ABOUT COMPOSITION AND WRITING SKILLS

1. 1
COMPOSITION AND WRITING SKILLS
GROUP ASSIGNMENT
TOPIC: PARAGRAPH WRITING
GROUP MEMBERS:
TOOBA KAREEM
FATIMA SALMAN
AMNA KHAN
AYESHA RAHIM
ZAINAB AMJAD

2. 2
WRITER: TOOBA KAREEM
WRITING PARAGRAPHS:
WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH?
A paragraph is a series of sentences that presents and develops one main idea about a topic. A
paragraph may be complete in itself or part of a longer piece of writing.
STRUCTURE OF A PARAGRAPH:
THE MAIN IDEA:
The main idea is an important element in the structure of a paragraph. An effective paragraph
introduces one main idea and develops it clearly by presenting additional, more specific
information. The ideas are arranged in a logical order and smoothly connected.
EXAMPLE:
There are many kinds of people in the world. Some people are givers. They tend to give freely
of themselves without expecting anything in return. Another group of people are takers. They
often view people as valuable based on how much they can benefit or take from the relationship
with them.
In this example, the main idea is developed by explaining the types of people.
THE TOPIC SENTENCE:
The topic sentence states the one main idea of a paragraph.
In most paragraphs, like the example given above, the main idea is expressed in a single
sentence. This topic sentence controls the content of the other sentences by focusing on one
particular aspect of the topic. Often, the topic sentence is the first sentence of the paragraph as In
the above mentioned example, the topic sentence is the first sentence i.e “There are many kinds
of people in the world”
The topic sentence may appear elsewhere in the paragraph.

3. 3
EXAMPLES:
1. There are great numbers of deer around here. This whole area is great country for
hunters and fishermen. There are bears, mountain lions, and coyotes. To the east there
are streams full of trout, and there are ducks and geese as well.
2. Costs were low that year and the output was high. There was a good person for each job
and the market remained firm. There were no losses from fire. All in all it was the best
year in the history of the company.
The Implied Main Idea:
In some paragraphs, particularly narrative and descriptive ones, the main idea is implied, or
suggested, rather than stated directly. The details themselves answer the question “What
happened?” or create a main impression or mood.
EXAMPLE:
When you're with your friends, it's okay to be loud and use slang. They'll expect it and they aren't
grading you on your grammar. When you're standing in a boardroom or sitting for an interview,
you should use your best English possible, and keep your tone suitable to the working
environment. Try to gauge the personality of the interviewer and the setting of the workplace
before cracking jokes or speaking out of turn. If you're ever in a position to speak publicly,
always ask about your audience, and modify your language, tone, pitch and topic based on what
you think the audience's preferences would be. You'd never give a lecture about atoms to third-
graders!
In this example, the implied main idea can be, "Different situations require different kinds of
speech".
TOPIC AND RESTRICTION SENTENCES:
Sometimes two sentences work together to express the main idea of a paragraph. The first
sentence introduces a general idea; the second one restricts or limits that idea by focusing on one
particular aspect of it. These two sentences are called topic and restriction sentences.
EXAMPLE:

4. 4
The time a person spends preparing for a project will never go wasted. What will be wasted
is the time people spend correcting mistakes in a poorly-planned project. In her book,
Success Step-by-Step, efficiency expert Caroline Jefferson says, “The old adage is true: most
people who fail to plan, plan to fail.” Poorly-planned projects leave people wondering how they
should proceed, so they spend their time addressing small details instead of working on big
issues. At the end of the project, they have no time, lots of stress, and, considering the hours
they’ve spent on the project, little to show for it.
SUPPORTING SENTENCES:
Other sentences in the paragraph provide specific information that supports the main idea. The
other sentences in the paragraph must give enough details to make the main idea clear. In
general, three or more details (facts, examples, reasons, etc.) are needed to develop a main idea
adequately. The supporting sentences should present additional, more specific information, not
just repeat the main idea in different words.
EXAMPLE:
Cats make great pets for people who live in apartments. Cats don't need to be walked, so their
owners don't have to worry about taking them through the building to go outside. Cats are
much smaller than most dogs, which works well in a small space. Cats don't bark and
whine, so they make good pets for apartments where there are neighbors on all sides.
THE CLINCHER SENTENCE:
A paragraph may end with a clincher sentence. A clincher, or concluding, sentence may restate
the paragraph’s main idea. It may also summarize the paragraph’s main points, reveal an insight
the writer has gained, or suggest a course of action.
EXAMPLE:
Pets help combat depression. Pets reduce loneliness by providing companionship and forcing
their owners outdoors and out of isolation. When at home, they act as silent confidants. Pets offer
loving affection and unwavering devotion to their owners: Pets can be greatly helpful in
fighting depression.

5. 5
A COMPLETE PARAGRAPH:
TOPIC SENTENCE RESTRICTION SENTENCE
Sometimes we come across some forgetful persons in our surroundings. In fact, the most genius
persons can also be forgetful. We know that Newton boiled his pocket watch instead of an egg.
Once, Einstein was traveling without a ticket in a train. When the checker demanded the ticket, he
was frantically searching for the missing ticket. However, when the checker could recognize
him, he assured that the scientist would not have to search for it. Einstein still went on searching
and remarked that he was searching to find out where he was going because he totally forgot about
his destination. But the most striking incident centered around my father on my sister’s birthday.
The dinner was ready but the guests were absent. Finally, father discovered that all the invitation
letters were lying in his drawer. The incident has become a family legend. Every person must have
come across a forgetful person in life.
CLINCHER or CONCLUDING SENTENCE
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PARAGRAPH:
The writing process, with its many writing and thinking steps, can be used to develop a
paragraph.
i } PREWRITING
⮚ CHOOSING AND LIMITING A SUBJECT
Choose a subject and limit it to a topic that is suitable for a paragraph.
EXAMPLE:
Pollution is a broad topic; it can be limited to “Impacts of Air Pollution” .
⮚ CONSIDERING PURPOSE, AUDIENCE, AND TONE
Determine the purpose for writing, identify the audience, and consider your attitude toward your
topic. Determining the purpose helps in gathering details and selecting effective patterns of
organization. The specific backgrounds and interests of the audience should be taken into
SUPPO
RTING
DETAI
LS

6. 6
consideration. The attitude is expressed through tone, which can be serious or humorous, positive
or negative, formal or informal.
⮚ Techniques for Prewriting:
To consider how your purpose, your audience, and your attitude toward your topic will affect
your writing, ask yourself:
• Is my primary purpose to explain or to inform, to persuade, to tell a story, or to describe?
• What topic will most interest my audience?
• What background information will they need to understand my ideas? What language will best
convey my ideas to this audience?
• What is my attitude toward my topic, and how will I express this through the tone of my
writing?
⮚ GATHERING INFORMATION
Gather information on your limited topic
⮚ DEVELOPING A PARAGRAPH PLAN
Develop a paragraph plan: write a topic sentence; select supporting details and arrange them in a
logical order.
⮚ Writing Effective Topic Sentences
(1) A topic sentence should be neither too limited nor too broad.
(2) A topic sentence should state the paragraph’s main idea precisely
(3) A topic sentence should arouse the reader’s interest.
To evaluate a topic sentence, following questions should be answered:
• Is it neither too broad nor too limited?
• Does it express the main idea directly and precisely?
• Will it catch the interest of the audience?

7. 7
EXAMPLE OF A PERFECT TOPIC SENTENCE:
Vitamin D, one of the vitamins essential for healthy bones, can be found in many foods.
⮚ Selecting and Arranging Details:
After analyzing the gathered information, it should be arranged in logical order, making sure that
all of the details support the main idea. The function of the details should be clear and they
should help the audience in understanding the main idea.

8. 8
Writing
By Fatima Salman Siddiqui (FM21552)
Unity
A unified paragraph
In writing, the most basic thing about a paragraph is that it must be unified. What makes a
unified paragraph?
● Every sentence in a paragraph should be directly related to the main idea.
● The main idea is stated in the topic sentence.
● Any sentences that do not help develop that paragraph should be removed.
When you have taken care of these things in your paragraph, you can consider it a unified
paragraph.
Exercise
An important element in paragraph unity is to remove all elements that do not contribute towards
developing the main idea. So we will do a little exercise to see if we can remove the unnecessary
details from this paragraph, to enhance its unity.
Because in most cities and towns all the water we need gushes forth at the mere touch of a faucet
and because water is cheap, we Americans use it lavishly. New York City alone consumes one
and a half billion gallons a day. Every day each of us uses about eighty-three gallons: twenty-
four for flushing; thirty-two for bathing, laundry, and dishwashing; twenty-five for other uses,
such as swimming pools, watering lawns, etc.; and the mere two gallons we use for drinking and
cooking. These figures are surprising enough, but they do not cover the much greater daily
consumption of water in agriculture and industry. In 75 percent of the world, cities and towns
lack any municipal supply of pure water. Citizens are forced to draw water from wells and
streams, which are often contaminated. These facts about our consumption of water should make
us wonder how long our supply will last if we continue to drain it so recklessly.
Coherence
What is coherence? Whatmakes a paragraph coherent?
These are the elements that make a paragraph coherent.
● The ideas are arranged in a logical order.
● They are clearly connected.
● The ideas flow smoothly from one sentence to the next.

9. 9
● The relationships between the ideas are clear.
2 ways to add coherence:
Coherence can be added to paragraphs in two main ways.
● Arranging the ideas in a logical order.
● Providing clear transitions between the ideas.
Logicalorder
These are the five ways to arrange the ideas in a paragraph.
1. Chronological order
2. Spatial order
3. Order of importance
4. Comparison and contrast
5. Analogy
Chronologicalorder
● Used in narrative paragraphs to relate a series of events.
● Used in expository paragraphs to explain the steps of a process.
Example of chronologicalorder
In a large bowl, whisk together the sugar, salt, and butter until a paste forms with no lumps.
Whisk in the egg and vanilla, beating until light ribbons fall off the whisk and remain for a short
while before falling back into the mixture. Sift in the flour and baking soda, then fold the mixture
with a spatula. Fold in the chocolate chunks, then chill the dough for at least 30 minutes. Preheat
oven to 350°F (180°C). Line a baking sheet with parchment paper. Scoop the dough with an ice-
cream scoop onto a parchment paper-lined baking sheet, leaving at least 4 inches (10 cm) of
space between cookies and 2 inches (5 cm) of space from the edges of the pan so that the cookies
can spread evenly. Bake for 12-15 minutes, or until the edges have started to barely brown. Cool
completely before serving. Enjoy!
Spatial order
● Used in descriptive writing, which shows items in relation to one another.
Example of spatial order
It was a very charming room, with its high panelled wainscoting of olive-stained oak, its cream-
coloured frieze and ceiling of raised plasterwork, and its brickdust felt carpet strewn with silk
long-fringed Persian rugs. Some large blue china jars and parrot-tulips were arranged on the
mantelshelf, and through the small leaded panes of the window streamed the apricot-coloured

10. 10
light of a summer day in London.
- The Picture of Dorian Gray, Oscar Wilde
Order of importance
● Using this in an expository or persuasive paragraph enables you to emphasize those
reasons that provide stronger support for your main idea.
● Often, the most important reason is placed last, so that it lingers in the reader's mind.
Example of order of importance
I also like to see older folks write an “autobiography.” Writing is very therapeutic. In fact,
experts say it promotes self esteem and personal integration. Personally, I think it also clears
away the cobwebs and stimulates a fresh way of thinking and looking back at your life. Most
important, perhaps, it leaves a private history of yourself and your family. Don’t you wish your
grandmother and her grandmother before her had done that?
Comparisonand contrast
● Comparison: shows how two or more aspects of a topic are similar.
● Contrast: shows how they are different.
● The ideas in a paragraph of comparison and contrast may use the block method, the
alternating method, or the point-by-point method.
Methods of comparisonand contrast
● In the block method all of the ideas about one aspect of the topic are presented first,
followed by all of the ideas about the next aspect of the topic.
● In the alternating method you discuss one aspect of the first item and then immediately
discuss the same aspect of the second item.
● The point-by-point method discusses two subjects using the same set of criteria, applying
the same criteria to each subject, one point at a time.
Example of comparisonand contrast
In several respects, living in an apartment building is easier than living in a house. For one thing,
there is no outside work to do in an apartment building. Apartment dwellers can forget those
chores that keep homeowners busy, like mowing the lawn and repairing the porch. A second
advantage to living in an apartment building is that the responsibility for maintenance falls on the
building superintendent, not on the occupants. When a sink is stopped up or a short develops in
an electrical circuit, homeowners must either solve the problem themselves or pay a plumber or

11. 11
an electrician. Finally, since an apartment is usually smaller and has fewer rooms, it is easier to
clean than a house.
Analogy
● An extended comparison that draws parallels between two dissimilar topics.
● Explores the nature of an unfamiliar topic by relating it to another, more familiar topic.
Example of analogy
“What’s in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other word would smell as sweet.
So Romeo would, were he not Romeo called.”
- Romeo and Juliet, William Shakespeare
Relationships betweenideas
● Direct references
● Transitional expressions
Directreferences
● Connecting ideas in a paragraph with pronouns, synonyms, or repeated words and
phrases.
● Direct references remind the reader of the ideas mentioned earlier.
Example of direct references
One final effect of radio and TV on the language must be noted. There is no doubt that these
great media of information have cut down considerably the time that used to be devoted to
reading, both of newspapers and of books. This means in turn that while radio and TV may
enhance the spoken language (if indeed they do), they also tend to make of us a nation of
functional illiterates, absorbing our language through the ear rather than the eye. Some may view
this as a return to language in its original form and function; others may consider it a reversal,
pure and simple, to the semi-literate Middle Ages.
Transitionalexpressions
● These are words and phrases that indicate the relationships between ideas.
● They keep the thought of a paragraph flowing smoothly from sentence to sentence.
● They are also known as ‘linking expressions’ and ‘connectives’.

12. 12
Types of transitional expressions
● To link similar ideas or add an idea:
again also and another besides equally important further furthermore in
addition in the same way likewise moreover similarly then too
● To limit or contradict an idea:
although and yet conversely but even if however in spite of instead nevertheless
nor on the contrary on the other hand otherwise still yet
● To indicate cause, purpose or result:
as as a result because hence consequently for for this reason since so then
therefore thus
● To indicate time or position:
above across afterward around at once before beyond eventually finally first
here meanwhile nearby next now opposition to thereafter thereupon
● To indicate an example, a summary, or a conclusion:
as a result consequently for example for instance in any case in any event in brief
in conclusion in fact in other words in short on the whole therefore thus to sum
up
Examples of transitional expressions
At its outbreak in 1789, many people believed that the French Revolution marked the dawn of an
age of freedom and equality in France. However, the period was characterized by mass killings,
intolerance and, eventually, the rise of the powerful dictator Napoleon Bonaparte. In fact, those
who initiated the revolution did so in the hope of introducing only moderate changes. They did
not predict that their efforts would have such an extreme and dramatic conclusion.

13. 13
Revision
By Amna khan
Revision :
“To look or reconsider an idea or piece of writing in order to correct or
improve it”.
For example: Many people concerned with educations are beginning to think
about whether or not computers
are being used right in the schools.
Revised paragraph:
Educators are beginning to question whether computers are being used
properly in the schools.
Basic techniques
Once you have identified which aspects of your paragraph needs to be
improved ,you can use
four techniques :
o Adding
o Cutting
o Reordering
o Replacing

14. 14
❖ Adding
When you begin to revise your writing ask yourself these questions :
➢Can I add anything to my writing for improvement?
➢Do I need to add any some other words or sentences?
➢What transition words can I add to help improve my writing?
For example: My favourite snack is popcorn.
✓ The writer could choose to revise the sentence by adding
descriptive
adjectives ; buttery and crunchy before the noun popcorn.
My favourite snack is buttery and crunchy popcorn.
❖ Cutting
As you revise your writing ask yourself :
➢What unnecessary words or phrases should I remove?
➢Are there any sentences that don’t make sense?
➢Are these details supports my topic sentence?
For example :
Going to movies is a fantastic activity and so fun.
✓ Describing going to movies as a fun after already calling it

15. 15
fantastic seems awkward , so that part can easilybe removed, now
we will read the example sentence as ;
Going to the movies is a fantastic activity.
❖ Reordering
During revisionask yourself these questions;
➢Would this sentence fit better somewhere else?
➢Can I move words or phrases around to make more sense?
For example :
She served sandwiches to the children on paper plates.
✓ Here we have misplaced modifier on paper plates that needs to be
moved next to the word it modifies sandwiches ;
She served sandwiches on paper plates to the children.
❖ Replacing
During revisionask yourself ;
➢Did I use any boring or overused words that I can replace?
➢Which words can I substitute to make my writing more interesting?
For example:
He was so happy when he won the spelling bee .

16. 16
✓ Here we can replace the overused word so happy with a more
interesting adjective elated.
He was elated when he won the spelling bee.
Revising Techniques
Problem Technique Revision
The main idea is not clear Add/Replace Add a topic sentence, add or
replace details that imply the
main idea.
The topic sentence is too
broad
Cut/Add Remove words, phrases or
clauses that don’t focus on the
main idea.
If the topic sentence is too
narrow
Add Add word, phrase or a clause
that expands the scope of
main idea.
The topic sentence is dull Add /Replace Add vivid details , replace
general words with the
specific ones and address the
audience directly.
Ideas are not easy to follow Reorder Rearrange the ideas in a
logical order that the reader
can follow easily.
The ideas don’t flow
smoothly
Add/replace Add direct references and
transitional expressions.
Language is too difficult Add/replace Add definitions and
explanations, substitute easier
, shorter words and simpler
sentences.
The sentences are
monotonous
Add/replace Combine sentences, vary
sentence beginnings and
length.

17. 17
The tone is inappropriate and
inconsistent
Add/replace Substitute more
formal/informal, humorous or
serious terms.
TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS
There are four main kinds of paragraphs which are listed below:
❖ EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH
❖ PERSUASIVE PARAGRAPH
❖ DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH
❖ NARRATIVE PARAGRAPH
EXPOSITORYPARAGRAPH
Expository paragraph tries to explain and define a topic or situation. It
usually gives information about the subject, gives directions and shows how
something happens. It should be direct, unemotional in tone avoiding vague
words and emotional appeals. Expository paragraph is objective rather than
subjective i.e writer’s personality and his intentions do not intrude on his writings.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPOSITORYPARAGRAPH
● It is developed with facts and figures.
● Developed by using examples, definitions and combinations of these
methods.
● It is also composed byusing cause and effectrelationships.
● In these paragraphs linking words like first, second, then and finally are
used in order to help readers follow ideas.
DEVELOPING WITH FACTS AND FIGURES
WHAT IS A FACT?
A fact is a statementthat can be proved to be true, something that actuallyexists.
Example of FactStatements,

18. 18
● The leaves of growing plants are usually green.
● Some people keep dogs as pets.
● 1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram.
● There are 50 states in the United States.
The following paragraph uses facts to explain the formation of condensation trails.
“Condensation trails, usually called contrails or vapor trails, are artificial
clouds of water droplets or ice crystals that form in the wake of an airplane.They
form because the water in the engines’ exhaust condenses in the cold air. Fora
contrail to form, the air around the plane must be colder than -60° C. If the air is
warmer, the warmth will prevent condensation of the moisture coming from the
engines, and no contrail will form. Jets, which fly in the very cold upper layers of
the atmosphere, are the planes most likely to producecontrails.”
DEVELOPING BY USING STATISTICS
Expository paragraphs can also be developed with help of statistics. In this case,
paragraphs are developed using numeric data, numbers and data that is based on
any census.
For Example
Collecteddata in order to compose a paragraph on
“Steps takenfor Basic Education”
a.1.8 million adults in United States enrolled in basic education courses
b. Federal government spending $75 million a year to supportthese programs; state
and local governments spend about the same
c. Averages two dollars per year for each adult who is functionally illiterate
d. Not enough spacein programs for adults who want to learn basic reading and
writing skills
e. More than 26 million Americans are illiterate.
g. Critics: to eliminate long waiting periods, much more money needs to be spent
for basic education courses for adults

19. 19
PARAGRAPH
Basic Educationis the backbone ofa country. It is an integraltool that
aids development of human civilization. Education equips the nation with the
workforce, uplifts awareness among the general public, and promotes national
unity. Educational courses develop both academic performances as well as
curricular activities. A person learns to read, write, speak, practice activities and
learn various skills through Education. Every year 1.8 million adults enroll
themselves in basic educationalcourses.The governments are spending $75
million per year to support these programs.It is also providing average two
dollars per year for eachadult who is functionally illiterate. More than 26
million Americans functionally illiterate—cannotreada notice, address an
envelope, or write a check.. Critics have suggestedthat in order to eliminate
illiteracy, much more money needs to be spent for basic educationcourses for
adults.
So the above paragraph shows how statistics are used to develop an expository
paragraph.
DEVELOPING WITH EXAMPLES
An example is an item aur stance that represents others of the same kind.They
are also used to illustrate a point concisely.
EXAMPLE OF EXEMPLARY PARAGRAPH
The characters [in fables] are flat, with no inner life. They personify virtues and
vices, such as courage and cowardice, honestyand dishonesty, patience and
impatience, humility and boastfulness, kindness and cruelty, sincerity and
flattery, cunning and artlessness, and the like. The characters are generally types.
They are meant to represent aspects ofhuman nature: the proud peacock, the
clevercrow, the defiant donkey, the oracular owl, the plodding turtle, the
cockyhare, the greedypig
This is how examples are used in order to develop an expository
paragraph.

20. 20
CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIP
A cause is an event or situation that produces a result whereas aneffect is
anything brought about by cause.
● Cause and effect composition addresses topics or problems by outlining the
causes and effects, or reasons and results, of several components of a topic.
● Cause and effect essays are generally organized by problems, outcomes, and
possible solutions
EXAMPLE OF CAUSE AND EFFECTPARAGRAPH
In the following paragraph writer discusses causes and their effects
Strong gasses and toxic fumes from such things cause 1
as paint solvents and industrial chemicals may be
absorbed in the soft-contact-lens plastic, causing effect 1
eye irritation ifthe concentration is strong enough.
Cosmetics, lotions, soaps and creams, hair sprays, cause 2
or any aerosol discharges that come in contact with
the lenses may also stick. Eye irritation mayresult, effect2
and the lenses may get coated to a point where they
have to be replaced.
DEVELOPING WITH DEFINITIONS
The definition of an objector idea first identifies, usually in the topic sentence,
the generalclass to which the item belongs.
● The supporting sentences provide details that show how the item is different
from all other members of thatclass.
● This two-stage method—general class and distinguishing characteristics—is
also used to define abstract terms, such as love, happiness, or success.
● Since an abstract term does not have physical features, examples, incidents,
and quotations from authorities are often used to clarify whatthe term means

21. 21
to the writer.
EXAMPLE OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPED WITHDEFINITIONS
In the following example the writers first define romantic fiction in a general way.
The first line indicates the definition of Romantic Fiction and other sentences also
define the main topic sentence and elaborate What is Romantic Fiction?
Then they give many facts and examples to clarify the phrase “escapefrom
reality.”
Romantic fiction is primarily the kind which offers the reader an escape from
reality. It often deals with distant lands and times. The things that happen in it are
more exciting or mysterious or adventurous or strange than the things that happen in
real life. Often it deals with such things as tournaments and besiegedcastlesand
perilous journeys through hostile countries. Sometimes its characters have long
journeys to go alone through forests, . . . are besieged in lonely old houses, or are
shut up on islands in the midst of faraway lakes, or lie in hushed hiding while a
mortal foe treads close by. Sometimes there are pirates, hidden treasures,
shipwrecks, thrilling flights from a close-pursuing enemy, last-minute rescues,
ominous prophecies, missing heirs, disguised princes, intrigue, murder, breathless
suspense. Again, romance is often pervaded by an atmosphere of strange things
about to be revealed; often it deals with places and people now changed or
forgotten or long since passed away. In short, romance shows life not just as it
is, but as we like to imagine it to be.
PERSUASIVE PARAGRAPH
“A persuasive paragraph attempts to get readers to accept a point of view or
the writer's position on a topic”.
The topic of a persuasive paragraph should be a serious, debatable issue, one that
has significance beyond that of a personal preference.
A persuasive paragraph must have a position element
POSITION ELEMENT

22. 22
● The topic sentence, or position statement, should state the writer’s
● opinion clearly and concisely.
● It should not be so brief that it is uninteresting..
● The position statement should be supported by at least three
reasons—statements that explain why the writer holds the opinion.
Reasons are most convincing when they are supported by evidence in
the form of facts, statistics, or examples.
Together, the reasons andsupporting evidence make up the writer’s argument.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSUASIVE PARAGRAPH
●Reasons in a persuasive paragraph should be arrangedin order of
importance, with the most important reasonlast;this ends the paragraph
forcefully.
●A paragraph that gives the most important reasonfirst may also be
effective. In either case, the reader should be able to distinguish important
from less important reasons.
●The clincher, or concluding, sentence in a persuasive paragraph may
reemphasize the writer’s opinion, summarize the argument, or specify a
course of action. .
●The tone of a persuasive paragraph should be serious and unemotional to
convey that you have researched the issue thoroughly and that your
argument is fair and reasonable.
● Avoid name-calling and using words with negative connotations.
Be specific, accurate,clear, and forceful inpresentingyourideas.
EXAMPLE OF PERSUASIVE PARAGRAPH
The United States’ electoral college system is position statement
outmoded and ineffective, and it should be abol
ished; the President should be elected instead by

23. 23
direct popular vote. Three times in United States reason 1
history (1824, 1876, 1888) the loser in popular
votes were actually sworn in as President. Under the
present system, the candidate who takes a plurality reason 2
of votes in a state takes all of the state’s electoral
college votes. Thus, millions of voters are in effect
disenfranchised. Although 1.8 million Texans voted
for Jimmy Carter in 1980, for example, Carter
received none of Texas’ electoral college votes.
Currently, the weight of any person’s vote depends reason 3
on the population of the state in which the person
resides. In Alaska, for example, 95,000 voters cast
3 electoral votes, while in Texas, a single electoral
vote requires 372,000 voters. Write to your Con
gressional representative, urging him or her to call to action
work to replace the electoral college system with a
system by which the President and Vice-President
are elected by popular vote.

24. 24
DESCRIPTIVE AND NARRATIVE PARAGRAPH
By Zainab Amjad
DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH:
Descriptive paragraph describes a person, place or an object and creates images in the reader’s
mind by using language that appeals to the senses. Passages of description are usually woven
into other writing.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH:
● It is developed with concrete language and sensory details.
● Developed by using figurative language.
● The details in the descriptive paragraph may be given in spatial or chronological order.
CONCRETE LANGUAGE:
Concrete language means specific or exact language. The main focus is on information with facts
and figures.
For example: Ali wrote ‘I sat under a tree’.

25. 25
But Asim wrote ‘I sat under the maple tree my parents planted in the backyard when I was
born’.
The first sentence which was written by Ali leaves the reader with questions such as which tree,
what kind of tree and where is that tree. The second sentence uses concrete language through
which we can picture the tree and its setting in our minds.
Consider another example ‘he is an intelligent boy and got first position in class ’.
We can convey the same information with more concreteness by stating the boy’s name and his
exact obtained percentage i.e. ‘Hammad got 80% marks in his A-level examination hence stood
first in class’
SENSORY DETAILS:
Sensory details include sight, sound, touch, taste and smell. Sensory details help a reader form
a concrete image in his mind.
Consider the following paragraph:
Hannah followed her father down the stairs then she walked through the row to her seat. She
looked around the stadium. It was crowded. Hannah watched the player walk to home plate. He
raised his bat and swung as the pitch came toward him then he ran toward first base.
The above paragraph does not pull the audience in because there is nothing to bring you into the
writer’s world.
Now the following paragraph contains the sensory details:
Hannah held onto the sticky metal railing as she followed her father down the steep stairs. Then
she walked sideways through the row trying not to bump the knees behind her. She sat down and
quickly lifted her knees to avoid the scorch of the seat. Hannah looked around at the crowd of
smiling faces. She heard the familiar cry of ‘Ice cream! Get your cold ice cream here’ and she
nudged her dad. Dad raised his hand and waved a twenty dollar bill in the air. Moments later,
two plastic baseball caps filled with ice cream were being passed down the aisle to them.

26. 26
Hannah held hers in her hands and enjoyed the coolness of the bowl against her palms. Then she
took a spoonful of already melting treat. The chocolate and vanilla flavors were mixing together
into a cool, creamy, delicious spoonful. Hannah looked at the bright green grass on the field and
the crowd roared as the first player approached the batter box. He swung at the pitch and the
crack of his bat could be heard throughout the stadium.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE:
Good description often makes use of figurative language such as analogies, similes and
metaphors to help paint the picture in the reader's mind. General nouns, adjectives and passive
verbs do not have a place in a good descriptive paragraph. We should use specific adjectives,
nouns and strong action verbs to give life to the picture we are painting in the reader’s mind.
We must have ever heard someone talk about “butterflies in their stomach” when they are
nervous. They are not actually butterflies in their stomach. They are just using figurative
language to describe the uneasy sensation in their body that feels as if a butterfly were moving
around inside them.
Descriptive paragraphs can be written in both spatial and chronological order.
SPATIAL ORDER is the arrangement of ideas in which things are described as they appear
when observed. Its main focus is on location and not on time. The writer explains or describes
objects as they are arranged in space. There are some signal words through which you can
identify whether the paragraph is in spatial order or not. They are as follows:
● into
● above
● opposite
● below
● between, etc
CHRONOLOGICALORDER is a way of organizing the ideas in paragraphs in order of
their occurrence in time. It is basically derived from the Greek word “chronos” which means

27. 27
“time”. It is used for something as simple as a recipe and for something as complex as a history
book. The signal words of this order are:
● first
● now
● before
● earlier
● since, etc
TECHNIQUES FOR PREWRITING A DESCRIPTIVE
PARAGRAPH:
Prewriting techniques of descriptive paragraphs are as follows:
● Gather precise, concrete and sensory details.
● Select those details that will effectively create a dominant impression and arrange them
in spatial or chronological order.
● Decide whether you will state your main idea directly or imply it.
GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATING DESCRIPTIVE
PARAGRAPH:
One can ask the following questions to evaluate his writing:
● Does the paragraph focus on a single plot, place, object or event? Does it
clearly state or imply a single main idea?
● Are enough concrete and sensory details presented to enable the reader to
visualize or otherwise mentally experience the topic?
● Is every sentence directly related to the main idea?
● Are the details arranged in spatial or chronological order?
● Do the ideas flow smoothly?
● Is the language specific rather than general? If the figurative language is used, is
it appropriate and effective?

28. 28
NARRATIVE PARAGRAPH:
A narrative paragraph tells a story or relates a series of events. It tells a story which is based on
a real or imagined event. This paragraph reveals what a reader should learn and it explains what,
when and who. Most paragraphs appear as parts of longer works such as personal narratives,
novels or short stories. A one paragraph narrative based on an experience that occurs within a
short period of time may be complete in itself. The events in the narrative paragraph are mostly
arranged chronologically. In long narratives, you may encounter flashbacks. Those flashbacks
are themselves generally organized chronologically too. Instead of the topic sentence that states
the main idea directly, many narrative paragraphs have an introductory or concluding sentence
that summarizes the action, tells how it came about or comments on its significance.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NARRATIVE PARAGRAPH:
A narrative paragraph must have:
● A central idea (what the story/event is about)
● Characters (who it is about)
● A plot(exposition, complications, climax and resolution)
● Adequate description
● Story(when and where the story happens)
In the following example, we can see all the characteristics of a narrative paragraph.
My most embarrassing moment happened when I was working in a Mexican restaurant. I was a
hostess working on a busy Friday night. As usual, I was wearing a blouse and a long Mexican
skirt. While I was taking some menus to a table, one of the waiters accidently stepped on the hem
of my skirt. I did not feel anything until I was hurtling towards the floor. Almost every customer
in the restaurant saw me fall but absolutely every customer saw my red face when I was able to
get to my feet again.
TECHNIQUES FOR PREWRITING A NARRATIVE
PARAGRAPH:

29. 29
● Use the 5 WH-how (what, where, who, when, why and how) questions to gather details
of the incident.
● Arrange the ideas in chronological order.
● Consider writing a topic sentence that makes a general point or an introductory or
concluding sentence that summarizes the action, tells how it came about or comments on
its significance.
GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATING NARRATIVE PARAGRAPH:
Following questions should be answered to judge the effectiveness of a paragraph:
● Does the topic sentence make a general point or does an introductory or concluding
sentence summarize the action, tell how it came about or comments on its significance?
● Are enough details added so that the reader can understand what happened?
● Have repetitive or unrelated details been left out?
● Are the events arranged in the order in which they occurred?
● Do the ideas flow smoothly? Are direct references and appropriate transitional
expressions (later, before, in the meantime, etc) used to link ideas?
● Are precise nouns, verbs and modifiers used to help the reader picture the action?