This study examined trajectories of callous-unemotional (CU) traits in a sample of 1,170 male adolescent offenders to predict later violence and substance use. It identified three trajectories of CU traits (low, moderate, high) and found that membership in the high CU trajectory, particularly combined with elevated early conduct problems, predicted higher levels of violence and substance use over time. It also found that the effects of high CU trajectory combined with elevated conduct problems were stronger for those with higher executive control. This highlights how identifying subgroups based on CU trajectories can improve understanding of developmental pathways leading to severe antisocial behavior.
CONSIDERATIONS FROM THE MALTREATMENT AND ADOLESCENT PATHWAYS (MAP) LONGITUDIN...Christine Wekerle
The MAP longitudinal study examines the health and well-being of adolescents involved with child protective services. It finds that childhood maltreatment negatively impacts development, with females generally showing greater impairment. Maltreated females in the study report more delinquent behaviors, self-harm such as cutting, and experience of teen dating violence than their non-maltreated peers. Symptoms of post-traumatic stress from childhood trauma appear to mediate the relationship between maltreatment and negative outcomes like dating violence.
This study examined the mediating role of delinquent peer association and the moderating role of parenting practices on the relationship between callous-unemotional (CU) traits and self-reported offending in a sample of 1,216 male juvenile offenders. The findings suggested that the effect of CU traits on offending was partially mediated by delinquent peer association. Additionally, it was found that when both parental warmth and supervision were high, the indirect effect of CU traits on offending through delinquent peers was no longer significant. The results highlight the importance of parenting, particularly both warmth and monitoring, in reducing the influence of delinquent peers on offending for youth with high CU traits.
This document summarizes a research study that examined how opinions of homosexuality have changed over time and whether preferred news media outlet is related to opinions. The study surveyed 88 people and found that participants reported decreased homophobia from age 14 to their current age. It also found that those viewing a moderate amount (3-4 sources) of news media had higher homophobia than those viewing low or high amounts. There was no relationship between social media use and homophobia. The document provides background on measuring homophobia and past research on media portrayals of homosexuality and their influence on public opinion.
This study examined the effects of infidelity risk level and Greek affiliation on romantic relationship satisfaction. The researchers hypothesized that high infidelity risk and Greek affiliation would be associated with lower satisfaction, trust, and higher alternative comparisons. Undergraduate students completed surveys assessing their relationship and random vignettes describing low or high infidelity risk situations. Results found no significant differences in satisfaction, trust, or alternatives based on infidelity risk level or Greek affiliation. The hypotheses were not supported, implying infidelity risk alone may not impact relationship satisfaction.
This document summarizes the key findings from 30 years of research on homelessness conducted by Paul Toro and his colleagues. Some of the main findings include: (1) Homelessness is a heterogeneous population that can be categorized into subgroups or typologies; (2) Homeless youth experience greater stress, emotional distress, and substance abuse issues over time compared to housed youth; (3) Factors like religiosity can act as a buffer against the negative effects of stress; (4) Longitudinal studies are needed to better understand outcomes over many years. The presentation outlines areas for further research and effective interventions to prevent and address homelessness.
The study examined gender differences in perspectives on exclusive relationships among college students. An online survey asked about relationship experiences and views on exclusivity. It was hypothesized that women would find exclusivity more important than men. The results supported this, with women reporting higher importance of exclusivity. However, the hypothesis that closer sibling relationships would correlate with greater importance of exclusivity was not supported. Future research could investigate changes over college years and consider sibling dynamics like birth order.
This study aims to examine how psychosocial maturity relates to risk-taking behaviors in young adults ages 18-23. Psychosocial maturity encompasses responsibility, perspective-taking, and impulse control. While previous research has focused on adolescents, this study seeks to understand its relationship to actual decision-making and risks like alcohol use, reckless behaviors, and criminal acts in young adulthood. Approximately 150 college students will complete online surveys assessing psychosocial maturity, drinking habits, risk-taking, and delinquency. The results from early 2014 are expected to provide insight into psychosocial development beyond adolescence and its links to risk behaviors in young adults.
CONSIDERATIONS FROM THE MALTREATMENT AND ADOLESCENT PATHWAYS (MAP) LONGITUDIN...Christine Wekerle
The MAP longitudinal study examines the health and well-being of adolescents involved with child protective services. It finds that childhood maltreatment negatively impacts development, with females generally showing greater impairment. Maltreated females in the study report more delinquent behaviors, self-harm such as cutting, and experience of teen dating violence than their non-maltreated peers. Symptoms of post-traumatic stress from childhood trauma appear to mediate the relationship between maltreatment and negative outcomes like dating violence.
This study examined the mediating role of delinquent peer association and the moderating role of parenting practices on the relationship between callous-unemotional (CU) traits and self-reported offending in a sample of 1,216 male juvenile offenders. The findings suggested that the effect of CU traits on offending was partially mediated by delinquent peer association. Additionally, it was found that when both parental warmth and supervision were high, the indirect effect of CU traits on offending through delinquent peers was no longer significant. The results highlight the importance of parenting, particularly both warmth and monitoring, in reducing the influence of delinquent peers on offending for youth with high CU traits.
This document summarizes a research study that examined how opinions of homosexuality have changed over time and whether preferred news media outlet is related to opinions. The study surveyed 88 people and found that participants reported decreased homophobia from age 14 to their current age. It also found that those viewing a moderate amount (3-4 sources) of news media had higher homophobia than those viewing low or high amounts. There was no relationship between social media use and homophobia. The document provides background on measuring homophobia and past research on media portrayals of homosexuality and their influence on public opinion.
This study examined the effects of infidelity risk level and Greek affiliation on romantic relationship satisfaction. The researchers hypothesized that high infidelity risk and Greek affiliation would be associated with lower satisfaction, trust, and higher alternative comparisons. Undergraduate students completed surveys assessing their relationship and random vignettes describing low or high infidelity risk situations. Results found no significant differences in satisfaction, trust, or alternatives based on infidelity risk level or Greek affiliation. The hypotheses were not supported, implying infidelity risk alone may not impact relationship satisfaction.
This document summarizes the key findings from 30 years of research on homelessness conducted by Paul Toro and his colleagues. Some of the main findings include: (1) Homelessness is a heterogeneous population that can be categorized into subgroups or typologies; (2) Homeless youth experience greater stress, emotional distress, and substance abuse issues over time compared to housed youth; (3) Factors like religiosity can act as a buffer against the negative effects of stress; (4) Longitudinal studies are needed to better understand outcomes over many years. The presentation outlines areas for further research and effective interventions to prevent and address homelessness.
The study examined gender differences in perspectives on exclusive relationships among college students. An online survey asked about relationship experiences and views on exclusivity. It was hypothesized that women would find exclusivity more important than men. The results supported this, with women reporting higher importance of exclusivity. However, the hypothesis that closer sibling relationships would correlate with greater importance of exclusivity was not supported. Future research could investigate changes over college years and consider sibling dynamics like birth order.
This study aims to examine how psychosocial maturity relates to risk-taking behaviors in young adults ages 18-23. Psychosocial maturity encompasses responsibility, perspective-taking, and impulse control. While previous research has focused on adolescents, this study seeks to understand its relationship to actual decision-making and risks like alcohol use, reckless behaviors, and criminal acts in young adulthood. Approximately 150 college students will complete online surveys assessing psychosocial maturity, drinking habits, risk-taking, and delinquency. The results from early 2014 are expected to provide insight into psychosocial development beyond adolescence and its links to risk behaviors in young adults.
The document summarizes research on the effects of culture on personality development. It reviews several studies that compared personality traits between individualistic and collectivistic cultures. A gap is identified in research focusing specifically on the role of fathers in Chinese children's personality development. The author proposes a study using questionnaires and videos to examine the influence of paternal presence/absence on introversion/extraversion in Chinese children raised in China and the US. Ethics are addressed through joint review by Chinese and US psychologists of anonymized data. The study aims to further understanding of how culture shapes independent vs. interdependent self-construals.
Effect of item order on self-reported psychological aggression: Exploring the...William Woods
There are a plethora of data indicating that intimate partner violence (IPV) occurs at high rates in college students (Shorey, Cornelius, & Bell, 2008). Although studies have repeatedly demonstrated these high rates of IPV, some researchers have criticized the reliability and validity of the self-report measures commonly used to assess these rates (Follingstad & Ryan, 2013; Ryan, 2013). There is some research to suggest that subtle factors, such as item order, can impact self-reports of violence victimization and perpetration (Ramirez & Straus, 2006). This phenomenon has been most widely studied in the context of the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2; Straus, et al., 1996), a widely used measure of IPV, which may not comprehensively assess psychological aggression. Thus, in the current study we examined differences in self-reports of psychological aggression victimization and perpetration using the Multidimensional Measure of Emotional Abuse (MMEA; Murphy & Hoover, 1999) when it was administered in either the standard format or in a format in which question order was randomized. Given that there may be gender differences in victimization and perpetration, we also examined the impact gender would have on item order effects.
Presented at ABCT, Nov. 2015.
This study examined whether gender influences perceptions of fault in divorce. The researcher hypothesized that women would be regarded as more at fault for divorces than men. Participants were randomly assigned a scenario about a divorced man or woman and asked who was at fault. While results did not support the hypothesis, they did align with the stereotype that men are more likely to commit infidelity. The study design may have been flawed by using infidelity alone to define fault.
This study compared the efficacy of multisystemic therapy (MST) and individual therapy (IT) in treating 16 adolescent sexual offenders. Youths received an average of 37 hours of MST and 45 hours of IT. At a 3-year follow-up, significantly fewer youth in the MST condition had been rearrested for sexual crimes, and the frequency of sexual rearrests was significantly lower. MST emphasized changing behavior and interpersonal relations within the offender's natural environment, attributing to its relative efficacy.
The study examined factors that predict quality of life among 282 Canadian emerging adults aged 17-25. Participants completed questionnaires assessing temperament, values, social support, and quality of life. Results showed that higher social belongingness and effortful control, and more positive attitudes predicted greater quality of life. A regression analysis found that sense of belonging was the strongest predictor of quality of life, explaining over 30% of the variance. The findings suggest that social connections contribute significantly to well-being during emerging adulthood.
Multidimensionality of pressure in adolescenceSurabhi Bhargav
The document summarizes findings from a study on the pressures faced by adolescent students. It was found that adolescents face significant pressure from peers, parents, and academics. Peer pressure was most commonly reported, with pressures to conform and score low marks. Parental pressure included strict study hours and scolding. Academic pressure stemmed from exams and subject selection for future careers. Adolescents reported feeling stressed, depressed, and frustrated in dealing with these pressures. They also engaged in avoidance behaviors like reduced study time or substance use. The study highlights the need to better understand and support adolescents in managing various developmental pressures.
The cultural and relationship context of hiv among bisexually active black me...CAPSUCSF
This research study seeks to examine the cultural and relationship contexts of HIV among bisexually active black men and their female partners over five years. The objectives are to: conduct interviews with 15 women partnered with bisexual black men to describe cultural and relationship factors influencing HIV risk; develop measures of disclosure among men and knowledge levels among women; assess how disclosure, knowledge of bisexuality, and gender ideologies affect risk behaviors in 240 bisexual black men and their female partners; and explore how partnerships influence each other's risk behaviors through mixed methods.
This document summarizes research on the effects of childhood sexual abuse on mental health and behaviors in adulthood. It discusses how childhood sexual abuse can lead to mental health issues like depression, anxiety, and PTSD. It also explores how abuse survivors are more likely to engage in risky behaviors like substance abuse, unprotected sex, and prostitution. The document examines several studies that found links between childhood abuse and poor physical health and obesity in adulthood. It suggests that early intervention and counseling for abuse survivors could help alleviate medical issues stemming from their trauma.
The topic for this study will be on psychosexual development of sexual scripts and sexual self-esteem among American youth.
This study needs to be conducted because youth’s behaviors and perceptions are susceptible to learning myths and inaccuracies about sexuality based on sexually explicit content depicted in pornography.
Objectives:
1. Improve psychosexual development among youth
2. Increase access to accurate sexual health information
3. Understand the narratives and sexual scripts of pornographic messages
4. Explore pornographic messages through critical evaluation of thematic content from participants
5. Demonstrate an understanding of how responsible and consensual sex is represented in real-life circumstances
6. Promoting healthy sexual scripts and sexual self-esteem
Purpose: The purpose of this exploratory study will be to understand how sexual scripts/narratives influence sexual self-esteem, and to determine whether implementing a porn literacy program is effective in encouraging sexual responsibility and fostering sexual wellbeing among American youth.
Goals:
1. Provide accurate information about pornography
2. Reframe sexually explicit messages depicted in pornography
3. Clarify and dispel myths learned through pornography
4. Build skills to discern between fantasy and reality, coercion and consent, and risk and responsibility
This article co-written by Dr. Robert J. Winn which aims to quantify the number of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Philadelphia who report to be victims of domestic violence.
Attitudes toward suicide may influence the
treatment content and outcomes. Hence, this study aimed to
investigate how public attitudes toward suicide were influenced
by (1) their degree of idealism; and (2) their degree of
relativism. A questionnaire survey with Suicide Perception
Scale and Ethic Position Questionnaire was carried out on 50
male and 50 female participants (aged 21 and above) from
Klang Valley, Malaysia to obtain answer. The findings
supported both hypotheses, indicated that (1) higher idealism is
associated with lower level of acceptance toward suicide; and
(2) higher relativism is associated with higher level of
acceptance toward suicide. In sum, variations in public’s
attitude toward suicide were related to individual differences in
personal ethical ideologies and moral philosophies.
Violence prevention programs an exploratory study of the chojas18
This document summarizes a study that examined characteristics of youth who participated in a court diversion program for family violence offenses to determine what characteristics prevented completion. The study found that delinquency characteristics like prior violent arrests and school truancy significantly impacted completion rates. Specifically, youth with these risk factors were less likely to successfully complete the program. The findings suggest a more tailored intervention approach is needed for high-risk, multi-problem youth to address recidivism.
The relationship between types ofchildhood victimisation andojas18
This study examined the relationship between different types of childhood victimization (such as physical abuse, neglect, witnessing violence) and criminal behavior in young adulthood. The researchers analyzed data on over 2,000 young Swedish adults who reported experiencing at least one form of childhood victimization. They found that experiences of physical assault, neglect, and witnessing violence as a child were significantly associated with criminal behavior in young adulthood, even after accounting for gender, substance use, and psychopathy. However, experiences of property crimes, verbal abuse, or sexual abuse were not significantly linked to later criminal behavior. This suggests that childhood experiences involving direct violence or witnessing violence carry the greatest risk for criminal behavior in adulthood.
This study will observe sexual assault prevention programming at SUNY schools to determine if programming focusing on assertive responses lowers reported assaults. Data on programming and reported assaults will be gathered and comparisons made between schools using odds ratios and t-tests. It is hypothesized that schools offering assertive response training will have lower reported assault rates based on prior research finding such programming reduced victimization. Limitations include inconsistent assault definitions, unknown programming quality, and limited generalizability.
The document is a public relations proposal prepared by Axiom Public Relations for the Bowling Green State University Community of Care Coalition. It includes an opportunity statement, situation analysis based on secondary and primary research, target audiences, goals and objectives, strategies and tactics, promotional materials and budget, and evaluation plan. The proposal aims to address issues of sexual assault on campus and establish communication where victims feel comfortable reporting, while promoting the Coalition and generating awareness of sexual assault as a community issue.
The document provides details about the construction of the Vector Apartments building in Hillsboro, Oregon, including:
- It is a high-end, mixed-use apartment building with 2.5 levels of parking and storefront/office space.
- Geopiers were installed to increase the soil's load bearing capacity, and foundation walls, a temporary soil support wall, and groundwater mitigation were used.
- Key contractors included Ken Leahy Construction, Whitaker Ellis, Berg Electric, Terra & Associates, Northwest Tower Crane, and Ness Campbell Crane.
A314 Final Proposal, Out of School Learning GroupJeffrey Silva
This document proposes a redesign of the out-of-school time learning system for K-12 students to provide equitable access to enrichment opportunities. Key aspects of the proposal include:
1) Extending the school day for K-8 students by 3 hours each day for student participation in enrichment programs at their schools.
2) Requiring high school students to complete a minimum of 160 hours per year of out-of-school enrichment activities to graduate.
3) Staffing the enrichment programs with community members, parents, and high school students who would be paid for their involvement.
4) Overseeing the new system through district and school-level personnel while partnering with community organizations to provide
Contains examples of required documents for submission to film permitting authorities. You can check us out at www.dronetechaerial.com . Los Angeles Legal drone Company FAA 333 Exempt, Drone Tech Aerial Cinematography
The document discusses various topics related to lines in a coordinate plane including:
1) How to find the slope of a line given two points on the line. The slope is defined as the rise over the run between the two points.
2) The different forms of the equation of a line including slope-intercept, two-point, and normal forms.
3) How to find the distance between a point and a line, between two parallel lines, and the intercepts of a line with the x and y axes.
Pedal on the Pier, in association with Canyon Creek Summer Camp, is an event held every year in May or June on the iconic Santa Monica Pier. Thousands of people dedicate their time and money to help raise funds for at-risk youth in the Los Angeles area. Procsseds from the event are used to send children and families to Canyon Creek Summer Camp to experience Camp Ubuntu to learn invaluable life skills in leadership, character, confidence, community, and much more!
Team MagFly is developing a new platform that aims to bring more transparency to pricing by rewarding early bookers with points and cashback while also providing price security to late bookers. The platform builds on disruptive trends in e-societies by offering social, transparent, and sustainable travel options. In initial beta testing, the platform will focus on stimulating group loyalty and building supply chain partnerships to offer happier customers who act as ambassadors.
The document summarizes research on the effects of culture on personality development. It reviews several studies that compared personality traits between individualistic and collectivistic cultures. A gap is identified in research focusing specifically on the role of fathers in Chinese children's personality development. The author proposes a study using questionnaires and videos to examine the influence of paternal presence/absence on introversion/extraversion in Chinese children raised in China and the US. Ethics are addressed through joint review by Chinese and US psychologists of anonymized data. The study aims to further understanding of how culture shapes independent vs. interdependent self-construals.
Effect of item order on self-reported psychological aggression: Exploring the...William Woods
There are a plethora of data indicating that intimate partner violence (IPV) occurs at high rates in college students (Shorey, Cornelius, & Bell, 2008). Although studies have repeatedly demonstrated these high rates of IPV, some researchers have criticized the reliability and validity of the self-report measures commonly used to assess these rates (Follingstad & Ryan, 2013; Ryan, 2013). There is some research to suggest that subtle factors, such as item order, can impact self-reports of violence victimization and perpetration (Ramirez & Straus, 2006). This phenomenon has been most widely studied in the context of the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2; Straus, et al., 1996), a widely used measure of IPV, which may not comprehensively assess psychological aggression. Thus, in the current study we examined differences in self-reports of psychological aggression victimization and perpetration using the Multidimensional Measure of Emotional Abuse (MMEA; Murphy & Hoover, 1999) when it was administered in either the standard format or in a format in which question order was randomized. Given that there may be gender differences in victimization and perpetration, we also examined the impact gender would have on item order effects.
Presented at ABCT, Nov. 2015.
This study examined whether gender influences perceptions of fault in divorce. The researcher hypothesized that women would be regarded as more at fault for divorces than men. Participants were randomly assigned a scenario about a divorced man or woman and asked who was at fault. While results did not support the hypothesis, they did align with the stereotype that men are more likely to commit infidelity. The study design may have been flawed by using infidelity alone to define fault.
This study compared the efficacy of multisystemic therapy (MST) and individual therapy (IT) in treating 16 adolescent sexual offenders. Youths received an average of 37 hours of MST and 45 hours of IT. At a 3-year follow-up, significantly fewer youth in the MST condition had been rearrested for sexual crimes, and the frequency of sexual rearrests was significantly lower. MST emphasized changing behavior and interpersonal relations within the offender's natural environment, attributing to its relative efficacy.
The study examined factors that predict quality of life among 282 Canadian emerging adults aged 17-25. Participants completed questionnaires assessing temperament, values, social support, and quality of life. Results showed that higher social belongingness and effortful control, and more positive attitudes predicted greater quality of life. A regression analysis found that sense of belonging was the strongest predictor of quality of life, explaining over 30% of the variance. The findings suggest that social connections contribute significantly to well-being during emerging adulthood.
Multidimensionality of pressure in adolescenceSurabhi Bhargav
The document summarizes findings from a study on the pressures faced by adolescent students. It was found that adolescents face significant pressure from peers, parents, and academics. Peer pressure was most commonly reported, with pressures to conform and score low marks. Parental pressure included strict study hours and scolding. Academic pressure stemmed from exams and subject selection for future careers. Adolescents reported feeling stressed, depressed, and frustrated in dealing with these pressures. They also engaged in avoidance behaviors like reduced study time or substance use. The study highlights the need to better understand and support adolescents in managing various developmental pressures.
The cultural and relationship context of hiv among bisexually active black me...CAPSUCSF
This research study seeks to examine the cultural and relationship contexts of HIV among bisexually active black men and their female partners over five years. The objectives are to: conduct interviews with 15 women partnered with bisexual black men to describe cultural and relationship factors influencing HIV risk; develop measures of disclosure among men and knowledge levels among women; assess how disclosure, knowledge of bisexuality, and gender ideologies affect risk behaviors in 240 bisexual black men and their female partners; and explore how partnerships influence each other's risk behaviors through mixed methods.
This document summarizes research on the effects of childhood sexual abuse on mental health and behaviors in adulthood. It discusses how childhood sexual abuse can lead to mental health issues like depression, anxiety, and PTSD. It also explores how abuse survivors are more likely to engage in risky behaviors like substance abuse, unprotected sex, and prostitution. The document examines several studies that found links between childhood abuse and poor physical health and obesity in adulthood. It suggests that early intervention and counseling for abuse survivors could help alleviate medical issues stemming from their trauma.
The topic for this study will be on psychosexual development of sexual scripts and sexual self-esteem among American youth.
This study needs to be conducted because youth’s behaviors and perceptions are susceptible to learning myths and inaccuracies about sexuality based on sexually explicit content depicted in pornography.
Objectives:
1. Improve psychosexual development among youth
2. Increase access to accurate sexual health information
3. Understand the narratives and sexual scripts of pornographic messages
4. Explore pornographic messages through critical evaluation of thematic content from participants
5. Demonstrate an understanding of how responsible and consensual sex is represented in real-life circumstances
6. Promoting healthy sexual scripts and sexual self-esteem
Purpose: The purpose of this exploratory study will be to understand how sexual scripts/narratives influence sexual self-esteem, and to determine whether implementing a porn literacy program is effective in encouraging sexual responsibility and fostering sexual wellbeing among American youth.
Goals:
1. Provide accurate information about pornography
2. Reframe sexually explicit messages depicted in pornography
3. Clarify and dispel myths learned through pornography
4. Build skills to discern between fantasy and reality, coercion and consent, and risk and responsibility
This article co-written by Dr. Robert J. Winn which aims to quantify the number of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Philadelphia who report to be victims of domestic violence.
Attitudes toward suicide may influence the
treatment content and outcomes. Hence, this study aimed to
investigate how public attitudes toward suicide were influenced
by (1) their degree of idealism; and (2) their degree of
relativism. A questionnaire survey with Suicide Perception
Scale and Ethic Position Questionnaire was carried out on 50
male and 50 female participants (aged 21 and above) from
Klang Valley, Malaysia to obtain answer. The findings
supported both hypotheses, indicated that (1) higher idealism is
associated with lower level of acceptance toward suicide; and
(2) higher relativism is associated with higher level of
acceptance toward suicide. In sum, variations in public’s
attitude toward suicide were related to individual differences in
personal ethical ideologies and moral philosophies.
Violence prevention programs an exploratory study of the chojas18
This document summarizes a study that examined characteristics of youth who participated in a court diversion program for family violence offenses to determine what characteristics prevented completion. The study found that delinquency characteristics like prior violent arrests and school truancy significantly impacted completion rates. Specifically, youth with these risk factors were less likely to successfully complete the program. The findings suggest a more tailored intervention approach is needed for high-risk, multi-problem youth to address recidivism.
The relationship between types ofchildhood victimisation andojas18
This study examined the relationship between different types of childhood victimization (such as physical abuse, neglect, witnessing violence) and criminal behavior in young adulthood. The researchers analyzed data on over 2,000 young Swedish adults who reported experiencing at least one form of childhood victimization. They found that experiences of physical assault, neglect, and witnessing violence as a child were significantly associated with criminal behavior in young adulthood, even after accounting for gender, substance use, and psychopathy. However, experiences of property crimes, verbal abuse, or sexual abuse were not significantly linked to later criminal behavior. This suggests that childhood experiences involving direct violence or witnessing violence carry the greatest risk for criminal behavior in adulthood.
This study will observe sexual assault prevention programming at SUNY schools to determine if programming focusing on assertive responses lowers reported assaults. Data on programming and reported assaults will be gathered and comparisons made between schools using odds ratios and t-tests. It is hypothesized that schools offering assertive response training will have lower reported assault rates based on prior research finding such programming reduced victimization. Limitations include inconsistent assault definitions, unknown programming quality, and limited generalizability.
The document is a public relations proposal prepared by Axiom Public Relations for the Bowling Green State University Community of Care Coalition. It includes an opportunity statement, situation analysis based on secondary and primary research, target audiences, goals and objectives, strategies and tactics, promotional materials and budget, and evaluation plan. The proposal aims to address issues of sexual assault on campus and establish communication where victims feel comfortable reporting, while promoting the Coalition and generating awareness of sexual assault as a community issue.
The document provides details about the construction of the Vector Apartments building in Hillsboro, Oregon, including:
- It is a high-end, mixed-use apartment building with 2.5 levels of parking and storefront/office space.
- Geopiers were installed to increase the soil's load bearing capacity, and foundation walls, a temporary soil support wall, and groundwater mitigation were used.
- Key contractors included Ken Leahy Construction, Whitaker Ellis, Berg Electric, Terra & Associates, Northwest Tower Crane, and Ness Campbell Crane.
A314 Final Proposal, Out of School Learning GroupJeffrey Silva
This document proposes a redesign of the out-of-school time learning system for K-12 students to provide equitable access to enrichment opportunities. Key aspects of the proposal include:
1) Extending the school day for K-8 students by 3 hours each day for student participation in enrichment programs at their schools.
2) Requiring high school students to complete a minimum of 160 hours per year of out-of-school enrichment activities to graduate.
3) Staffing the enrichment programs with community members, parents, and high school students who would be paid for their involvement.
4) Overseeing the new system through district and school-level personnel while partnering with community organizations to provide
Contains examples of required documents for submission to film permitting authorities. You can check us out at www.dronetechaerial.com . Los Angeles Legal drone Company FAA 333 Exempt, Drone Tech Aerial Cinematography
The document discusses various topics related to lines in a coordinate plane including:
1) How to find the slope of a line given two points on the line. The slope is defined as the rise over the run between the two points.
2) The different forms of the equation of a line including slope-intercept, two-point, and normal forms.
3) How to find the distance between a point and a line, between two parallel lines, and the intercepts of a line with the x and y axes.
Pedal on the Pier, in association with Canyon Creek Summer Camp, is an event held every year in May or June on the iconic Santa Monica Pier. Thousands of people dedicate their time and money to help raise funds for at-risk youth in the Los Angeles area. Procsseds from the event are used to send children and families to Canyon Creek Summer Camp to experience Camp Ubuntu to learn invaluable life skills in leadership, character, confidence, community, and much more!
Team MagFly is developing a new platform that aims to bring more transparency to pricing by rewarding early bookers with points and cashback while also providing price security to late bookers. The platform builds on disruptive trends in e-societies by offering social, transparent, and sustainable travel options. In initial beta testing, the platform will focus on stimulating group loyalty and building supply chain partnerships to offer happier customers who act as ambassadors.
- Jaykumar H is seeking a position that utilizes his 11 years of experience in finance and accounting.
- He has a Bachelor's degree in Commerce and has received several awards and certifications for his work.
- His professional experience includes roles in bank reconciliation, accounts payable, and general ledger at Wipro BPS, as well as positions as an accountant, audit assistant, and account assistant earlier in his career.
Our Paradise magazine team’s
efforts seem to be paying off and our readers seem to be hooked onto our magazine. At Paradise infocreative project developing center we try to
acquire as much knowledge as we can and we try and share it with everyone. I sincerely hope that paradise 1.0 will reach new heights with the
unmatched enthusiasm and talent of the entire Paradise Team. From the point of view of our magazine, we look forward to have more readers
and have more contributions from our new readers. Paradise 1.0 is a platform to share and acquire knowledge and develop ourselves into
integrative managers. It is our earnest desire to disseminate our knowledge and experience with the society at large.
Kraig_Conflict and Crisis Management in East AsiaMichael Kraig
This document summarizes an article by Michael Kraig and Leon Perkowski about how the US military should shape its air and sea power to support the strategic "Asia pivot." The authors argue that the US should develop capabilities and plans focused on strategic denial rather than escalatory strikes, in order to better support limited political goals when dealing with powers like China that share some common interests. Military planning should emphasize persistent denial of gains without homeland strikes, to promote crisis stability and conflict management over shared interests like global trade. The emerging multipolar system incentivizes powers like China to pursue pragmatic relationships rather than ideological conflicts that could disrupt socioeconomic networks.
This document discusses different methods for improving food resources through agriculture and animal husbandry. It outlines that plants provide important food crops through agriculture, and animal husbandry involves rearing animals for products like milk, meat, and wool. Various research efforts aim to increase crop yields and production through high-yielding seeds, hybrid animals, and other modern technologies to satisfy nutritional needs in a time and cost-effective manner.
The analyst recommends a hold rating for the stock with a price target of $67.49 based on a discounted cash flow valuation. Key points include:
- The company has a strong competitive position driven by economies of scale, differentiated products, and high switching costs for customers.
- Financial performance is superior with high margins, returns on equity, and a history of revenue and earnings growth.
- A discounted cash flow model incorporating revenue growth assumptions and margin expansion yields a fair value estimate of $67.49, supported by relative multiples and Benjamin Graham approaches.
- Risks include sensitivity to economic conditions, currency fluctuations, and achieving growth through acquisitions.
The document provides a detailed lesson plan that compares the educational systems of eight countries: Australia, China, Japan, South Africa, United Kingdom, United States, New Zealand, and the Philippines. The plan outlines objectives, materials, procedures, and an evaluation. Students will be grouped to differentiate and compare the educational structures of two assigned countries. The lesson aims to provide a global perspective on developed basic and higher education systems that help learners compete internationally.
22% компаний по данным Superjob работает в режиме home-офиса. Такой формат работы дает массу новых возможностей, но сокращает возможности контроля сотрудников. Как увеличить эффективность работы в таких условиях?
This unofficial academic record summarizes Cheryl L. Kelton's coursework for a Master of Arts in Teaching and Learning with a concentration in K-12 Technology Integration at Abraham S. Fischler School of Education. It shows that she completed 30 credit hours over 3 terms between Summer 2011 and Winter 2012, maintaining a 4.0 GPA. The record notes that the degree is pending program approval and lists the courses taken each term along with grades and credit hours.
Perception of Child Abuse 2COLLEGE STUDENTS’ AND PROFESSIO.docxherbertwilson5999
Perception of Child Abuse 2
COLLEGE STUDENTS’ AND PROFESSIONALS’ PERCEPTION OF CHILD ABUSE IN CORRELATION TO STRESS
Introduction
Throughout the growth and development of society, child abuse and maltreatment has expanded into many different aspects; it occurs within socioeconomic levels, ethnic and cultural lines, all religions and all levels of education. Within the United States children are suffering from a hidden epidemic of child abuse and neglect. Every year 3.3 million reports of child abuse are made in the United States involving nearly 6 million children (a report can include multiple children). The United States has the worst record in the industrialized nation – losing five children every day due to abuse-related deaths (U.S. Department of HHS, 2011). The estimated cost of child abuse and neglect in the United States for 2008 is $124 billion (Fang, 2012). The Department of Children and Families (DCF) defines child maltreatment as any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent, guardian, or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child (Leeb, Paulozzi, Melanson, Simon, & Arias, 2008). There are four major categories of childhood abuse and maltreatment: physical abuse, psychological and emotional abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect (Goldman, Salus, Wolcott, & Kennedy, 2003).
According to Brian H. Bornstein, Debra L. Kaplan, and Andrea R. Perry (2007), people have stereotypes about the circumstances and consequences of child abuse, and these expectancies can influence their judgments about individuals involved in abuse cases. Heim (2000) reported that participants with a history of abuse experience greater levels of perceived stress than participants without a history of abuse. They often perceive daily stressors more severely and longer in duration than their counterparts. It is also suggested that their history of abuse compromises these participants’ abilities to cope with stress, but the researchers noted that the data from their study is inconclusive, making it difficult for them to either support or refute this claim.
The perception of child abuse is very influential to students and upcoming professionals. Society’s definition and perception will guide current social work students into practice, which is a very important factor within the professional realm of social work.
Research Question
The purpose of this study is to examine college students and professionals’ perception of child abuse and how it relates to stress. The independent variable is the college students and professionals’ perception of child abuse and the dependent variable is how it relates to stress. The operational definition of perception remains closely allied to the continually developing behavioral theory of discrimination (Schoenfeld, 1962). The operational definition of child abuse is as any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent, guardian, or other caregiver that results.
The document reports on a study that examined correlations between subscales of the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV) and subscales of the Juvenile Sex Offender Assessment Protocol-II (J-SOAP-II) in a sample of 576 juvenile sex offenders. Significant positive correlations were found between measures of callous-unemotional traits on the PCL:YV and subscales of the J-SOAP-II related to treatment progress and antisocial tendencies, suggesting callous-unemotional traits are predictive of treatment failure and aggression. The results provide insight into tailoring risk assessment and treatment for different profiles of juvenile sex offenders.
Narcissism, bullying, and social dominance in youth a longitamit657720
This study examines the longitudinal relationship between narcissism and bullying in youth over 3 years. It uses person-centered analysis to identify distinct trajectories of narcissism and two forms of bullying (direct and indirect) and relates these trajectories. The study finds:
1) For girls, higher narcissism was not related to more intense bullying or higher social dominance.
2) For boys, highly narcissistic boys were more likely than peers to show elevated direct and indirect bullying.
3) Among narcissistic youth, only those who engage in high bullying were high in social dominance.
1Running Head FINAL PROPOSAL CHILD ABUSE AND ADULT MENTAL HEAL.docxdrennanmicah
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Running Head: FINAL PROPOSAL: CHILD ABUSE AND ADULT MENTAL HEALTH
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FINAL PROPOSAL: CHILD ABUSE AND ADULT MENTAL HEALTH
Diamond Newton
Southern New Hampshire University
March 3, 2019
Problem Statement
Several adults struggle from a variety of mental health issues (suicidal thoughts and tendencies, alcoholism, depression, and drug abusers.) A lot of those issues may stem from what took place during an adult’s childhood that stem from a variety of reasons. Some adults seek help and some refuse to seek help. The adults who do seek help come to realize that their current issues stem from when they were a child and still developing as a human. Child abuse can come in many forms, physical, mental, and sexual. Adults who have been exposed or experienced this are likely to suffer from some form of mental health issue. It is important to figure out the root of mental health issues in adults so the root can be addressed. Children need to be in a healthy environment with nothing short of love and care. Exposing children to a harsh reality is only breeding them into an adult who suffers from mental health issues.
Literature Review
The study of psychology helps researchers to understand better what is going on with a person. Researchers studied what happened in a person's life that causes them to make the decisions they do and behave in a certain way. Adults have this stigmatism that they can do whatever they want because they are "grown." Many adults suffer from something that can cause to lead towards suicidal thoughts and tendencies, alcoholism, depression, and drug abusers. A lot of those issues may stem from what took place during an adult’s childhood. There could be some reasons adults tend to display certain mental health traits that have been studied in many different forms by researchers. What we will be reviewed is the abuse, physical or mental, that an adult endured as a child and how it affects them in their adulthood.
Blanco, C., Grant, B. F., Hasin, D. S., Lin, K. H., Olfson, M. Sugaya, L. (2012) recognized that child physical abuse had been associated with an increased risk of suicide attempts. The study conducted included Blacks, Hispanics and young adults between the ages of 18-24 in 2001-2002 and 2004-2005. In person, interviews were conducted in Wave 1. In Wave 2 used similar methods as Wave 1 but it excluded the individuals who were not eligible. Wave 2 also interviews went into depth about the questions asked for the participants first 17 years of life. There are many other variables that have been added to the data that relate to childhood physical abuse and mental health distress in adult years. Those other adversatives included the history of child sexual abuse and neglect, parental psychopathology, and perceived parental support, described as emotional neglect.
The advantages to this design would be the inclusion of other childhood adversities that could contribute to adult psychiatri.
! 1Anxiety and Substance Abuse !!!!!!!!! !!!!!!The Co.docxMARRY7
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Anxiety and Substance Abuse
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The Correlation Between Social Anxiety and Substance Use !
Loyola Marymount University !
Department of School Counseling !
EDSS 6390 !
Fall 2013 !
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Anxiety and Substance Abuse
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Abstract
The purpose of this research paper is to examine the relationship between social anxiety
and substance use among adolescents and young adults. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory will
be utilized as a central framework to in order to appropriately understand the data presented in
the articles in accordance with life-span development. The research question to be addressed is,
‘How is social anxiety associated with substance abuse?’ According to the results in past study 1,
girls are statistically more likely to abuse alcohol more than boys as a coping strategy due to
their environmental circumstances. In past study 2, individuals that score higher on the social
anxiety questionnaire, significantly are more likely to abuse alcohol. Therefore, the implication
of this research paper is that educators develop specific interventions that reduce social anxiety
based on the degree of anxiety for each individual.
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keywords:
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age group to be studied?
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Anxiety and Substance Abuse
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Introduction
Social acceptance is an essential factor in human development that commonly assists in
psychological as well as emotional advancement. Adolescence is one specific stage in which
peer acceptance is especially vital in order for positive development to occur. Adolescents who
are not able to form significant peer relationships are more likely to develop social anxiety,
shying away from others or altering habits and ideas to allow for assimilation into a social group.
The purpose of this research paper is to examine the relationship between social anxiety and
substance use among adolescents and young adults. If some adolescents/young adults
experience high levels of social anxiety, are they more likely to turn to drugs and alcohol than
peers who do not experience social anxiety.
In attempt to discover an answer to the hypothesis statement, two peer reviewed articles
will be considered. The first examines smoking, drinking, and illicit drug use in relation to
several different anxiety disorders including social anxiety among adolescents, further analyzing
these findings in relation to gender (Wu, et al., 2010). The second evaluates the impact of social
anxiety on control and experimental groups, the experimental group being an alcohol
intervention program called BASICS (Terlecki, et al., 2011). Each of these articles offers great
insight into the scope of the problem, building upon previous studies that have proven that
elevated social anxiety has been consistently linked to greater alcohol-related problems among
matthew jung
matthew jung
citation? -1
Intro should include ...
School victimization study glbtq implications for adjustmentChristian Spuler
The document summarizes a research article that examines the association between LGBT-related school victimization during adolescence and young adult health and adjustment outcomes. The study found that LGBT school victimization is strongly associated with elevated levels of depression, suicidal ideation, risk of STDs and HIV in young adulthood. In particular, it explains the high rates of depression and suicidal thoughts among young adult males by their experiences of LGBT victimization during middle and high school. The conclusions suggest that reducing LGBT-related victimization in schools would likely lead to significant long-term health benefits and reductions in health disparities for LGBT individuals.
Both these ideas were based on the underage consumption of alcohol.docxAASTHA76
Both these ideas were based on the underage consumption of alcohol lading to illegal behavior that is common in the college going students. Attachment theory stands on the concept that human beings have a natural desire and innate requirement of being appreciated and accepted by others. Survey then led to the confirmatory analysis which enforced two-factor of attachment theory, comprising parental affection or attachment and peer attachment, both these types of accessories represent trust, non-estrangement, and communication, Which means that all the adults or youngsters are emotionally attached to their parents or the people of their group (Foster, Vaughan, Foster, & Califano Jr, 2013).
The results manifested the hypotheses that sheltered peer attachment positively concluded behavioral control and values towards alcohol, but protected maternal affection inversely completed behavioral control and values towards alcohol. Alcohol norms, behavioral control and attitudes individually elaborate alcohol objective, which showed an elevation in this behavior within a month. All these findings reinforce recommendations for agenda created to shorten the risk levels of underage drinking using the idea of Attachment theory and Theory of planned behavior TPB.
I. Social Learning Theory:
This research is associated with the methods of getting alcohol in underage, use of substance, underage drinking and this kind of other deviations, this study consider the application of social learning theory. Youngsters under adulthood age are getting alcohol illegally. Past researches show that young alcohol abusers use other persons for this purpose, and these other individuals include any stranger who is adult enough to drink legally (Miller, Levy, Spicer, & Taylor, 2010).
This procedure of getting alcohol is called black marketing. It has been observed that black market organization was made while taking alcohol illegally in association with the other black market organization, other black market anomaly or global anomaly. For study purpose, use of black market sources defined as the utilization of an unknown person trying to obtain illegal substance like alcohol, drugs, etc. thus sources was labeled black market, if the individual participating was an unknown. The materials under consideration in this study include alcohol and marijuana. The study sample was comprised of undergraduate’s students from the organizational pool from a southeastern university.
The questionnaire was filled through the online survey and analyzed statistically by multivariate statistical techniques (Foster, et al., 2013).Youth alcohol consumption includes a lot of research work. This study covers almost all the aspects from divergence related to underage drinking to the hazardous results it causes on health. A huge part of the sample population is the college students. Binge drinking, underage drinking, and general drinking are considered by average or dominant America ...
1) The study examined the relationship between parental communication and body image among 30 University of California, Santa Barbara students.
2) It found that high levels of parent communication were correlated with high levels of body satisfaction in students.
3) Mother-daughter and mother-son relationships appeared to be most important in developing a healthy body image.
Abuse and mistreatment in the adolescent period - by Dr. Bozzi Domenico (Mast...dott. Domenico Bozzi
UNICEF has highlighted how children suffer violence throughout all stages of childhood and adolescence, in different contexts, and often at the hands of people they trust and interact with on a daily basis.
Violent corporal punishment, 300 million children between 2 and 4 years old in the world regularly suffer violence from their family/guardians (about 3 out of 4), 250 million of these are punished physically (about 6 out of 10).
Sexual violence, Sexual violence occurs against children of all ages: 15 million girls aged 15 to 19 have experienced incidents of sexual violence in their lives, and 2.5 million young women in 28 European countries report having suffered episodes of sexual violence before the age of 15.
IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAUMA-INFORMED CARE12Implications for Trauma-InMalikPinckney86
The study aims to examine the relationship between adverse childhood trauma and dissociation in male offenders. It will utilize a qualitative research approach and correlational research design involving 30 participants from two county correctional facilities. Questionnaires will be used to measure experiences of childhood trauma and levels of dissociation. The study expects to find a positive relationship between childhood trauma and dissociation among male offenders, which would indicate the need for trauma-informed care approaches when treating this population.
Running Head CRITIQUE ESSAY OUTLINE1CRITIQUE ESSAY OUTLINE.docxtodd271
Running Head: CRITIQUE ESSAY OUTLINE 1
CRITIQUE ESSAY OUTLINE 3
CRITIQUE ESSAY OUTLINE
Name
Institution
Critique essay outline
I. Paragraph
A. Title: Sleepyteens: Social media use in adolescence is associated with poor sleep quality, anxiety, depression and low self-esteem.
B. Author: Heather Cleland Woods, Holly Scott
C. The publication containing the article: 2016. The foundation for professionals in services for adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Thesis statement: There is a link between social media use and different aspects of adolescent wellbeing including sleep and mental health. The overall, including night time use of social media effect on youth’s sleep routine and wellbeing.
II. Paragraph
A. Night time specific social media habit and emotional investment in social media correlated to sleep quality, anxiety, depression and self-esteem in youth.
B. The author bases an argument that poor sleep is related to computer and internet use on different pieces of evidence.
C.
III. Paragraph
A. The author brings in the idea of the relationship between social media use and the mental health of the user. The idea is supported by previously done studies such as an article done by Metaughlin and King in 2015.
B. The author supported this broad idea in non-native English speakers and also no enough internet access, this will lead to claim an inaccurate data.
C. The same words and sentences repeated multiple time instead of supporting the issue by different example and technique of sentence structure.
D. The authors supported the issue with different facts, evidences and studies to prove the effectiveness of their research.
E. The author brings in the idea of the relationship between social media use and the mental health of the user.
IV. Paragraph
A. It outlines a result of the study which authors uses measures of central tendency to develop the correlation between social media use and sleep.
B. The research is very helpful and informative based on accurate standard data collation method.
C. This work has absolute positive effect on a lot of parents and internet addictive teenagers.
D. The research proved any night time social use has negative side effect on youth’s sleep, wellbeing and this will have led them to feel worthless.
E. The authors develop demerits and future challenges that could be attributed to the present study methodology.
V. Conclusion
The author develops the methodology of the study. This section is subdivided into different subsections: participants and procedure, measures of poor sleep quality, anxiety and depression, self-esteem and emotional investment in social media.
The author discusses the findings of the study in this section. He presents the results in form of tables.
The author concludes the study by making inferences of the study. The section contains a list of references used by the author in developing the critique essay. (please state the overall important a.
Peer Response Unit 5 LifespanResponse Guidelines for both peer r.docxrandyburney60861
Peer Response Unit 5 Lifespan
Response Guidelines for both peer responses (#1 and #2)
Your responses to other learners are expected to be substantive in nature and to reference the assigned readings, as well as other theoretical, empirical, or professional literature to support your views and writings. Use the following critique guidelines:
The clarity and completeness of your peer's post.
The demonstrated ability to apply theory to practice.
The credibility of the references.
The structure and style of the written post.
Peer Response #1
A.Flogel
Adolescence is a time of high emotional reactivity and development of social identity. Adolescents learn who they are in relation to others while at the same time experiencing more mood disruption than any other stage of life. At this stage, development from early experiences has already impacted them and how they feel about and interact with peers. This along with the fact that the frontal lobe of the brain, responsible for higher order fuctioning such as self-regulation and judgment, is not fully developed, can explain why this stage gives way to risky behaviors (Broderick & Blewitt, 2014). One particularly troubling behavior in adolescents is drug use. Not only is this harmful to the individual at the time, but it often leads to lifelong difficulty with addiction. There are several risk factors that can increase the likelihood of drug use in adolescence.
One very relevant factor to drug use is self-concept, which starts developing in early childhood, but especially develops in adolescence. This can include one's physical, social, family, and academic self-concept. A study that analyzed the relationship between self-concept and drug use found that negative self-concept in categories of family, academics, and physical appearance was significantly correlated with drug use (Maria et al., 2011).
Another factor highly correlated with drug use is exposure to "potentially traumatic events" prior to age 11. These events include threats to physical or emotional harm. The Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry published a study using a national survey examining the link between these PTEs and drug use in adolescence, and found a positive relationship between PTEs and use of marijuana, cocaine, and prescription drugs (Carliner et al., 2016).
Although much evidence has been found regarding environmental influences, heritability also plays a role. A longitudinal study found that heritability of externalizing behavior in adolescents was 56%, and 27% for drug use (Korhonen et al., 2012).
These factors often interact with each other. For example, when a parent is genetically inclined to externalize, often the parent will abuse drugs, creating an unstable environment for their child. They may be less responsive in early childhood, creating an insecure attachment and a poor self-concept. Parental drug use and general externalizing behavior may also expose a child to potenti.
A Qualitative Case Study The Lived Educational Experiences of Former Juvenil...Erica Thompson
1) The document summarizes previous research on the lived educational experiences of former juvenile delinquents. It discusses how qualitative research methods can provide insight into these experiences in a way that quantitative studies cannot.
2) The review of literature found links between juvenile delinquency and factors like family structure, parenting styles, peer associations, and negative experiences in education settings. Research suggests these experiences may influence whether youth engage in delinquent behaviors.
3) The study aimed to use qualitative interviews to examine the educational experiences of former delinquents and how those experiences impacted their lives, with the goal of better understanding and preventing juvenile misbehavior.
Term Paper Assignment CRIJ 3300 Applied Research and Methods.docxjacqueliner9
Term Paper Assignment
CRIJ 3300 Applied Research and Methods
9 Pages
Introduction
In the American Criminal Justice System, many young adults commit delinquency acts. In this paper, the goal of this research is to find out if the use of any controlled substance or any illegal drug incite male juveniles in high school delinquency. I hypothesize that if male juveniles that attend high school consume any controlled substances or illegal drug, then their crime commission or delinquency rates will increase. If male juveniles that attend high school commit crime or delinquency acts, and they do not consume controlled substances or illegal drugs, their crime rates will go down or remain the same.
Population of Interest
For this research, the population of interest will be male juveniles of American nationality who attend a public high school in Chicago, Illinois.
Unit of Analysis
The unit of analysis proposed to analyze for this research will be individuals. Individual students who get studied in a research can be less likely to be influenced by peers or any outside source.
Variables of Interest
Attributes of the variables are important in this research. The male juveniles chosen will be between the ages of 12 to 17. The ethnicity or race of the juveniles are not important to this research, because it is not quantitative. It might be important for a research that is looking to know how many juveniles from certain race commit delinquent acts, but in this research, the goal is to find out if the consumption of any controlled substance or illegal drug alter juvenile delinquency rates. A controlled substance is any substance or medication that people use to get high. An illegal drug, is any substance that cannot be used under a certain age, or that cannot be used at all in the United States. These definitions bring us to the meaning of juvenile delinquency, which is any deviant behavior or delinquent act that juveniles commit during the course of adolescence or at a certain age that is between twelve and seventeen. This definition relates to the questions in the survey that ask about the juvenile committing any delinquent acts or deviant behaviors. The independent variable in this research is the drug or illegal substance that the juvenile consumes before the commission of a delinquent act. The dependent variable is the delinquent act itself depending on the consumption of illegal drugs or controlled substances. It is the dependent variable because as we hypothesized, if the juvenile does not take drugs or if he does not use controlled substances then the delinquency rate will probably go down. The control variable is the situations that happen to the juvenile when he is outside of school. Problems at home, child abuse, child neglect, being a victim of bullying, parents that abuse illegal substances, parents or family members that abuse alcohol in front of the juvenile amongst other, are examples of what could be considered the control variab.
Peer Attachment and Intention of Aggressive Behavior among School Childreniosrjce
This paper attempts to ascertain the relationship between peer attachment and intention of
aggressive behavior amongst school children. There are literatures related to peer attachment quality and its
effects on adjustment and development.However, relatively little attention has been paid to the relationship
between peer attachments and intention of aggressive behavior. Positive peer attachment, respectively, have
been viewed as protective factors, that prevent peers from engaging in intention of aggressive behaviors, like
violence, risky sexual behavior, and bullying.. While the negative aspect of peer insecure attachment from the
school which is associated with more problematic functioning including higher rates of emotional problems,
substance use, aggression and delinquency. In this study, respondentswere 426 school children (males 199 and
females 227) between 13-17 years old. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation
and t-test for student’sage groups.Peer attachment was measured using inventory of parents and peer
attachment (IPPA) with respect to peer attachment and adolescent intention of aggressive behaviour. Findings
have revealed that over all respondents show that there is a significant positive relationship between peer
influences on intention of aggressive behaviour.And there is no significant difference in age group of the
respondents and intention of aggressive behaviour. Peer influence on intention of aggressive behaviour is high
which is peer to peer aggressive act within the school environment which the harm that is always intention to
cause injuries, and destroy.Thus, expressive support and attention should be extended not just to the victims of
intention of aggressive behaviour cases, but also to intimidators. Recommendation of the study centers on the
need to examine the reports from school counselors and peers that engage in intention of aggressive behaviour.
PSYCH 7 Effects of Child Abuse on Adult Relationships.pptxNicole999093
The study analyzed the effects of childhood physical abuse on adult relationships through an anonymous survey of 20 participants. It found that childhood abuse victims are more likely to develop avoidant attachment styles in intimate relationships as adults. A positive correlation was found between physical abuse experienced as a child and avoidant attachment in adult relationships. The results supported the hypothesis that childhood abuse can lead to attachment issues in the future.
PSYCH 7 Effects of Child Abuse on Adult Relationships.pptxNicole999093
The study analyzed the effects of childhood physical abuse on adult relationships through an anonymous survey of 20 participants. It found that childhood abuse victims are more likely to develop avoidant attachment styles in intimate relationships as adults. A positive correlation was found between physical abuse experienced as a child and avoidant attachment in adult relationships. The results supported the hypothesis that childhood abuse can lead to attachment issues in the future.
2/21/2013
Title:Life-span development of self-esteem and its effects on important life outcomes.
Author:
1) Orth, Ulrich, Department of Psychology, University of Basel, Basal, Switzerland,
2)Robins, Richard W., Department of Psychology, University of California-Davis, CA, US
3)Widaman, Keith F., Department of Psychology, University of California-Davis, CA, US
Purpose of the research:
The present research addresses this gap in the literature by examining effects of self-esteem on life-span trajectories of relationship satisfaction, job satisfaction, occupational status, salary, affect, depression, and health, using data from a large longitudinal study of four generations of individuals ages 16 to 97 years. Currently, the field lacks a broad theoretical perspective that could provide a framework for the present research. By examining patterns of findings across developmental contexts (adolescence to old age), we hope to contribute to building a new, overarching theory of the causes and consequences of self-esteem across the life course.
Research method:
The data come from the Longitudinal Study of Generation. In 1971, three-generation families were randomly drawn from a subscriber list of about 840,000 members of a health maintenance organization in Southern California. Since 1991, the study has included a fourth generation (i.e., the great-grandchildren in the same families). The members of the health maintenance organization included primarily White working-class and middle-class families, and very low and very high socioeconomic levels were not represented in the population. However, level of education among family members corresponded to national norms at the time the sample was drawn. Although the sample was originally recruited in Southern California, at recent waves, more than half of the sample lived outside the region in other parts of California, in other states of the United States or abroad, because of residential mobility of participants.
Participants were assessed in 1971, 1985, 1988, 1991, 1994, 1997, and 2000. In 1971 and 1985, the LSG did not include the full self-esteem measure; the present study therefore examines data of the five waves from 1988 to 2000. We excluded any participant whose age was unknown or who did not provide data on self-esteem at any of the five waves.
Participants:
The sample included 1,824 individuals (57% female). Table 1 gives an overview of the demographic characteristics for the full sample and for the four separate generations. The distribution of gender is relatively even across generations. The age range across waves was 14 to 102 years; however, because only one assessment was below age 16 and two assessments were above age 97, we restricted the analyses to the age range from 16 to 97 years. Of the participants, 94% were Caucasian, 3% were Hispanic, 1% were African American, 1% were Native American, and 1% were of other ethnicity. Because of the low frequencies of ethnicities othe.
A Review of LGBTQ Adolescents Minorities Facing Positive and Negative Outcome...Taylor Hartman
This document summarizes research on the cognitive and social development of LGBTQ adolescents. It finds that LGBTQ youth face unique challenges including difficulty developing a sense of self-identity due to societal expectations. They also experience minority stress from discrimination, which can negatively impact their mental health and physical health through risky behaviors. Their cognitive development may also be impaired if they face harassment or do not have a supportive community. Overall, the document examines how societal and environmental factors can influence the developmental process of LGBTQ adolescents.
Article Summary Table – Template 2
Full Reference
Research Question(s)
Sample
Method
Data
Findings
Evaluation
Smetana, J. G., & Gettman, D. C. (2006). Autonomy and relatedness with parents and romantic development in African American adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 42(6), 1347-1351. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.6.1347
1. Less autonomy and more relatedness in early adolescence would lead to later starting of romantic relationships and better quality romantic relationships, including more supportive and less negative romantic relationships during late adolescence.
2. Early adolescents with high levels of relatedness to parents and low to moderate levels of autonomy in family decision making would report later starting of romantic careers and more positive romantic relationships five years later than would other youth.
The study sample involved seventy-six middle-class adolescents (half female, half male) of the African American race of the final wave of the study. These adolescents were in various phases of their lives with some in their junior or senior year of high school, some in the process of enrolling in college, some already enrolled in college, some employed, and some in the military. It is important to note that nearly one hundred percent of these adolescents described themselves as being single. With the middle-class parents who were included, majority of them had some college instruction, over half grossed over seventy thousand dollars a year, and about half were in steady marriages for longer than the time the study was conducted.
This research was a qualitative method because it gave a thorough understanding of the research topic; it used the population’s point of view; and it focused on the opinions and behaviors of the population.
There were three waves. For the first wave, an interview was given. Wave three involved questionnaires five years after the first wave. No information was specified about wave two.
Data collected focused on autonomy and relatedness on different levels. Measures that were used during research included interviews and questionnaires/surveys. The type of data that was collected within the interview was the evaluation of autonomy and relatedness. There were numerous questionnaires/surveys given to the subjects.
Those that were used included a scale for family decision making for the autonomy aspect of research, the Trust and Communication subscales of the Parent-Peer Attachment Inventory, the Romantic History Survey, and the Network of Relationships Inventory.
The scale that was used for family decision making assessed just that. The Trust and Communication subscales of the Parent-Peer Attachment Inventory measured closeness and connection to parents. The Romantic History Survey determined romantic involvement. The Network of Relationships Inventory calculated positive social support and undesirable interactions.
The authors Smetana and Gettman (2006) clarified their results in a cl.
1. Callous-Unemotional Traits Trajectories Interact with Earlier
Conduct Problems and Executive Control to Predict Violence
and Substance Use Among High Risk Male Adolescents
Arielle R. Baskin-Sommers1
& Rebecca Waller2
& Ari M. Fish1
& Luke W. Hyde2
Published online: 18 June 2015
# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
Abstract Callous-unemotional (CU) traits, conduct problems
(CP), and deficits in executive control are all linked to the
development of more severe antisocial behavior, including
violence and substance use. Though previous research has
examined the impact of these factors on antisocial outcomes,
little work has examined trajectories of CU traits across ado-
lescence and how these trajectories predict greater antisocial
behavior in adulthood. Moreover, no study has assessed how
severity of early CP and executive control may exacerbate
these pathways and increase risk for later violence and sub-
stance use. The current study (a) identified trajectories of CU
traits among a large, high-risk sample of adolescent males, (b)
examined the relationship between CU traits trajectories and
future violence and substance use, and (c) examined whether
early CP and executive control moderated the effects of a high
CU traits trajectory membership and high CP on violence and
substance use. Results indicated that: (a) CU traits could be
grouped into three stable trajectories across adolescence, (b)
the ‘high’ CU traits trajectory, particularly in the presence of
‘elevated’ CP, was related to higher violence and substance
use, over and above a variety of environmental risk factors,
and (c) the effects the ‘high’ CU traits trajectory on both vio-
lence and substance and in the presence of ‘elevated’ CP was
stronger among youth with high executive control. These
findings highlight the utility of identifying subgroups of youth
who differ on trajectories of CU traits for understanding the
development and maintenance of severe antisocial behavior.
Keywords Antisocial behavior . Callous-unemotional traits .
Conduct problems . Violence . Substance use . Executive
control . Trajectories
Antisocial behavior (AB), including early conduct problems
(CP) and later violence and substance use, entails great cost to
society through its impact on perpetrators, victims, and family
members. Recent research has examined the role of callous-
unemotional (CU) traits (e.g., lack of empathy and guilt) in
the development of AB. In particular, the presence of high CU
traits appears to put youth at risk for severe and persistent forms
of aggression and violence (Frick et al. 2014). However, despite
being conceptualized as ‘traits’, few studies have examined CU
traits longitudinally. Further, no studies have tested whether
knowing about trajectories of CU traits adds to our understand-
ing of the development of specific types of AB, particularly
during the early adulthood period when AB may evolve in its
severity (i.e., violence, substance use). Importantly, it is yet to be
established the extent to which elevated levels of early CP in-
teract with CU traits trajectories to predict worse AB outcomes.
Finally, beyond CU traits, neuropsychological deficits in exec-
utive functioning (e.g., low executive control) are strongly re-
lated to AB (e.g., Ogilvie et al. 2011). However, no previous
studies have examined whether deficits in executive control
exacerbate the risk posed by high levels of CU traits and early
CP in the prediction of later violence or substance use. The
goals of the present study were to identify trajectories of CU
traits, examine the prediction of adult AB by CU traits trajecto-
ries while controlling for early CP, and explore the impact of
Arielle R. Baskin-Sommers and Rebecca Waller contributed equally to
this work.
* Arielle R. Baskin-Sommers
arielle.baskin-sommers@yale.edu
1
Department of Psychology, Yale University, P.O. Box 208205, New
Haven, CT 06520, USA
2
Department of Psychology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Ann
Arbor, MI, USA
J Abnorm Child Psychol (2015) 43:1529–1541
DOI 10.1007/s10802-015-0041-8
2. elevated CP and executive control on the prediction of later
violence and substance use by CU traits trajectory membership.
Links Between CU Traits and Antisocial Behavior
Youth with CU traits are characterized by a lack of empathy,
lack of remorse and guilt, and reduced affective responsivity to
others (Frick et al. 2014). High CU traits have been shown to
predict increased risk of AB and violence among youth across
different developmental stages and sample types (see Frick
et al. 2014 for a review). However, while several studies have
linked broader measures of adolescent psychopathic traits (i.e.,
including impulsive/life-style components) to high risk for sub-
stance use (e.g., Andershed et al. 2002), only one study has
examined links between CU traits and substance use. Among
youth assessed in the 6th
grade, CU traits predicted onset and
recurrence of substance use by the 9th
grade (Wymbs et al.
2012). The lack of attention to potential links between CU traits
and substance use is surprising given theoretical links between
CU traits/psychopathic traits with substance use (Frick et al.
2014), and the established high comorbidity between substance
use and psychopathy (Smith and Newman 1990).
Together, previous studies underscore the importance of
CU traits in developmental models of AB. However, previous
research is limited by a focus on CU traits assessed at one time
point, which contradicts widely cited perspectives on individ-
ual differences in AB over the life course (Moffitt 1993;
Piquero 2008). Indeed, despite well-established individual dif-
ferences in the onset, chronicity, and stability of AB over time,
particularly during adolescence, few studies have considered
trajectories of CU traits. However, this kind of person-
centered approach is appealing because it might identify spe-
cific discontinuities or groups that emerge based on patterns of
data over time, rather than at one time point. Thus, identifying
whether youth show stable or high levels of CU traits over
time may be a more valid way to predict outcomes compared
to simply examining their ‘rank’ or mean score at any one time
point (see Fontaine et al. 2011; Salihovic et al. 2014).
For example, Fontaine and colleagues (2011) examined a
large sample of twins from a community sample (N=9578).
Joint trajectories of CU traits (high, increasing, decreasing,
and low) and CP (high and low) were identified using three
time-points from ages 7 to 12. There was asymmetry between
CU traits and CP, such that high CU traits trajectory member-
ship was strongly related to having high CP, whereas having
high CP was only moderately related to CU traits. Importantly,
the small proportion of children with a joint high/increasing CU
traits and CP trajectories were at risk of the most negative out-
comes at age 12, including emotional problems and hyperactiv-
ity (Fontaine et al. 2011). Use of a large, community sample of
children followed longitudinally during a critical period of
childhood and the group-based approach to examine trajectory
membership are strengths of this study. However, more work is
needed to examine trajectories of CU traits using multiple time
points in high risk youth and across later adolescence, when
CU traits may become more stable. This is also a period when
CU traits trajectories could predict more diverse and severe
forms of AB (e.g., substance use and violence). Indeed, adoles-
cence is important because it is a developmental transition char-
acterized by increasing independence and social and physical
change, but in the context of immature regulatory functioning
(e.g., Arnett 2004). These changes are compounded by greater
opportunity to be involved with deviant peers and enact more
severe AB. Finally, the transition from adolescence to early
adulthood is when AB peaks (e.g., Arnett 2004; Shaw and
Gross 2008), making this an important period in which to un-
derstand CU trait trajectories, particularly as they may predict
escalation into persistent and severe violence or substance use.
Interaction Between CU Traits and CP
in the Prediction of Severe Antisocial Behaviors
The role of earlier CP also needs to be considered in relation to
CU traits trajectory group membership and AB outcomes. First,
the extent to which high and stable levels of CU traits add to the
prediction of AB needs to be established, taking into account
the severity of early CP. That is, it is important to establish that
any predictive power of CU trajectories is not due to CU tra-
jectories tapping existing, elevated levels of CP. Second, we
need to identify whether there are interactive effects between
CU traits trajectories and CP, such that knowing about both may
be helpful in identifying youth most likely to persist in their AB.
For example, youth with high CU traits and CP have been
shown to exhibit higher impulsivity (Andershed et al. 2002),
more instrumental and reactive aggression (e.g., Frick et al.
2003), and increased risk for persistent delinquency into adult-
hood (Byrd et al. 2012). Further, in the one study that has
examined substance use in relation to CU traits, males with both
elevated CU traits and CP were at highest risk of substance use
by 9th
grade, when compared to those with elevated CU traits-
only, CP-only, or low CU traits and low CP (Wymbs et al.
2012). Taken together, these findings suggest that identifying
high CU traits trajectories may be most powerful when also
knowing about levels of CP. To date, however, no previous
studies have examined the interactive effect of elevated CP
and subsequent CU traits trajectories across adolescence in
the prediction of substance use or violence.
What is the Role of Executive Control in Predicting
AB?
In addition, a large body of research has examined neuropsy-
chological deficits associated with AB. Studies have focused on
1530 J Abnorm Child Psychol (2015) 43:1529–1541
3. executive functioning, an umbrella term referring to a range of
cognitive processes, including executive control, working
memory, and selective attention (e.g., Chan et al. 2008; Morgan
and Lilienfeld 2000). AB among adults and youth has been
linked to impairments in many of these processes, including
failures to learn from punishment or to alter behavior in the face
of changing contingencies. Deficits in executive function are
thought to explain why antisocial individuals persist in aggres-
sive or sensation-seeking behavior despite the likelihood of
negative consequences (De Brito and Hodgins 2009). In sup-
port of this notion, meta-analytic studies examining childhood,
adolescent, and adult populations with conduct disorder, oppo-
sitional defiant disorder, or antisocial personality disorder, have
demonstrated strong links between executive function deficits
and AB (e.g., Morgan and Lilienfeld 2000; Ogilvie et al. 2011).
However, studies have yet to consider how executive function-
ing might interact with or exacerbate the effects of CU traits
across adolescence in relation to the prediction of later AB,
including violence or substance use.
Other Risk Factors for Antisocial Behaviors and CU
Traits
Beyond individual-level risk factors, studies have also linked the
development of AB to a range of contextual risk factors, includ-
ing parenting practices and criminality (e.g., Loeber et al. 1998),
neighborhood dangerousness (Barnes and Jacobs 2013), and
deviant peers (Dishion and Patterson 2006). Further, evidence
also suggests an important role of parenting in the development
of CU traits (Waller et al. 2013). Thus, any examination of the
unique main effects of CU traits, as well as interactive effects of
CU traits, early CP, and executive control, needs to take into
account the influence of these other key sources of risk. How-
ever, while studies have highlighted the importance of consid-
ering family and contextual risk factors as predictors for CU
traits and violence/substance use (see Waller et al. 2013), the
present study focused on examining the main effects of CU traits
trajectories, and thus included family and contextual risk factors
as covariates (see Waller et al. under review for an examination
of these and other factors as predictors of CU trait trajectories).
Current Study
The current study sought to improve our knowledge of
the development of violence and substance use via three
research questions. Given that only two previous studies
have examined trajectories of CU traits and both
sassessed community samples where levels of CU traits
may be relatively low, our first goal was to examine the
stability of CU traits in a large sample of high-risk,
male youth over a 5 year period, using a group-based
trajectory model with five time points, and controlling
for baseline levels. Specifically, we examined whether
there were qualitatively different groups within our sam-
ple, based on their developmental trajectory of CU traits
across a key period of adolescence, and the extent to
which these trajectories would be marked by change
across time. Consistent with previous literature, we hy-
pothesized that a small subset of our high-risk adoles-
cent sample would show a stable trajectory of high
levels of CU traits across time. Second, in line with
previous literature noting the importance of considering
CU traits in the context of CP, we examined the joint
predictive effects of earlier CP and CU traits trajectories
on later violence and substance use. We hypothesized
that elevated CP symptomatology in tandem with a high
CU traits trajectory would be associated with the
highest levels of AB (Frick et al. 2014). Third, we
examined the role of executive control (a subtype of
executive function), in relation to links between CU
traits trajectories, early CP, and violence/substance use.
As no previous studies have examined how or whether
executive control moderates the prediction of AB by
CU traits and early CP, this third study aim was explor-
atory. Finally, in order to elucidate specific effects of
CU traits trajectories, early CP, and executive control
on violence or substance use, all models controlled for
the well-established effects of putative contextual, pa-
rental, and child-level risk factors (Waller et al. 2013).
Methods
Participants
The present study used data from the Pathways to Desis-
tance project, a multisite, longitudinal study of serious ju-
venile offenders (see Schubert et al. 2004, for complete
details of study methodology). Participants in the current
study were male youth adjudicated delinquent or found
guilty of a serious (overwhelmingly felony level) offense
at their current court appearance in Philadelphia, PA (N=
605) or Phoenix, AZ (N=565). We restricted analyses to
male offenders (N=1,170), as the data set had an insuffi-
cient number of females in the sample (n=184) to obtain a
stable trajectory model (Nagin 2005). Youth were eligible
for study participation if they were between the ages of 14
and 18 and had been charged with a felony or similarly
serious non-felony offense (e.g., misdemeanor weapons of-
fense, misdemeanor sexual assault) (see Table 1). Since a
large proportion of offenses committed by youth were drug
offenses, the proportion of males whose enrollment offense
was a drug offense was capped at 15 % at each of the sites.
Of eligible youth, 67 % of those who were located and
J Abnorm Child Psychol (2015) 43:1529–1541 1531
4. invited to participate in the research agreed to enroll in the
study. Participants completed six annual face-to-face inter-
views over the course of the study (one baseline and five
follow-up). Sample retention for the Pathways Project was
high at each follow-up, ranging from 84 to 94 % (M=90 %)
(see Mulvey et al. 2004 for details).
Table 1 Sample characteristics
N Minimum Maximum M SD
Baseline variables
Age 1170 14 18 16.05 1.16
14 (N=144) (12.3 %)
15 (218) (18.6 %)
16 (346) (29.6 %)
17 (358) (30.6 %)
18 (104) (8.9 %)
Sex (Male) 1170
Race
White 225 0 1 0.19 –
Black 493 0 1 0.42 –
Latino 398 0 1 0.34 –
Other 54 0 1 0.05 –
School dropout 1169 0 1 0.16 –
Single parent 1169 0 1 0.45 –
Proportion family arrested 1162 0 1 0.31 0.40
Proportion friends arrested 1168 0 1 0.45 0.38
Neighborhood conditions 1167 1 4 2.35 0.74
# Early onset problems 966 0 5 1.51 1.19
IQ 1158 55 128 84.50 12.84
Anxiety (RCMAS) 1169 1 28 9.79 5.94
Emotion control (Walden) 1169 1 4 2.77 0.66
Executive control (Stroop) 1150 21 79 50.46 7.08
Independent variables
CP 1170 0 1 0.705 0.456
CU (YPI) Group trajectories 1170
Low 299 0 1 0.256 0.495
Moderate 673 0 1 0.575 0.500
High 198 0 1 0.169 0.358
CU Traits+CP 1170
‘Low’ CP
‘Low’ CU 120 0 1 0.103 0.315
‘Moderate’ CU 193 0 1 0.165 0.384
‘High’ CU 32 0 1 0.027 0.168
‘Elevated’ CP
‘Low’ CU 179 0 1 0.153 0.330
‘Moderate’ CU 480 0 1 0.410 0.471
‘High’ CU 166 0 1 0.142 0.319
Dependent variables
Variety of violence
Baseline 1084 0 8 0.501 1.14
5-year follow-up 995 0 7 0.316 0.863
Variety of substance use
Baseline 1165 0 9 2.07 1.92
5-year follow-up 995 0 9 0.630 1.02
1532 J Abnorm Child Psychol (2015) 43:1529–1541
5. Measures
Primary Independent Variable
Callous-Unemotional (CU) Traits CU traits were assessed via
self-report using the Youth Psychopathic Traits Inventory
(YPI; Andershed et al. 2002). The CU traits subscale includes
15 items, rated on a four-point Likert scale (0=‘does not apply
at all’ to 4=‘applies very well’). Examples of CU traits items
include: ‘I usually feel calm when other people are scared,’
and ‘I think that crying is a sign of weakness, even if no one
sees you’. Items were written so that individuals high in CU
traits would read the statements as reflecting positive or admi-
rable qualities. The YPI was administered annually starting
with ages 15–19 over a 6-year period (ages 20–24). CU traits
scores showed good internal consistency (range, α=0.73–
0.79 over the course of the study and the cross-time correla-
tion was high (average interclass r=0.85)).
Dependent Variables
Self-Reported Violent Offending A modified version of the
Self-Report of Offending (SRO; Elliott 1990; Huizinga et al.
1991) scale, focused on the items tapping violence, was used at
the final assessment point to measure the adolescent’s account
of his involvement in eight different violent crimes (fights as
part of gang activity, assault, carjacking, robbery with weapon,
robbery without weapon, shooting someone, shooting at some-
one, carrying a gun). Youth indicated whether they had done
any of these activities over the last 12 months. Each item was
coded to reflect whether the respondent reported engaging in
each act at least once. Dichotomized items were then summed
together. A sum of the number of types of violent offenses
committed (a general versatility or variety score) was calculated
for each subject at each interview. Variety scales are often com-
pared with frequency scales that index the number of times that
a specific act occurred. For the current study, we focused on a
variety scale as research indicates that variety scales are more
internally consistent and more stable (Bendixen et al. 2003).
The intra-class correlation for violence across time was 0.75.
Self-Reported Substance Use We examined self-reported
substance use at both the baseline (as a control for
autoregressive effects) and final assessment points. Adoles-
cents reported on the frequency of their use of nine substances
(marijuana, opiates, cocaine, stimulants, ecstasy, sedatives,
hallucinogens, inhalants, amyl nitrate) over the past
12 months. Avariety scale (i.e., number of types of substances
used in the past year) was calculated and used in the study
analyses. Analyses controlled for baseline substance use as a
predictor of the 5-year follow-up interview report. The intra-
class correlation across time was 0.75.
Moderating Variables (Assessed at Baseline)
Early Conduct Problems (CP) To compute a variable that
assessed self-reported symptoms of early CP, we used the SRO
measured and general life history interview variables assessed
at baseline (Mulvey 2013). In total there were 11 items included
in the CP measure: 3 items assessed aggression (e.g., bullying,
school fights, and cruelty to animals) and 8 items assessed rule
violations (e.g., running away, school problems, fire-setting,
fraud). We computed a total score of number of CP items en-
dorsed (i.e., continuous measure). It is noteworthy that all par-
ticipants at baseline were adjudicated as serious felony level
offenders, reducing the potential variability of CP. However,
the continuous CP measure was normally distributed (skew-
ness=0.35, kurtosis=−0.61). We also created a binary CP score
based on youth endorsing 3 or more items (‘elevated’ CP; i.e.,
elevated being a relative term referring to scores being ‘high’
within our high-risk sample) or fewer than 3 items (‘low’ CP).
We also recomputed the CP measure including 8 items
assessing violence (e.g., fight, fights as a part of gang activity,
assault, carjack, robbery with weapon, robbery without weap-
on, shooting at someone, carrying a gun), producing similar
results. We report findings based on the binary CP measure
without the violence items however, to reduce overlap with
our outcome assessment of violence versatility. Models exam-
ining interactions between CP and CU traits trajectory in the
prediction of later violence and substance use also controlled
for the main effect of earlier CP on later violence (i.e., the
heterotypic continuity/escalation from CP to later violence).
Executive Control Executive control, a subtype of executive
function, was assessed through the use of the widely-used
Stroop Color-Word Test (Golden 1978), which indexes cog-
nitive flexibility and resistance to interference from outside
stimuli. The Stoop Color-Word task is a gold-standard mea-
sure of executive control, with many previous studies estab-
lishing its psychometric properties and construct validity in
both healthy and psychiatric populations (see Cauffman
et al. 2009; Golden 1978; Homack and Riccio 2004; Mulvey
2013). This measure assesses the effects of interference on
reading ability and comprises three parts: first, participants
read a word page (the names of colors printed in black ink),
second they read a color page (rows of X's printed in colored
ink) and finally the read a word-color page (the words from
the first page are printed in the colors from the second page;
however, the word meanings and ink colors are mismatched or
incongruent). The task included five columns containing 20
items. During the standardized task, subjects look at each
sheet and move down columns, reading words or naming
ink colors as quickly as possible within a 45-s time limit.
The present study used the standard T-score for interference
based on normed data (see Mulvey 2013; Cauffman et al.
2009). Higher scores reflect better performance and less
J Abnorm Child Psychol (2015) 43:1529–1541 1533
6. interference on reading ability, and higher executive control.
T-scores of 40 or less are considered Blow^ and above 40 are
considered in the Bnormal^ range (Golden 1978).
Risk Factor Covariates (Baseline Measures)
Research has also linked child-level, family, and contextual
sources of risk to AB. To examine the unique effect of CU
traits trajectories on AB, we included as many of these factors
as possible as covariates. Each of the measures below was
evaluated via self-report at baseline.
Individual Characteristics (i) School dropout was coded as
a dichotomous variable (yes/no); (ii) Intelligence was mea-
sured by the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence
(WASI; Wechsler 1999). The WASI produces an estimate of
general intellectual ability based on two subtests, Vocabulary
and Matrix Reasoning (see Bowen et al. 2014; Mulvey et al.
2010 for examples of this measure within youth with AB); (iii)
Emotion regulation was measured via self-report using an
adapted version of the Children’s Emotion Regulation scale
(Walden et al. 1995). Of the 33 original items contained in this
scale, 12 were included in the version for Pathways to Desis-
tance (e.g., ‘I can change my feelings by thinking of some-
thing else’). Participants responded on a 4-point Likert-type
scale ranging from ‘not at all like me’ to ‘really like me.’
Higher scores indicate a better ability to regulate emotion
(α=0.81); and, (iv) Anxiety assessed via the 28-item total
score on the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety scale
(RCMAS; Reynolds and Richmond 1985) (α=0.87).
Family/Peer Characteristics (i) Family arrests were
assessed by computing the proportion of family members re-
siding with the participant who had been arrested; (ii) Peer
deviance was assessed by computing the proportion of each
participant’s four closest friends who had been arrested; and,
(iii) Neighborhood conditions were measured using 21 items
adapted from other large-scale studies of neighborhood func-
tioning and impoverishment (Sampson and Raudenbush
1999). Items assessed physical and social disorder in the
blocks surrounding their homes (e.g., abandoned buildings,
gang activity) and were rated on a four-point scale ranging
from 1 (never) to 4 (often). A mean score was computed
(α=0.94). (iv) Single-parent household was measured dichot-
omously (single parent household/not).
Data Analytic Strategy
Identification of CU Traits Trajectories First, we used
group-based trajectory modeling, a type of mixture modeling,
to identify subgroups of individuals who followed similar pat-
terns of CU traits over time. Trajectories were created based on
chronological age but results are nearly identical using time
point in the study. Trajectories, over 5 years, controlling for
baseline, overlapped in time with the outcome measures. We
used the Latent Gold 4.5 program (Vermunt and Magidson
2008) to estimate the probability that each individual belonged
to a given group based on data. We simultaneously derived
maximum-likelihood parameter estimates associated with
membership in each of the defined trajectories. On the basis
of posterior probabilities, individuals were assigned to their
most likely group trajectory (Nagin 2005). CU traits were ex-
amined across six measurement points including baseline, with
a total accelerated longitudinal age range of 14 to 24. Data were
tested for different numbers of latent classes, and the fit of
different models was compared with the Bayesian information
criterion (BIC; Jones et al. 2001). Mixtures of up to six latent
classes were considered. The best trajectory solution was deter-
mined by three criteria: the lowest BIC value, posterior proba-
bilities, and a model in which each group included at least 5 %
of the sample (Nagin 2005). The shape of each trajectory was
determined by initially including linear, quadratic, and cubic
parameters, and then dropping non-significant trajectories.
The shape of each trajectory is identified by the highest order
term included in the model. In the first iteration, linear, qua-
dratic, and cubic parameters were included for each of the
three trajectories. The cubic parameters were non-significant
for each. Thus, in iteration 2 the cubic parameters were
dropped from each trajectory. The quadratic parameter was
non-significant for the moderate trajectory. Thus, in the final
model the quadratic parameter was dropped from the moder-
ate trajectory. For the final model, the moderate trajectory was
linear, and the low and high trajectories were quadratic. Mul-
tiple imputation (MI) was used to address missing data be-
cause other strategies for managing missing data (e.g., listwise
or pairwise deletion, mean imputation) may result in biased
analyses (Bodner 2008; Graham 2009). In the MI for the cur-
rent study, we included age at baseline, ethnicity, CP at all
follow-up time periods, and measures derived from official
records (e.g., total number of court petitions prior to and in-
cluding baseline and total number of arrests during the 5-year
follow-up) to obtain more stable imputed values based on
more information. Following recommendations by Bodner
(2008), 20 data sets were imputed using STATA 12. This
approach, with age-locked trajectories treats this sample as
an accelerated longitudinal design with planned missingness
and thus leverages 5 years of study data collection to model
8 years of trajectories (Raudenbush and Chan 1992).
Prediction of Violence and Substance Versatility Second,
negative binomial regression was used to examine prediction
of violent offending and substance use at the final 5-year fol-
low-up assessment. We added child-, family-, and contextual
risk factors (assessed at baseline) and CU traits trajectory
membership (assessed over the 5 year study period). Tradi-
tional linear regression models would have been inappropriate
1534 J Abnorm Child Psychol (2015) 43:1529–1541
7. for analyzing count outcomes because count data do not fol-
low, or approximate, a normal distribution (King 1989). In the
current study, an initial conditional Poisson distribution model
deviance statistic indicated over-dispersion (when the true var-
iance is bigger than the mean), thus, negative binomial regres-
sion analyses were used to examine outcomes of violence and
substance use. Variables were entered simultaneously to as-
sess relative associations of the covariates with CU traits tra-
jectory group membership.
Interaction with CP Third, a binary CP variable (i.e., ‘ele-
vated’ or ‘low’ CP) was entered into regression models to
examine interactive effects with CU traits trajectories. We fo-
cused on the interaction between ‘high’ CU traits trajectory
membership and ‘elevated’ CP. Note that although a ‘high’
CU traits and ‘elevated’ CP group was our primary focus,
we also examined other possible interactions between ‘high’,
‘low’, and ‘moderate’ CU traits trajectories and ‘elevated’
versus ‘low’ CP groups. We provide brief reference to effects
for these other interaction terms, but focus on the results for
the ‘high’ CU traits and ‘elevated’ CP group, who represented
youth in whom we were most interested and for whom the
most robust effects emerged. Given our relatively large sam-
ple size, we were able to model interactions within this ‘high’
CU traits trajectory group, an option not usually available in
smaller datasets where cell sizes would be too small.
Moderation by Executive Control Finally, we examined
whether the effects of CU traits trajectories and CP symptoms
on later violence and substance use were further moderated by
executive control, as indexed by the Stroop Color-Word inter-
ference score. An interaction term between ‘high’ CU traits
trajectory and ‘elevated’ CP group membership and executive
control score was added to models. Using the PROCESS tool
(Hayes 2012), we also ran an interactional model that exam-
ined at which specific Stoop T-scores the interaction between
‘high’ CU and ‘elevated’ CP (CU+CP+) was significant (e.g.,
PROCESS provides information about the interaction and the
simple effects at levels of the moderator where the interaction
is significant).
Results
Trajectories of CU Traits
First, we found that a three-group solution for CU traits tra-
jectories fit the data best (Fig. 1). The estimate for entropy was
0.897, indicating appropriate distinction of the three trajecto-
ries. Overall, the data revealed a uniform pattern of low-to-
high CU traits over time. Group 1 (26.5 %) had low CU traits
at baseline that remained low and stable in the follow-up pe-
riods (‘low’). Group 2 (57.4 %) had a moderate level of CU
traits across the study period (‘moderate’). Group 3 (16.1 %)
had high CU traits at baseline that remained stable and high in
the follow-up periods (‘high’). Posterior probabilities indicat-
ed that, on average, individuals were well matched to the
groups to which they were assigned (average posterior prob-
abilities were as follows: ‘low’ group=69 %, moderate
group=73 %, high group=82 %). Next, we used multinomial
regression to examine whether differences among trajectory
groups existed in AB and other relevant variables. Not surpris-
ingly, the ‘high’ CU group committed the highest average num-
ber of violent crime types at 5 year follow-up (0.66) compared to
the ‘low’ (0.16) and ‘moderate’ (0.29) groups. Participants in the
‘high’ CU group also used more types of substances at follow-
up (0.97) compared to the ‘low’ (0.46) and the ‘moderate’ CU
(0.60) trajectory groups. Also, as expected, a large proportion of
the ‘high’ CU traits trajectory group (83.8 %) was classified as
being in the ‘elevated’ early CP group compared youth in the
‘low’ (59.9 %) or ‘moderate’ (71.3 %) groups. Indeed, youth in
the ‘low’ and ‘moderate’ CU groups were 54.3 and 23.7 % less
likely to be in the ‘elevated’ CP group respectively compared to
the ‘high’ CU traits group. By contrast, only 19.3 % of youth
who we classified as being in the ‘elevated’ CP group were in
the ‘high’ CU trajectory group.
Main Effect of CU Traits Trajectories in the Prediction
of Violence and Substance Use
We examined whether CU traits trajectories predicted vio-
lence, controlling for individual-, family-, peer-, and
neighborhood-level risk factors1
and baseline CP. First, we
found that individuals in the ‘low’ and ‘moderate’ CU traits
trajectory groups were 68.8 and 45.5 % less likely, respective-
ly, to exhibit violence versatility at follow-up compared to
those in the ‘high’ CU traits trajectory group (Table 2,
Model 1). Significant associations were also found between
CU traits trajectories and substance use at the 5-year follow-up
assessment, controlling for covariates as before (Table 3,
Model 1). Youth in the ‘low’ and ‘moderate’ CU traits trajec-
tory groups were 42.6 and 30.7 % less likely, respectively, to
1
The inclusion of these covariates is important given the num-
ber of individual, peer, and family factors linked to violence
and substance use. Our analyses demonstrate that CU traits
trajectories predicted violence and substance use above and
beyond these other factors. However, the ‘high’ CU-violence
(p<0.001) and ‘high’ CU–substance use (p=0.001) relation-
ships were significant even when not including these covari-
ates. A model not including covariates indicated that the
‘high’ CU group was 2.83 times more likely to engage in
violent versatility at the 5 year follow-up and 1.44 times more
likely to engage in versatile use of substances at the 5 year
follow-up point.
J Abnorm Child Psychol (2015) 43:1529–1541 1535
8. use a greater variety of substance types at follow-up compared
to participants in the ‘high’ CU traits group.
Interaction Between CU Traits Trajectories and Early CP
in the Prediction of Violence and Substance Use
For the prediction of violence, the interaction between CU
traits trajectories and CP symptoms indicated significant dif-
ferences between the ‘high’ CU traits group and all subgroups
with the exception of the ‘high’ CU traits and ‘low’ CP group
(Table 2, Model 2).2
Specifically, compared to the CU+CP+
group, the ‘low’ CU traits trajectory group who were classi-
fied as having ‘low’ CP was 82.8 % less likely to show vio-
lence versatility at the 5-year follow-up assessment. Results
were similar when the CU+CP+ group was compared to other
groups: ‘moderate’ CU traits group with ‘low’ CP (75.7 %
less likely), ‘low’ CU and ‘elevated’ CP group (62.0 % less
likely), and the ‘moderate’ CU and ‘elevated’ CP group
(32.5 % less likely). These comparisons indicate that CU traits
trajectory group membership over time was a better predictor
of later outcomes than early levels of CP only. Further, the
comparison between CU+CP+ and the group with ‘high’ CU
traits but ‘low’ CP was not significant, highlighting the robust
and unique effect of high CU traits trajectories on future vio-
lent offending, regardless of earlier CP.
For the prediction of substance use, analyses comparing
specific subgroups to the CU+CP+ group indicated that youth
in the ‘low’ and ‘moderate’ CU traits trajectory groups with
‘low’ CP were 60.4 and 44.4 % less likely to exhibit substance
versatility at follow-up, respectively (Table 3, Model 2). All
other group comparisons (i.e., ‘high’ CU traits with ‘low’ CP;
‘low’ CU traits and ‘elevated’ CP; ‘moderate’ CU traits and
‘elevated’ CP) with the CU+CP+ group did not reach signif-
icance. These non-significant comparisons suggest the impor-
tance of considering either ‘high’ CU traits trajectory mem-
bership or earlier elevated CP symptoms in relation specifical-
ly to the prediction of substance use versatility. As before, the
results were robust to the effects of various putative family,
child and contextual sources of risk, as well as earlier base-
lines assessments of substance versatility.
Further Moderation by Executive Control
The results of the moderation analyses are presented in Col-
umn 3 of Tables 2 and 3 (Model 3). The main effect of exec-
utive control at baseline was not significant in predicting later
violence or substance use. However, we found a significant
interaction between executive control and all subgroups when
compared to the CU+CP+ group in the violent offending
model. Probing of these significant interactions suggested that
youth in the CU+CP+ group with high executive control (i.e.,
high Stroop difference T-scores) showed higher violence
2
We re-ran the analyses using the continuous CP measure and
results were consistent with the binary CP measure. Specifi-
cally, individuals with higher levels of CP were more likely to
display violence versatility (B=0.21, p<0.01) and substance
use (B=13, p<0.01) at the 5-year follow-up assessment.
Moreover, adolescents with ‘high’ CU traits trajectories and
elevated levels of earlier CP were more likely to exhibit vio-
lence and substance use at follow-up.
Fig. 1 Trajectories of CU traits
1536 J Abnorm Child Psychol (2015) 43:1529–1541
9. versatility scores (Fig. 2). Specifically, CU+CP+ youth with
Stroop T-scores above the 85th
percentile (n=29) were more
likely to exhibit violence versatility at follow-up than other
groups. For substance use, youth in the ‘low’ and ‘moderate’
CU traits trajectory groups with ‘low’ CP were significantly
less likely to exhibit substance versatility at follow-up com-
pared to the participants in the CU+CP+ and high executive
control group. All other group comparisons with the CU+
CP+ group did not reach significance. The significant com-
parisons indicate that respondents in the CU+CP+ group with
Stroop T-scores above the 61st
percentile (n=75) were more
likely to use a variety of substances at follow-up compared to
the ‘low’ and ‘moderate’ CU traits groups with ‘low’ CP
(Fig. 3).
Discussion
In the current study we examined the impact of CU traits
trajectories, self-reported CP symptoms, and executive control
on AB among a large high-risk sample of adolescent males.
We explored several questions relating to identifying trajecto-
ries of CU traits and their association with later AB, the
interactions between CU traits trajectories and earlier CP
symptoms on later AB, and the moderating role of executive
control in these pathways. This is the third study to have
examined trajectories of CU traits among youth, and the first
to do so among a large group of males at high risk of engaging
in high levels of future violence and substance use. Our find-
ings extend understanding of the development of CU traits
and severe AB in three ways.
Identification and Predictive Validity of CU Traits
Trajectories in Adolescence
First, our findings yielded three meaningful trajectories of CU
traits across adolescence that appeared stable over the assess-
ment period. Our results fit with the broader literature,
highlighting the need for studies to consider individual differ-
ences in the level of adolescent personality and antisocial fea-
tures over time (e.g., Moffitt 1993; Piquero 2008; Waller et al.
under review). In particular, a small subset of youth (16.1 %)
was classified as showing high and stable levels of CU traits
across the study period. This ‘high’ CU traits trajectory mem-
bership was related to violence and substance use, even after
controlling for a variety of individual-, family-, and peer-level
Table 2 Odds ratio for the impact of CU trajectories, CU+CP, and executive control on violence versatility
Model 1: CU trajectories Model 2: CU+CP+ Model 3: CU+CP+ × Executive control
CP (Baseline) 2.64*** 2.64*** 2.63**
‘Low’ CU 0.312*** – –
‘Moderate’ CU 0.545*** – –
‘Low’ CU/‘Low’ CP – 0.172*** 0.956***
‘Moderate’ CU/‘Low’ CP – 0.243*** 0.974***
‘High’ CU/‘Low’ CP – 0.919 0.984**
‘Low’ CU+‘Elevated’ CP – 0.380*** 0.970***
‘Moderate’ CU+‘Elevated’ CP – 0.675* 0.990**
The reference group in Model 1 ‘High’ CU trajectory group. The reference group for Models 2–3 is ‘High’ CU+‘Elevated’ CP. *p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***
p<0.001
Table 3 Odds ratio for the impact of CU trajectories, CU+CP, and executive control on substance use versatility
Model 1: CU trajectories Model 2: CU+CP+ Model 3: CU+CP+ × Executive control
CP (Baseline) 1.45** 1.43** 1.47**
‘Low’ CU 0.574*** – –
‘Moderate’ CU 0.693** – –
‘Low’ CU/‘Low’ CP – 0.396*** 0.983**
‘Moderate’ CU/‘Low’ CP – 0.556** 0.988*
‘High’ CU/‘Low’ CP – 1.63* 1.01
‘Low’ CU+‘Elevated’ CP – 0.805 0.996
‘Moderate’ CU+‘Elevated’ CP – 0.851 0.996
The reference group in Model 1 ‘High’ CU trajectory group. The reference group for Models 2–3 is ‘High’ CU+‘Elevated’ CP. *p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***
p<0.001
J Abnorm Child Psychol (2015) 43:1529–1541 1537
10. risk factors, as well as baseline levels of CP and earlier sub-
stance use. These results are in line with previous studies
suggesting that the presence of CU traits is related to more
severe AB and substance use among youth, but also extends
this prior literature to assess developmental trajectories using a
stringent control for confounding variables (e.g., Frick et al.
2014; Wymbs et al. 2012). In particular, CU traits are theo-
rized to increase risk for violent and substance use behaviors
because youth may be less responsive to the emotional distress
of victims (Marsh and Blair 2008) and are highly focused on
reward, with little care for consequences (Blair 2013). Our
findings are also in line with the adult literature, where studies
have demonstrated high overlap between psychopathy and
substance use (Taylor and Lang 2006).
Risk Associated with CU Traits and Elevated Levels
of Earlier Self-Reported CP Symptoms
Second, our results highlight the risk associated with youth
having high and stable levels of CU traits and existing, elevated
levels of self-reported CP symptoms. As predicted, the ‘high’
CU trajectory group had significantly higher levels of self-
reported CP symptoms at baseline when compared to youth
with either ‘moderate’ or ‘low’ CU traits trajectories. However,
there was evidence of asymmetry in the relationship between
CU traits and CP. Specifically, youth with high CU traits were
highly likely to be classified as having ‘elevated’ CP (83.8 %)
but youth with ‘elevated’ CP were only moderately likely to be
classified as being in our ‘high’ CU traits trajectory group
(19.3 %), indicating that those with CU traits are very likely
to have ‘elevated’ levels of CP but most individuals with ‘ele-
vated’ CP are not high on CU traits. Our findings fit with a
previous trajectory analysis among a population sample of chil-
dren, where a similar asymmetrical relationship emerged
(Fontaine et al. 2011), indicating that CU traits may primarily
be considered as a particularly severe subgroup within adoles-
cents exhibiting CP. Further, these findings are in line with the
adult literature, where antisocial personality disorder does not
always overlap with psychopathy, whereas most individuals
with psychopathy meet criteria for antisocial personality disor-
der (e.g., Forsman et al. 2010). Unlike Fontaine and colleagues,
however, we did not identify subgroups with ‘changing’ CU
traits – including increasing or decreasing CU traits. Instead, we
found relatively high within- and between-person stability in
CU traits across time. One explanation for this difference may
arise from sample type. We focused on a high-risk, older sample
of youth who had already had contact with the law and among
whom trajectories of CU traits may have been more stable. In
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
No Violence 1 Violence Type 2 or More Violence Types
MeanStoopInterferenceScore
(T-score)
All Other Groups (N=1,004) CU + CP+ (N=166)
* *
Fig. 2 Interaction among CU
traits, CP, and executive control
on violence. Note: CU+CP+=
‘High’ CU+‘Elevated’ CP group.
Asterisks indicate significant
effects at p<0.05
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
No Substance Use 1 Substance Type 2 or More Substance Types
MeanStoopInterferenceScore
(T-score)
All Other Groups (N=1,004) CU + CP+ (N=166)
* *
Fig. 3 Interaction among CU
traits, CP, and executive control
on substance use. Note: CU+
CP+= ‘High’ CU+‘Elevated’ CP
group. Asterisks indicate
significant effects at p<0.05
1538 J Abnorm Child Psychol (2015) 43:1529–1541
11. contrast, Fontaine and colleagues examined CU traits trajecto-
ries among a population-based sample of twins who were
assessed at much younger ages (7–12 years old), when CU
features may be expected to be less stable. Thus, sample type
and developmental stage may affect relative ‘stability’ of CU
traits (also see Waller et al. 2013).
Moreover, we found that youth with a joint ‘high’ CU traits
trajectory and elevated levels of self-reported CP (CU+CP+)
showed the highest likelihood of later violence, but they did
not differ significantly from youth with ‘high’ CU traits and
‘low’ levels of CP. Thus, although CU+CP+ youth showed
the most violence later, the effect appeared to be driven by CU
traits trajectories rather than CP levels. Thus, findings suggest
that within adjudicated youth, high and chronic levels of CU
traits may be more important in predicting outcomes over and
above existing AB (also see Frick et al. 2014). For substance
use however, there was a subtly different pattern of findings.
As with violence, CU+CP+ youth were most likely to show
more substance use, but only when compared to groups with
‘low’ or ‘moderate’ CU traits and low levels of CP. Specifi-
cally, a ‘high’ CU traits trajectory (regardless of the level of
CP) or a classification of elevated CP (even for ‘low’ or ‘mod-
erate’ CU traits) were both related to later substance use. In
this regard, findings suggest that while CU traits may exacer-
bate risk, elevated levels of CP even in the absence of CU
traits, increase the likelihood of later substance use. Though
speculative, it is possible that the mechanisms leading to en-
gagement in substance use differ between these groups – for
example, elevated CP levels in the absence of CU traits have
been linked to emotional dysregulation and impulsivity,
whereas elevated CP and CU traits appear to be related to
lower emotional responsivity and punishment insensitivity
(Frick and Morris 2004). Further, work among adults has
demonstrated that psychopathic traits, AB, and substance
use disorders may overlap at a latent level because of a shared
heritable risk for AB (Blonigen et al. 2005). Thus, CU traits
may act a specific risk factor for violence but a more general
correlate of AB, producing overlap with CP and substance
use. However, future studies are needed to test this question
among samples of children and adolescents.
Moderation by Executive Control
Finally, a novel aspect of this study is that we examined mod-
erating effects of executive control on links between CU traits,
CP, and later violence and substance use. A large body of
literature suggests that deficits in executive control are related
to higher aggression and sensation-seeking behavior (De Brito
and Hodgins 2009). However, the present study found that the
effects of CU+CP+ on both violence and substance versatility
were stronger among youth with high executive control. In
other words, for youth with high, stable CU traits and elevated
levels of early CP, higher executive control (i.e., cognitive
flexibility and resistance to interference from stimuli) in-
creased the likelihood that youth would exhibit violence and
substance versatility. This finding is surprising given the sep-
arate literatures linking each of these three variables (high CU
traits, elevated self-reported CP symptoms, and low executive
control) to worse AB. However, in our sample, this small
group of youth (n=29) may represent an important at-risk
subtype who account for the very worst AB outcomes. It is
noteworthy that in a previous cross-sectional study that exam-
ined detained males adolescents, Muñoz and colleagues found
that males with high CU traits and high verbal ability scores
reported greater violence compared to males with low CU
traits and low verbal ability (Munoz et al. 2008). Further, in
a large population sample of males followed from ages 12 to
24, Barker and colleagues (2011) found that higher
neurocognitive ability was related to chronic theft over time.
Finally, Waschbusch and Willoughby (2008) also reported
that CU traits and CP were the strongest predictors of aggres-
sion in children with low ADHD symptoms (a disorder asso-
ciated with deficits in executive control). Taken together, these
previous studies, along with the present findings, suggest that
higher executive control may enable CU+CP+ youth to suc-
cessfully engage in violence or substance versatility. In partic-
ular higher executive control may support the planning and
implementation of more effective strategies to obtain their
desired goals, either through violence or other methods, with
less chance of spending time incarcerated.
Strengths and Limitations
There were a number of strengths to the current study, includ-
ing assessment of a large, high-risk sample of male youth,
followed for 5 years, novel examination of interactive effects
of CU traits trajectories, self-reported CP, and executive con-
trol, and stringent control in models for the potential effects of
relevant covariates. However, our findings should be consid-
ered alongside a number of limitations. First, with the excep-
tion of the measure of executive control, we relied on self-
report for all measures. Though youth may be the best re-
porters of some of these behaviors (i.e., substance use, vio-
lence) and use of autoregressive effects can somewhat miti-
gate shared-method bias, our approach may have
overestimated effects through shared method biases. Future
studies examining prospective links between CU traits trajec-
tories and CP and violence or substance use should include
objective reports or official records to avoid potential limita-
tions associated with single reporter data collection. Second,
because some items assessing self-reported CP symptoms
were only available at baseline assessments, we were unable
to examine interactive effects of CP at later assessment waves
with CU traits trajectories. Joint trajectory analysis of CP and
CU traits in this sample would be very interesting but with our
current measure of CP, it was not possible. Third, because of
J Abnorm Child Psychol (2015) 43:1529–1541 1539
12. power issues, we were unable to include females from the
Pathways study, as we would not have been able to estimate
trajectory group memberships. Previous studies have estimat-
ed trajectories of CU traits among females (Fontaine et al.
2011), but future studies are needed to examine trajectories
of CU traits among high-risk adolescent samples including
both males and females. Fourth, the proportion of the sample
enrolled specifically with a drug offense was capped at 15 %,
which may have meant that there was reduced variability in
assessment of substance use at the final assessment point.
Thus, our findings may not generalize to other adjudicated
samples of youth among whom rates of substance use may
be higher due to greater rates of drug related offenses. How-
ever, drug offenses are not necessarily indicative of use, mean-
ing that many ‘non-substance’ offenders may have had high
levels of substance use, although this overlap is difficult to
evaluate within the Pathways dataset. Moreover, we caution
use of the terms ‘elevated’ and ‘low’ that simply refer to
relative levels of CP in our high-risk sample, and would likely
not apply in more normative samples, highlighting the need
for replication of our finding in different sample types. Finally,
although the current study was novel in examining the mod-
erating effect of executive control on links between CU traits,
CP, and AB, we focused on an interference paradigm with the
Stroop Color-Word task, which only indexes one type of ex-
ecutive control. Future studies are needed that incorporate a
wider battery of neuropsychological assessments.
Conclusions
The current study adds to the evidence base supporting CU
traits as a useful subtyping approach within youth AB (cf.,
DSM-5; Frick et al. 2014). In particular, youth with high and
stable CU traits were more likely to engage in violence and
substance use 5 years later, over and above both elevated
levels of existing self-reported CP, earlier substance use, and
a range of other relevant covariates. Thus, assessing CU traits
among high-risk adolescents may be particularly useful for
targeting early or tailored intervention and treatment compo-
nents. Beyond links between CU traits and violence and sub-
stance versatility, we found an interesting interaction with ear-
ly CP and executive control. Specifically, youth with ‘high’
CU, ‘elevated’ CP, and high executive control were at greater
risk of engaging in AB, which may fit with previous concep-
tualizations of psychopathy whereby cognitive abilities goes
some way toward masking some of the negative behavioral
and interpersonal features linked to psychopathy (e.g.,
Cleckley 1976). Taken together, the findings of this study
highlight the utility of identifying subgroups of youth who
differ in the trajectories of their CU personality features,
which appears to have meaningful predictive validity in rela-
tion to costly and harmful AB.
Conflict of Interest None declared
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