclastic Soyinka’s assertion that the artist has “always functioned in African
society as the record of the mores and experiences of his society and the voice of vision in his own time(78) and
that “s/he is at once inventor and donor of society’s literature, its custodian and its liberator. S/he is a
spokes(wo)man for the society in which s/he lives, sharing its prejudices and directing its dislikes--in a limited
form of satire-against what is discountenanced”(81)[31].
Ezenwanebe’s Shadows on Arrival engages with “a faculty of mental images that suggest a particular
worldview”(5)[32], even though the playwright has rightly sounded a note of warning to ‘culture-clash’ critics
who often interpret and classify a literary text as promoting a particular culture as opposed to another by mere
allusion to any suggestion of culture by the writer (1)[33]. Instead, the playwright demands that the play-text be
“engaged” with thought that is more edifying than mere recourse to conflicts determined and resolved by the
“clash of the binary colours--black and white”(4)[34], which, further analyzed, will dump it at the feet of race or
racial interpretation.
The play begins with the sound of ekwe, the sacred wooden musical instrument while the women, all
armed with brooms are heading towards the village square, with the intention of sweeping and putting it in
order for the Eke market of that day. The confusing message of the ekwe is soon explained by the sight of titled
men of Umueze community, who have responded to the ‘ritual’ call as they walk in a file, led by the chief priest
of Idemili, Ezemuo, toward the shrine of Agbala Oha, the river goddess. But, events soon reveal that contrary to
speculation, it is actually summoned by Ezemuo, who conveys the message of the ancestral oracle of the choice
of Agbomma, as the next priestess of Agbala Oha. Naturally this will attract interest and speculations,
particularly when it is not the duty of the priest of Idemili but that of the Chieme or one of her “spokespersons”-the ichies. And, to make it more confusing, the people wonder why such pronouncement when a priestess yet
lives and it is custom that no other can be so ritually ordained while one is alive.
This sets the tone for the conflict of the drama, especially when Ezemuo’s real intentions begin to be
questioned starting from the amorous advances he earlier made at Egoyibo, after seeing her having a bath naked
in the stream of Agbala Oha, against the background of his ‘redeeming’ role through ritual placation of the
ogbanje spirit, that ensured that her daughter, Agbomma lives after spells of infant mortality. People, especially
Egoyibo and her female counterparts wonder why the same man, who helped save the child, now turns around
to pronounce a life of perpetual solitude for the young girl in the forest and grove of Agbala Oha as her
priestess in spite of the lofty dream of Western education and civilized values, away from the crudeness that can
only be offered the young girl by village life.
Egoyibo’s persistence and convincing determination, as opposed to her husband’s fickleness and
docility, find her winning a case against a well-placed man that is backed by influence, wealth, tradition and
cultural practice, in a heightened patriarchal society that is only concerned with the fact that “the mouth of a
woman is not as sweet as what lies in between her legs”(22)[35]. Perspective therefore becomes important here.
Lukacs explains that
[...]in any work of art, perspective is of overriding importance.It determines the course and content, it
draws together the threads of the narration, it enables the artist to choose between the important and
the superficial, the crucial and the episodic.The direction in which characters develop is determined
by perspective, only those features being described, which are material to their development. The
more lucid the perspective, the more economical and striking the selection (33)[36].
Lukacs’ opinion points in the direction of examining the play-text as a material, which foregrounds ritual as a
social intercourse that is inseparable from theatre, due to the attributes they both share as communal
performances (Obafemi 123)[37]. Among other necessary tools of narration in Shadows on Arrival, three very
distinct cultural materials are appropriated by the playwright to establish the ritual background of the play. They
are language, characters and music, deployed as interface between agitation and education; corrective measure
and cultural orientation.
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4.1 Language as Vehicle of Ritual/Narration
It is the wisdom of our people that says the visit of my guest
is leaving, he will not develop hunchback…(22)[38].
will not kill me, and when he
Language, according to Osoba, is the prime tool of literature, for whatever literature does for communicative
and aesthetic effects, it achieves through the creative use of language (193)[39]. No doubt, the primacy of
language in conveying mood, content and theme cannot be over-emphasized. In considering the issue and place
of language in any literary endeavour, Ladele perceives “diverse and disparate cultural, political and ideological
arguments arising”(1)[40].
The language of Shadows on Arrival clearly establishes the social milieu of a traditional African, nay
Igbo society, with all its more, values and sacred tradition, which held the people together. Of particular
significance is the creative use of proverb, which constitutes an essential part of the narration by helping to
propel the plot structure forward. Some of these proverbs are couched in very esoteric concepts and idioms,
which only a very few can decipher at first glance. Yet the exploration of cultural, social and ritual values
makes them poignant to this study. Yusuf and Methangwame define proverbs as “relatively short, generally
witty, often repeated, traditional or experience-based expressions which are usually associated with wisdom and
are used to perform a variety of social functions”(408)[41]. Achebe also notes that a proverb is both a functional
means of communication and also a very elegant and artistic performance in itself (5)[42], thus pointing
direction towards the pragmatic significance of proverbs.
Proverbs have been explained in various fields such as anthropology (Meider 1987), history
(Alster1993), literature (Barnes, 1994) among other disciplines. The focus on its cultural background and
context of usage has also been subject of discourse by scholars such as Taylor (1994), Dundes (1981), Eberhard
(1985) and Mieder (1985) and others. For instance, Finnegan has observed that in Africa, proverbs occur on all
occasions when language is used for communication either as art or as tool. This is certainly true, judging from
the interaction of characters in Shadows on Arrival. As Ladele further notes, proverbs “are used in oratory,
counseling, judging, embellishing speeches and enriching conversations”(36)[43]. The artistic/ literary usage of
proverbs in Shadows on Arrival can be seen at the level of their imagery, metaphorical vividness and
representation of practical realities of life. In a very striking and ironic manner, Ezemuo predicts his own fate in
this conversation with Agwudo
Agwudo: No one dares thrust aside the counsel of the wise one.
Ezemuo: A war announced in advance does not kill the cripple, for it is only a tree that sees its fellers and not
run away. If you know how to pound, you pound in the mortar; if you do not know how to pound, you pound on
the floor. In whichever way you choose to pound,it is you who must dance to the music(23)[44] (emphasis mine)
For a man who understands the customs and tradition of his people and occupies an exalted spiritual position as
the priest of Idemili, it is not out of place that Ezemuo’s speeches are conveyed in profound metaphors such as
Ezemuo: A hot bowl of soup is eaten from around the edges. A man can only run round and round a pepper
shrub; he cannot climb it (22)[45].
Agwudo’s helplessness at the turn of event, which requires supporting his daughter’s choice as the next
priestess of Agbala Oha, the earth goddess, apparently against his lofty dream of educating her, is expressed
through proverb
Agwudo: When a man is held by the groins, he follows his tormentor aimlessly like a leaf blown about in the
wind (26)[46].
The language of the sacred ekwe is not only metaphoric and esoteric, but also proverbial as revealed by
the women who have gone early in the morning to sweep the village square. In fact, its language can be given a
multiplicity of meanings as suggested by the women. Also, Council Orator is a particularly interesting character
as he demonstrates the avidness of the elderly and titled members of Umueze community in exchanging ideas
through a language that is not only lofty but also metaphorically meaningful to the discussion they engage in.
He says
Council Orator: It is only ignorance that makes a child to take a sleeping tiger for a cat and calls it its playmate
(34)[47].
In another instance, he says
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Council Orator: It is only a foolish child that throws up dust-ridden sand because it will certainly settle back
on his head (35)[48].
Firth’s argument that the essential thing about a proverb is its meaning, the reason for its use, its effects and its
significance in speech (134)[49], can be aligned with the proverbs employed by the playwright. It also finds
support in Finnegan’s opinion that in Africa, proverbs “occur in all occasions when language is used for
communication, either as art or as tool”(36)[50], and that its occurrence or usage in all aspects of life is not in
doubt. Agwudo and Ezemuo’s conversation lucidly expatiate on Finnegan’s thought :
Agwudo: It is the wisdom of our people that says the visit of my guest will not kill me, and when he is leaving,
he will not develop hunch back…
Ezemuo:A toad does not run in the day time for nothing. Water does not flow up hill. It flows down hill…when
a woman gets hold of the hood in manhood, of what use is the man?(22)[51].
Proverbs as cultural signifiers enables one to examine their usage in Shadows on Arrival in another
perspective expressed by Finnegan that “proverbs are used in oratory, counseling, judging, embellishing
speeches and enriching conversations”(36)[52]. They are not aimless expressions, but modes of conversing,
which embody and convey the cultural essence and ritual sensibility of the people. In a similar light, praise
poetry as a form of language usage in the play-text is taken to a level that it is aligned with the people’s belief in
the interconnection between the spiritual and the profane. The ogbanje (abiku) cultural belief, which serves as
the source-material of conflict for the play not only helps to establish the ritual imagination being engaged, it
also affirms the belief in the outer world---the connection between time past, time present and time future. That
the “Igwe does not die, when he embarks on a journey, he arrives at the abode of the ancestors and live
on”(33)[53], finds parallel in the ogbanje’s , whose soul, as it were, is tied to iyiuwa, the thread of life that ties
him/her to the cycle of coming and going (playwright’s expression). This also emphasizes the belief in
reincarnation, the connection of death and rebirth.
Praise poetry shows the connection between oral and written literature in African society. That both
co-exist is not in doubt. Olatunji has written that praise poetry called oriki in Yoruba, shows that both types of
literature (oral and written) have a simultaneous existence and are contemporaneous (3)[54]. Citing the Yoruba
society as a paradigm of study, Barber engages the social function of oriki(praise poetry) as the legitimisor of
the traditional established order and enhancer of individual reputation that is enriched by knowledge of the
hierarchical structure[55]. This is true of Shadows on Arrival as noted in the praise chants of Ezemuo, the priest
of Idemili, described as “half spirit, half man (that) sees what mortal eyes cannot”(21) and “who else hears the
gods? Who else sees tomorrow if not the chief priest of our great Idemili? (35)[56].
The Igwe’s praise chants are more endearing due to the metaphors, which celebrate his position as the
spiritual and temporal “father” of the community. He is “Igwe Ochendo our cover! Our shield! Defender of the
defenseless…”(33)[57]. In a more fearful and vociferous term, he is “killer of lions; the fearless one”; the lion
that enters the forest and sends lesser animals into hiding with his roar; and, the elephant whose feet rock the
trees of the forest”(34)[58]. To some other members of Umueze community, the Igwe can also transform into
an animal; a bold animal really, much as he embodies all the greatness that any human personality could
possess as “he who continues grazing, defying the bullet fired by an ignorant hunter”(35)[59]. Such praises and
appellation, couched in lofty metaphoric, symbolic and sometimes exaggerated terms confer on him an air of
eminent greatness. His praises also convey in vivid terms, the flora and fauna of the traditional Igbo society
created in the play-text.
The creative use of proverbs in the play shows how literature, especially oral literature, the genre to
which praise poetry belongs, encapsulates some of the most vital elements of the people’s cultural heritage.
Olatunji rightly describes them as the most significant items of any human culture (7)[60]. Also, one can agree
with Goody and Watt in the re-echo of the perception that these “items” are “channeled through words, and
reside in the particular range of meanings and attitudes which members of any society attach to their verbal
symbols”(28)[61]. Of course, the enthusiasm of the characters in the play-text, especially Council Orator and 1st
Council Member, in using praise poetry demonstrates the passion and value attached to them. It also
underscores Durkheim’s assertion that they are “priceless instruments of thought which the human groups have
laboriously forged through the centuries and where they have accumulated the best of their intellectual
capital”(19)[62].
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Language of this nature ensures, among other things, the elevation of its utilization, not only as a
means of communication, but also as a record of history, celebration of the aesthetics of individual and
communal ability to encode and decode thoughts much as they serve as cultural cum ritual markers and
signifiers.
4.2
Characters as Symbols
Ezenmo igaadi! You are half-spirit, half man; you see what mortal eye cannot see…(21)[63].
Characters are imaginary personalities in any literary work. Though there are characters from history, myth and
legend like Agamemnon in Aeschylus’ Agamemnon, Caesar in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, Galileo in Brecht’s
Galileo, Kurunmi and Ovonramwen Nogbaisi in Ola Rotimi’s Kurunmi and Ovonramwen Nogbaisi, Dedan
Kimathi in Ngugi and Mugo’s The Trials of Dedan Kimathi, Moremi and Oya in Lekan Balogun’s Moremi
Ajaasoro and Oya, Ameh Oboni in Ahmed Yerima’s Ameh Oboni: the Great to mention a few. The fact
remains that both plot structure and thematic concern depend on how well the playwright manipulates his
characters. Brockett is of the opinion that
[…] the primary material from which plots are derived, for incidents are developed mainly through the
speech and behaviour of dramatic personage. Characterization is the playwright’s means of
differentiating one dramatic personage from another (91)[64].
Shadows on Arrival is peopled by characters of diverse background. They are equally ‘materials’ the playwright
uses to give her thought-process and thematic preoccupation the needed perspective as Lukacs argued. The
characters in the play can broadly be classified into two; ritual characters and mortal characters.
Ala as a character gains prominence in terms of its centrality to the conflict and theme of the play.
Symbolically too, Ala alludes to the power of women, not just primarily as mothers, nurturers and “the womb”,
but more in terms of the power they wield, as powerfully expressed spiritually through Chieme, the priestess of
Agbala, the goddess of the earth, whose name, prestige and position Ezemuo tries to exploit and tarnish, in
order to satisfy his own sexual lust and vengeful greed. That the women are closer to the earth and Nature, in
effect, can be seen in their gathering to sweep the village square(2)[65]. This act is in itself purifying, alluding
to how women can help to purge the land of filth, diseases and evil, by their act of compassion and love. It also
aligns with eco-feminist perception regarding women and Nature, which sees violence against women in terms
of metaphor for pollution of the earth.
That both Ala and Chieme are not seen, but felt in terms of a highly pervading presence and influence
speaks volume of the power of womanhood, which is further established through mortal beings in the character
of Egoyibo. With Egoyibo, the playwright is able to establish and express the inspiring viability of the feminine
strength and candour, against the all-too popular saying that women are the weaker sex. She is also able to
inadvertently establish the ritual imagination behind the dramatic piece through Ala, in whose sacred “womb”,
the ogbanje’s iyi uwa is exhumed, an act which represents the giving birth to a child, since it is through this
singular act of redemption, that the spirit-child (Agbomma) can live.
Even in a more striking manner, it is through the singular act of resistance, symbolized by her silence
and later the clash of thunder and lightning in a sporadic union that Chieme is able to destroy Ezemuo and,
destroying in the process too, what could later become cosmic disruption of the people’s world by the greed and
lust of a single man. This recalls Soyinka’s Death and the King’s Horseman in which Elesin Oba, in a moment
of sexual orgy forgets the essence of his spiritual act of reunion that must take place for the land to be healed.
Elesin’s tragedy resembles that of Ezemuo as both lose their sense of pride and place by unchecked sexual
desire. The Praise Singer’s warning that “the hands of women also weaken the wary”(11)[66], goes unheeded
by Elesin just as Ezemuo fails to take counsel in the fact that the anger of the gods of the land against defilers
can be awesome.
In a similar vein, it alludes to Shakespeare’s Macbeth as captured in the turbulence and noisy rumpus
in the stable the night Macbeth murders King Duncan in his castle. One death leads to another and, within a
short time, Macbeth transforms from being a noble and decorated army general, citizen and cousin to the slain
king to becoming a fiendish tyrant, usurper and enemy of the state [67].
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In a lesser degree, Igwe and Agbomma can be regarded as spirit-beings. Igwe’s is even lower, except
that appellations which accrue to the title and position he occupies as the paramount ruler of Umueze
community accord him such height of place, so much that he can be regarded as being above others in a number
of ways. However, Agbomma’s continued connection and fraternity with the ogbanje group, often expressed
through momentary fit of dance and movement of the body in response to esoteric music and sounds suggests
that she, more than Ezemuo actually qualifies for the description of “half-spirit, half man”, as expressed by
Agwudo. The ogbanje spirits are another group of spirit/ spiritual characters whose presence is only felt and
known by Agbomma.
Mortal characters in the play are also striking in their own ways. Ezemuo certainly represents an
institution that is fast losing its glory. He not only embodies materialism and greed, but also a society whose
values are gradually being eroded. Knowing the debilitating consequences that await anyone who defies the
ancestors, it is somehow surprising that he could dare them, by manipulating sacred systems that have given
him fame, respect and honour. Ironically, he expresses a great deal of truth about life---truths that actually
fought against him at the end. His speeches are full of latent wisdom that, ironically, he does not heed. How can
one classify a character who believes that, “a king who says no one should advise him carries feces in his cloth
to the market place; a man who runs in front of his god soon wears himself out; for no one can run faster than
his god” (21)[68], yet does everything contrary to such very well-expressed wisdom?
Instead of taking counsel in good thought, he revels in the fact that “the mouth of women is not sweet
as what lies in between their legs”(22)[69]. Indeed, the lustful desire to have carnal knowledge of Egoyibo,
whose nakedness he saw in the stream of Agbala Oha is more compelling than recourse to commonsense as
befit his status. The tragic fate that befalls him does not fall short of Agwudo’s comment that “the man dies; he
becomes the laughing stock among his people; a castrated he-goat”(22)[70].
Agwudo is also an important character to note. For a man who labored in vain for many years before
he could have a surviving child after several tragic incidents of infant deaths, it is surprising that he is quick to
accept sending the same child into perpetual loneliness in a shrine and life of ritual placations as the priestess of
Idemili. He comes across as a timid and visionless opposite of his wife Egoyibo, whose sense of judgement is
not only amazing but also worthy of emulation. Egoyibo clearly demonstrates a high level of love, compassion
and sagacity expected of a mother, who understands that life can be lived anew in the younger generation,
provided they are protected and properly nurtured; that it can also be meaningful and progressive when
individuals are allowed room to aspire for and reach out to the highest level of their potentials without being
hindered by unprogressive ritual and traditional barriers which, to say the least, are fast becoming obsolete and
out of fashion, especially in a fast changing world, as succinctly given expression by foreign value and religion
that has helped in eradicating the killing of albinos among other negative cultural practices in the Umueze
community.
4.3 Music as Narrative Device/Ritual Trope
The other girls run while Agbomma laughs at them and merely walk through. Soon, they return with
their water pots balance on their heads. The strange sounds of the forest become louder and the girls
tip-toe carefully as they pass the forest. A rhythmic, maiden music erupts. The girls become more
terrified and walk faster; Agbomma is behind. Spirit dancers emerge and Agbomma in a trance sees
them and gradually moves backward, joins in the dance (9)[71].
Shadows on Arrival thrives on the utilization of music through various means such as songs, ogene, flute, chant,
ekwe among others. Music sound here “symbolises a fundamental and social-psychological pattern common to
a given culture”(Lomax 170)[72].Specifically, the use of music in the play-text provides the sensibility of an
authentic African way of life. Grenes sees African music functioning “as part of religious ritual, as an
expression of social organisations and as recreation”(175)[73].
The influence of the ogbanje spirits over Agbomma is perfectly expressed through musical “gyration”,
which not only foregrounds the ritual ambience of the drama, but also clearly establishes the people’s belief in
the influence of the supernatural on mortal-beings. Jahn gives a lucid description of the “ecstatic union”
between the living and the dead, the supernatural and the physical as vividly expressed in the maiden dance (9)
and the trance-like spirit dance in the shrine of Agbala Oha (15), seeing it as an expression of the religious
belief of the people. To him, in traditional African culture, “all life is based on religion” and in a more specific
term, “in African religion, man has an active attitude towards the gods; through sympathetic magic invocation,
he compels the divine power to unite with him in ecstasy”(174)[74].
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Music and dance are not conceived as mere ornamental elements added to enrich the drama but as the
very constitutive fabric of the performance knowing that in many parts of Africa, the general pattern of musical
organization emphasizes the integration of music with other social and political actions, as well as with those
other activities through which Africans express or consolidate their interpersonal relationship, beliefs and
attitude to life, knowing that such occasions for public musical performances range from purely recreational,
ceremonial and social attempts to the religious among other aesthetic and visionary functions[Nketia 75].
IV. CONCLUSION
That Shadows on Arrival is influenced by Africa’s oral traditional performance modes mixed with ritual and
metaphysical vision as evidenced in the plot and language, characterization and thematic preoccupation, the
simplicity of the art and medium, as well as the performance-oriented nature of the drama is not in doubt.
However, it also betrays a conscious commitment to a socialist vision, which subscribes to Jeyifo’s assertion
that drama, seeks to achieve not only magical effects and transformation but also to reflect the human need for
these effects(69)[76]. Certainly, this draws attention to the success of this literary enterprise.
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