Cotton & cotton with reactive dyes

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PROJECT-I
Course Code : TXE-410
Course Title : Project-I
SUBMITTED BY:
Name ID Project Group
Md. AL-Amin 121-053-041(Leader)
Md. Fahim 121-035-041
Fazlul Azim 121-045-041
Romana Akter 121-046-041 Group-I
Sujan Chandra Das 121-049-041
Pabitra Chowhan 121-065-041
Md. Jamrul Islam 121-078-041
SUBMITTED TO:
Prof. Dr. ABM Abdullah
Professor
Dept. of Textile Engineering
Primeasia University
_____________________
Prof. Dr. ABM Abdullah
Professor
Dept. of Textile Engineering

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CONTENTS:
INTRODUCTION OF COTTON
TYPES OF COTTON
HISTORY
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN
CULTIVATION
GENETIC MODIFICATION
ORGANIC PRODUCTION
PESTS & WEEDS
HARVESTING
USES
CHEMICALCOMPOSITION OF COTTON
CRITICAL TEMPERATURE
BRITISH STANDARDYARN MEASURES
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
LEADING PRODUCER COUTRIES
FAIR TRADE
TRADE

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COTTON GENOME
DYE
WHY A CHEMICAL BECOMES DYE?
NECESSARY CONDITIONS TO BE A DYE
CLASSIFICATION OF DYE
COLOR INDOX INTRNATIONAL
DYEING
REACTIVE DYE
USAGE
CONCLUSION
REFERANCE

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Name of Project:
Cotton & Cotton Dyeing with
Reactive Dyes.

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INTRODUCTION OF COTTON:
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll or
protective capsule around the seeds of cotton plants of the genus
Gossypium in the family of Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure
cellulose. Under natural conditions, the cotton bolls will tend to
increase the dispersion of the seeds.
The plant is a shrub native to tropical and subtropical regions
around the world including the Americas, Africa, and India. The
greatest diversity of wild cotton species is found in Mexico,
followed by Australia and Africa. Cotton was independently
domesticated in the Old and New Worlds.
The fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to
make a soft & breathable textile. The use of cotton for fabric is
known to date to prehistoric times; fragments of cotton fabric
dated from 5000 BC have been excavated in Mexico and the
Indus Valley Civilization (modern-day Pakistan and some parts
of India). Although cultivated since antiquity, it was the
invention of the cotton gin that lowered the cost of production

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that led to its widespread use and it is the most widely used
natural fiber cloth in clothing today.
Current estimates for world production are about 25 million
tonnes or 110 million bales annually accounting for 2.5% of the
world's arable land. China is the world's largest producer of
cotton, but most of this is used domestically. The United States
has been the largest exporter for many years. In the United
States, cotton is usually measured in bales, which measure
approximately 0.48 cubic meters (17 cubic feet) and weigh
226.8 kilograms (500 pounds).
Cotton

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TYPES OF COTTON:
There are four commercially grown species of cotton, all
domesticated in antiquity:
 Gossypium hirsutum – upland cotton, native to Central
America, Mexico, the Caribbean and southern Florida (90%
of world production)
 Gossypium barbadense – known as extra-long staple cotton,
native to tropical South America (8% of world production)
 Gossypium arboreum – tree cotton, native to India and
Pakistan (less than 2%)
 Gossypium herbaceum – Levant cotton, native to southern
Africa and the Arabian Peninsula (less than 2%)
Gossypium hirsutum: Gossypium hirsutum also known as
upland cotton or Mexican cotton is the most widely planted
species of cotton in the United States, constituting some 95% of
all cotton production there. It is native to Mexico, the West

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Indies, northern South America, Central America and possibly
tropical Florida. Worldwide, the figure is about 90% of all
cotton production is of cultivars derived from this species.
Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum are the main
species used to produce cottonseed oil.
Flowers of Gossypium hirsutum
Gossypium barbadense: Gossypium barbadense also known as
extra-long staple (ELS) cotton as it generally has a staple of at
least 1 3/8" or longer is a species of cotton plant. Varieties of
(ELS) cotton include American Pima, Egyptian Giza, Indian
Suvin, Chinese Xinjiang,

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Sudanese Barakat, and Russian Tonkovoloknistyi. It is a
tropical, frost-sensitive perennial plant that produces yellow
flowers and has black seeds. It grows as a small, bushy tree and
yields cotton with unusually long, silky fibers. To grow, it
requires full sun and high humidity and rainfall.
Gossypium barbadense, Galapagos
Gossypium arboretum: Gossypium arboretum commonly called
tree cotton is a species of cotton native to India, Pakistan and
other tropical and subtropical regions of the Old World. There
is evidence of its cultivation as long ago as the Harappan

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civilization of the Indus Valley for the production of cotton
textiles. This species of cotton was also introduced into East
Africa and was grown by the Meroe civilization in Nubia. The
shrub was included in Linnaeus's Species Plantarum published
in 1753. The holotype was also supplied by him which is now in
the Linnean Herbarium in the Swedish Museum of Natural
History. It is a sister-species of Gossypium herbaceum.
Gossypium arboretum
Gossypium herbaceum: Gossypium herbaceum, commonly
known as Levant cotton and it is a species of cotton native to the
semi-arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa and Arabia where it

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still grows in the wild as a perennial shrub. It is a sister-species
of Gossypium arboreum.
Cotton is usually used as a textile while making clothing and
can be made into yarns and sheets of fabric. In the Levant seeds
are often used for food. It is utilized so often because of its
comfortable, breathable properties. It has been cultivated for
women's menstrual cycle pains and irregular bleeding and it
also has been used after birth to expel placenta afterbirth and to
increase lactation. Cotton has been used for gastrointestinal
issues also such as hemorrhages, nausea, and diarrhea, as well
as fevers and headaches, especially in the southern United
States. Levant cotton seed extract, gossypol, also has a
potential use as a male contraceptive but can cause infertility
after discontinuing. In lab rat studies, it has been able to stop
pregnancies early.

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Gossypium herbaceum
The two New World cotton species account for the vast majority
of modern cotton production, but the two Old World species
were widely used before the 1900s. While cotton fibers occur
naturally in colors of white, brown, pink and green, fears of
contaminating the genetics of white cotton have led many
cotton-growing locations to ban the growing of colored cotton
varieties, which remain a specialty product.

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HISTORY:
Cotton was used in the Old World at least 7,000 years ago (5th
millennium BC). Evidence of cotton use has been found at the
site of
Mehrgarh where early cotton threads have been preserved in
copper beads. Cotton cultivation became more widespread
during the Indus Valley Civilization which covered parts of
modern eastern Pakistan and northwestern India. The Indus
cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used in
cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the
industrialization of India. Between 2000 and 1000 BC cotton
became widespread across much of India. For example, it has
been found at the site of Hallus in Karnataka dating from
around 1000 BC. Cotton fabrics discovered in a cave near
Tehuacán, Mexico have been dated to around 5800 BC,
although it is difficult to know for certain due to fiber decay.
Other sources date the domestication of cotton in Mexico to
approximately 5000 to 3000 BC.

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Cotton plants as imagined and drawn by John Mandeville in the
14th century
The Greeks and the Arabs were not familiar with cotton until the
Wars of Alexander the Great, as his contemporary Megasthenes
told Seleucus I Nicator of "there being trees on which wool
grows" in "Indica". This
Might actually be a reference to "tree cotton", Gossypium
arboreum which is a native of the Indian subcontinent.
According to the Columbia Encyclopedia:
Cotton has been spun, woven, and dyed since prehistoric times.
It clothed the people of ancient India, Egypt and China.

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Hundreds of years before the Christian era cotton textiles were
woven in India with matchless skill and their use spread to the
Mediterranean countries.
In Iran (Persia), the history of cotton dates back to the
Achaemenid era (5th century BC); however, there are few
sources about the planting of cotton in pre-Islamic Iran. The
planting of cotton was common in Merv, Ray and Pars of Iran.
In Persian poets' poems especially Ferdowsi's Shahname, there
are references to cotton ("panbe" in Persian). Marco Polo (13th
century) refers to the major products of Persia including cotton.
John Chardin, a French traveler of the 17th century who visited
the Safavid Persia, spoke approvingly of the vast cotton farms of
Persia.
During the Han dynasty, cotton was grown by non-Chinese
peoples in the southern Chinese province of Yunnan.
In Peru, cultivation of the indigenous cotton species Gossypium
barbadense was the backbone of the development of coastal
cultures such as the Norte Chico, Moche, and Nazca. Cotton
was grown upriver, made into nets and traded with fishing

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villages along the coast for large supplies of fish. The Spanish
who came to Mexico and Peru in the early 16th century found
the people growing cotton and wearing clothing made of it.
During the late medieval period, cotton became known as an
imported fiber in northern Europe without any knowledge of
how it was derived other than that it was a plant. Because
Herodotus had written in his Histories, Book III, 106, that in
India trees grew in the wild producing wool, it was assumed that
the plant was a tree, rather than a shrub. This aspect is retained
in the name for cotton in several Germanic languages such as
German Baumwolle, which translates as "tree wool" (Baum
means "tree"; Wolle means "wool"). Noting its similarities to
wool, people in the region could only imagine that cotton must
be produced by plant-borne sheep. John Mandeville, writing in
1350, stated as fact the now-preposterous belief: "There grew
there [India] a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the
endes of its branches. These branches were so pliable that they
bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungrie
[sic]." (See Vegetable Lamb of Tartary.) By the end of the 16th

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century, cotton was cultivated throughout the warmer regions in
Asia and the Americas.
India's cotton-processing sector gradually declined during
British expansion in India and the establishment of colonial rule
during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. This was largely
due to aggressive colonialist mercantile policies of the British
East India Company which made cotton processing and
manufacturing workshops in India uncompetitive. Indian
markets were increasingly forced to supply only raw cotton and
were forced by British-imposed law to purchase manufactured
textiles from Britain.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN:
The advent of the Industrial Revolution in Britain provided a
great boost to cotton manufacture, as textiles emerged as
Britain's leading export. In 1738, Lewis Paul and John Wyatt, of
Birmingham, England, patented the roller spinning machine as
well as the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing cotton to a
more even thickness using two sets of rollers that traveled at

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different speeds. Later the invention of the James Hargreaves'
spinning jenny in 1764, Richard Arkwright's spinning frame in
1769 and Samuel Crompton's spinning mule in 1775 enabled
British spinners to produce cotton yarn at much higher rates.
From the late 18th century on, the British city of Manchester
acquired the nickname "Cottonopolis" due to the cotton
industry's omnipresence within the city, and Manchester's role
as the heart of the global cotton trade.
Production capacity in Britain and the United States was
improved by the invention of the cotton gin by the American Eli
Whitney in 1793. Before the development of cotton gins, the
cotton fibers had to be pulled from the seeds tediously by hand.
By the late 1700s a number of crude ginning machines had been
developed. However, to produce a bale of cotton required over
600 hours of human labor, making large-scale production
uneconomical in the United States even with the use of humans
as slave labor. The gin that Whitney manufactured (the Holmes
design) reduced the hours down to just a dozen or so per bale.
Although Whitney patented his own design for a cotton gin, he
manufactured a prior design from Henry Odgen Holmes, for

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which Holmes filed a patent in 1796. Improving technology and
increasing control of world markets allowed British traders to
develop a commercial chain in which raw cotton fibers were (at
first) purchased from colonial plantations, processed into cotton
cloth in the mills of Lancashire and then exported on British
ships to captive colonial markets in West Africa, India, and
China (via Shanghai and Hong Kong).
By the 1840s, India was no longer capable of supplying the vast
quantities of cotton fibers needed by mechanized British
factories, while shipping bulky, low-price cotton from India to
Britain was time-consuming and expensive. This, coupled with
the emergence of American cotton as a superior type (due to the
longer, stronger fibers of the two domesticated native American
species,(Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium barbadense),
encouraged British traders to purchase cotton from plantations
in the United States and plantations in the Caribbean. By the
mid-19th century, "King Cotton" had become the backbone of
the southern American economy. In the United States,
cultivating and harvesting cotton became the leading occupation
of slaves.

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During the American Civil War, American cotton exports
slumped due to a Union blockade on Southern ports, and also
because of a strategic decision by the Confederate government
to cut exports, hoping to force Britain to recognize the
Confederacy or enter the war. This prompted the main
purchasers of cotton, Britain and France to turn to Egyptian
cotton. British and French traders invested heavily in cotton
plantations. The Egyptian government of Viceroy Isma'il took
out substantial loans from European bankers and stock
exchanges. After the American Civil War ended in 1865, British
and French traders abandoned Egyptian cotton and returned to
cheap American exports, sending Egypt into a deficit spiral that
led to the country declaring bankruptcy in 1876, a key factor
behind Egypt's occupation by the British Empire in 1882.
During this time, cotton cultivation in the British Empire,
especially India, greatly increased to replace the lost production
of the American South. Through tariffs and other restrictions,
the British government discouraged the production of cotton
cloth in India; rather, the raw fiber was sent to England for
processing. The Indian Mahatma Gandhi described the process:

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1. English people buy Indian cotton in the field picked by Indian
labor at seven cents a day, through an optional monopoly.
2. This cotton is shipped on British ships, a three-week journey
across the Indian Ocean, down the Red Sea, across the
Mediterranean through Gibraltar across the Bay of Biscay
and the Atlantic Ocean to London. One hundred per cent
profit on this freight is regarded as small.
3. The cotton is turned into cloth in Lancashire. You pay shilling
wages instead of Indian pennies to your workers. The English
worker not only has the advantage of better wages but the
steel companies of England get the profit of building the
factories and machines. Wages, profits & all these are spent
in England.
4. The finished product is sent back to India at European
shipping rates, once again on British ships. The captains,
officers, sailors of these ships, whose wages must be paid, are
English. The only Indians who profit are a few lascars who do
the dirty work on the boats for a few cents a day.
5. The cloth is finally sold back to the kings and landlords of
India who got the money to buy this expensive cloth out of the
poor peasants of India who worked at seven cents a day.

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In the United States, Southern cotton provided capital for the
continuing development of the North. The cotton produced by
enslaved African Americans not only helped the South, but
also enriched Northern merchants. Much of the Southern
cotton was trans-shipped through northern ports. Cotton
remained a key crop in the Southern economy after
emancipation and the end of the Civil War in 1865. Across the
South, sharecropping evolved, in which free black farmers
and landless white farmers worked on white-owned cotton
plantations of the wealthy in return for a share of the profits.
Cotton plantations required vast labor forces to hand-pick
cotton.
It was not until the 1950s that reliable harvesting machinery
was introduced (prior to this cotton-harvesting machinery had
been too clumsy to pick cotton without shredding the fibers).
During the first half of the 20th century, employment in the
cotton industry fell as machines began to replace laborers and
the South's rural labor force dwindled during the World Wars.
.

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Prisoners farming cotton under the trusty system in Parchman
Farm, Mississippi, 1911
CULTIVATION:
Successful cultivation of cotton requires a long frost-free period,
plenty of sunshine and a moderate rainfall, usually from 600 to
1,200 mm (24 to 47 in). Soils usually need to be fairly heavy,
although the level of nutrients does not need to be exceptional.
In general, these conditions are met within the seasonally dry
tropics and subtropics in the Northern and Southern
hemispheres, but a large proportion of the cotton grown today is
cultivated in areas with less rainfall that obtain the water from
irrigation. Production of the crop for a given year usually starts

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soon after harvesting the preceding autumn. Cotton is naturally
a perennial but is grown as an annual to help control pests.
Planting time in spring in the Northern hemisphere varies from
the beginning of February to the beginning of June. The area of
the United States known as the South Plains is the largest
contiguous cotton-growing region in the world. While dryland
(non-irrigated) cotton is successfully grown in this region,
consistent yields are only produced with heavy reliance on
irrigation water drawn from the Ogallala Aquifer. Since cotton
is somewhat salt and drought tolerant, this makes it an
attractive crop for arid and semiarid regions. As water
resources get tighter around the world, economies that rely on it
face difficulties and conflict as well as potential environmental
problems. For example, improper cropping and irrigation
practices have led to desertification in areas of Uzbekistan,
where cotton is a major export. In the days of the Soviet Union,
the Aral Sea was tapped for agricultural irrigation largely of
cotton and now salination is widespread. Cotton can also be
cultivated to have colors other than the yellowish off-white
typical of modern commercial cotton fibers. Naturally colored
cotton can come in red, green, and several shades of brown.

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Cotton plowing in Togo, 1928
Picking cotton in Armenia in the 1930s. No cotton is grown
there today.

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Cotton ready for shipment, Houston, Texas (postcard, circa
1911)
Cotton modules in Australia (2007)

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GENETIC MODIFICATION:
Genetically modified (GM) cotton was developed to reduce the
heavy reliance on pesticides. The bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) naturally produces a chemical harmful only to
a small fraction of insects, most notably the larvae of moths and
butterflies, beetles, and flies, and harmless to other forms of life.
The gene coding for Bt toxin has been inserted into cotton,
causing cotton called Bt cotton to produce this natural
insecticide in its tissues. In many regions, the main pests in
commercial cotton are lepidopteran larvae which are killed by
the Bt protein in the transgenic cotton they eat. This eliminates
the need to use large amounts of broad-spectrum insecticides to
kill lepidopteran pests (some of which have developed
parathyroid resistance). This spares natural insect predators in
the farm ecology and further contributes to no insecticide pest
management.
But BT cotton is ineffective against many cotton pests however
such as plant bugs, stink bugs, and aphids; depending on
circumstances it may still be desirable to use insecticides

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against these. A 2006 study done by Cornell researchers, the
Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy and the Chinese
Academy of Science on Bt cotton farming in China found that
after seven years these secondary pests that were normally
controlled by pesticide had increased, necessitating the use of
pesticides at similar levels to non-Bt cotton and causing less
profit for farmers because of the extra expense of GM seeds.
However, a 2009 study by the Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Stanford University and Rutgers University refuted this. They
concluded that the GM cotton effectively controlled bollworm.
The secondary pests were mostly miridae (plant bugs) whose
increase was related to local temperature and rainfall and only
continued to increase in half the villages studied. Moreover, the
increase in insecticide use for the control of these secondary
insects was far smaller than the reduction in total insecticide use
due to BT cotton adoption. A 2012 Chinese study concluded that
BT cotton halved the use of pesticides and doubled the level of
ladybirds, lacewings and spiders. The International Service for
the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) said that,
worldwide, GM cotton was planted on an area of 25 million

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hectares in 2011. This was 69% of the worldwide total area
planted in cotton.
GM cotton acreage in India grew at a rapid rate increasing
from 50,000 hectares in 2002 to 10.6 million hectares in 2011.
The total cotton area in India was 12.1 million hectares in 2011,
so GM cotton was grown on 88% of the cotton area. This made
India the country with the largest area of GM cotton in the
world. A long-term study on the economic impacts of BT cotton
in India, published in the Journal PNAS in 2012, showed that
BT cotton has increased yields, profits, and living standards of
smallholder farmers. The U.S. GM cotton crop was 4.0 million
hectares in 2011 the second largest area in the world, the
Chinese GM cotton crop was third largest by area with 3.9
million hectares and Pakistan had the fourth largest GM cotton
crop area of 2.6 million hectares in 2011. The initial
introduction of GM cotton proved to be a success in Australia –
the yields were equivalent to the non-transgenic varieties and
the crop used much less pesticide to produce (85% reduction).
The subsequent introduction of a second variety of GM cotton
led to increases in GM cotton production until 95% of the

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Australian cotton crop was GM in 2009 making Australia the
country with the fifth largest GM cotton crop in the world. Other
GM cotton growing countries in 2011 were Argentina,
Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, South
Africa and Costa Rica. Cotton has been genetically modified for
resistance to glyphosate a broad-spectrum herbicide discovered
by Monsanto which also sells some of the BT cotton seeds to
farmers. There are also a number of other cotton seed
companies selling GM cotton around the world. About 62% of
the GM cotton grown from 1996 to 2011 was insect resistant,
24% stacked product and 14% herbicide resistant. Cotton has
gossypol, a toxin that makes it inedible. However, scientists have
silenced the gene that produces the toxin, making it a potential
food crop.
ORGANIC PRODUCTION:
Organic cotton is generally understood as cotton, from plants
not genetically modified, that is certified to be grown without the
use of any synthetic agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers or
pesticides. Its production also promotes and enhances

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biodiversity and biological cycles. United States cotton
plantations are required to enforce the National Organic
Program (NOP). This institution determines the allowed
practices for pest control, growing, fertilizing and handling of
organic crops. As of 2007, 265,517 bales of organic cotton were
produced in 24 countries and worldwide production was
growing at a rate of more than 50% per year.
PESTS & WEEDS:
The cotton industry relies heavily on chemicals such as
herbicides, fertilizers and insecticides although a very small
number of farmers are moving toward an organic model of
production and organic cotton products are now available for
purchase at limited locations. These are popular for baby
clothes and diapers. Under most definitions, organic products
do not use genetic engineering. All natural cotton products are
known to be both sustainable and hypoallergenic.
Historically, in North America, one of the most economically
destructive pests in cotton production has been the boll weevil.
Due to the US Department of Agriculture's highly successful

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Boll Weevil Eradication Program (BWEP), this pest has been
eliminated from cotton in most of the United States. This
program along with the introduction of genetically engineered
Bt cotton (which contains a bacterial gene that codes for a
plant-produced protein that is toxic to a number of pests such as
cotton bollworm and pink bollworm) has allowed a reduction in
the use of synthetic insecticides.
Other significant global pests of cotton include the pink
bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella, the chili thrips,
Scirtothrips dorsalis, the cotton seed bug, Oxycarenus
hyalinipennis, the tarnish plant bug, Lygus lineolaris and the
fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, Xanthomonas citri
subsp. malvacearum.

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Hoeing a cotton field to remove weeds, Greene County,
Georgia, USA, 1941
HARVESTING:
Most cotton in the United States, Europe and Australia is
harvested mechanically either by a cotton picker, a machine that
removes the cotton from the boll without damaging the cotton
plant or by a cotton stripper, which strips the entire boll off the
plant. Cotton strippers are used in regions where it is too windy
to grow picker varieties of cotton and usually after application

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of a chemical defoliant or the natural defoliation that occurs
after a freeze. Cotton is a perennial crop in the tropics and
without defoliation or freezing, the plant will continue to grow.
Cotton continues to be picked by hand in developing countries.
Female and nymph Cotton Harlequin Bug

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Offloading freshly harvested cotton into a module builder in
Texas; previously built modules can be seen in the background
USES:
Cotton is used to make a number of textile products. These
include terrycloth for highly absorbent bath towels and robes;
denim for blue jeans; cambric, popularly used in the
manufacture of blue work shirts (from which we get the term
"blue-collar") and corduroy, seersucker, and cotton twill. Socks,
underwear and most T-shirts are made from cotton. Bed sheets
often are made from cotton. Cotton also is used to make yarn

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used in crochet and knitting. Fabric also can be made from
recycled or recovered cotton that otherwise would be thrown
away during the spinning, weaving or cutting process. While
many fabrics are made completely of cotton, some materials
blend cotton with other fibers including rayon and synthetic
fibers such as polyester. It can either be used in knitted or
woven fabrics as it can be blended with elastin to make a
stretcher thread for knitted fabrics and apparel such as stretch
jeans.
The cottonseed which remains after the cotton is ginned is used
to produce cottonseed oil which after refining can be consumed
by humans like any other vegetable oil. The cottonseed meal that
is left generally is fed to ruminant livestock; the gossypol
remaining in the meal is toxic to monogastric animals.
Cottonseed hulls can be added to dairy cattle rations for
roughage. During the American slavery period, cotton root bark
was used in folk remedies as an abortifacient that is to induce a
miscarriage. Gossypol was one of the many substances found in
all parts of the cotton plant and it was described by the scientists
as 'poisonous pigment'. It also appears to inhibit the

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development of sperm or even restrict the mobility of the sperm.
Also, it is thought to interfere with the menstrual cycle by
restricting the release of certain hormones.
Cotton linters are fine, silky fibers which adhere to the seeds of
the cotton plant after ginning. These curly fibers typically are
less than 1
⁄8 inch (3.2 mm) long. The term also may apply to the
longer textile fiber staple lint as well as the shorter fuzzy fibers
from some upland species. Linters are traditionally used in the
manufacture of paper and as a raw material in the manufacture
of cellulose. In the UK, linters are referred to as "cotton wool".
This can also be a refined product (absorbent cotton in U.S.
usage) which has medical, cosmetic and many other practical
uses. The first medical use of cotton wool was by Sampson
Gamgee at the Queen's Hospital (later the General Hospital) in
Birmingham, England.
Shiny cotton is a processed version of the fiber that can be made
into cloth resembling satin for shirts and suits. However, it is
hydrophobic (does not absorb water easily) which makes it unfit
for use in bath and dish towels (although examples of these
made from shiny cotton are seen).

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The name Egyptian cotton is broadly associated with quality
products however only a small percentage of Egyptian cotton
production is actually of superior quality. Most products
bearing the name are not made with the finest cottons from
Egypt.
Pima cotton is often compared to Egyptian cotton, as both are
used in high quality bed sheets and other cotton products. It is
considered the next best quality after high quality Egyptian
cotton by some authorities. Pima cotton is grown in the
American southwest. Not all products bearing the Pima name
are made with the finest cotton. The Pima name is now used by
cotton-producing nations such as Peru, Australia and Israel.
CHEMICALCOMPOSITION OF COTTON:
The chemical composition of cotton is as follows:
 cellulose 91.00%
 water 7.85%
 protoplasm, pectin’s 0.55%
 waxes, fatty substances 0.40%
 mineral salts 0.20%

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Cotton fibers viewed under a scanning electron microscope
CRITICAL TEMPERATURE:
 Favorable travel temperature range: below 25 °C (77 °F)
 Optimum travel temperature: 21 °C (70 °F)
 Glow temperature: 205 °C (401 °F)
 Fire point: 210 °C (410 °F)
 Autoignition temperature: 407 °C (765 °F)
 Autoignition temperature (for oily cotton): 120 °C (248 °F)

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A temperature range of 25 to 35 °C (77 to 95 °F) is the optimal
range for mold development. At temperatures below 0 °C
(32 °F) rotting of wet cotton stops. Damaged cotton is
sometimes stored at these temperatures to prevent further
deterioration.
BRITISH STANDARDYARN MEASURES:
 1 thread = 55 in or 140 cm
 1 skein or rap = 80 threads (120 yds or 110 m)
 1 hank = 7 skeins (840 yds or 770 m)
 1 spindle = 18 hanks (15,120 yds or 13.83 km)
INTERNATIONAL TRADE:
The largest producers of cotton, currently (2009) are China and
India with annual production of about 34 million bales and 27
million bales respectively most of this production is consumed
by their respective textile industries. The largest exporters of
raw cotton are the United States, with sales of $4.9 billion, and
Africa with sales of $2.1 billion. The total international trade is
estimated to be $12 billion. Africa's share of the cotton trade has

41. 41
doubled since 1980. Neither area has a significant domestic
textile industry, textile manufacturing having moved to
developing nations in Eastern and South Asia such as India and
China. In Africa, cotton is grown by numerous small holders.
Dunavant Enterprises, based in Memphis, Tennessee is the
leading cotton broker in Africa, with hundreds of purchasing
agents. It operates cotton gins in Uganda, Mozambique, and
Zambia. In Zambia, it often offers loans for seed and expenses to
the 180,000 small farmers who grow cotton for it as well as
advice on farming methods. Cargill also purchases cotton in
Africa for export.
The 25,000 cotton growers in the United States of America are
heavily subsidized at the rate of $2 billion per year although
China now provides the highest overall level of cotton sector
support. The future of these subsidies is uncertain and has led to
anticipatory expansion of cotton brokers' operations in Africa.
Dunavant expanded in Africa by buying out local operations.
This is only possible in former British colonies and Mozambique
former French colonies continue to maintain tight monopolies,

42. 42
inherited from their former colonialist masters, on cotton
purchases at low fixed prices.
Worldwide cotton production
LEADING PRODUCER COUTRIES:
The five leading exporters of cotton in 2011 are (1) the United
States (2) India (3) Brazil (4) Australia and (5) Uzbekistan. The
largest nonproducing importers are Korea, Taiwan, Russia, and
Japan.

43. 43
In India, the states of Maharashtra (26.63%), Gujarat (17.96%)
and Andhra Pradesh (13.75%) and also Madhya Pradesh are
the leading cotton producing states, these states have a
predominantly tropical wet and dry climate.
In Pakistan, cotton is grown predominantly in the provinces of
Punjab, and Sindh. The leading area of cotton production is the
south Punjab, comprising the areas around Rahim Yar Khan,
Bahawalpur, Bahawalnagar, Multan, Dera Ghazi Khan,
Muzaffargarh, Vehari and Khanewal. In Sindh Sanghar is the
most important cotton producing district. Faisalabad is a leader
in textiles within Pakistan. Punjab has a tropical wet and dry
climate throughout the year therefore enhancing the growth of
cotton.
In the United States, the state of Texas led in total production as
of 2004 while the state of California had the highest yield per
acre.

44. 44
Top 10 Cotton Producing Countries (in metric tunes)
Rank Country 2010 2011 2012
1 China 5,970,000 6,588,950 6,840,000
2 India 5,683,000 5,984,000 5,321,000
3 United States 3,941,700 3,412,550 3,598,000
4 Pakistan 1,869,000 2,312,000 2,215,000
5 Brazil 973,449 1,673,337 1,638,103
6 Uzbekistan 1,136,120 983,400 1,052,000
7 Turkey 816,705 954,600 851,000
8 Australia 386,800 843,572 973,497
9 Argentina 230,000 295,000 210,000
10 Turkmenistan 225,000 195,000 198,000
– World 22,714,154 24,941,738 25,955,096

45. 45
FAIR TRADE:
Cotton is an enormously important commodity throughout the
world. However, many farmers in developing countries receive a
low price for their produce, or find it difficult to compete with
developed countries.
This has led to an international dispute (see United States –
Brazil cotton dispute):
On 27 September 2002, Brazil requested consultations with the
US regarding prohibited and actionable subsidies provided to
US producers, users and/or exporters of upland cotton as well
as legislation, regulations, statutory instruments and
amendments thereto providing such subsidies (including export
credits), grants, and any other assistance to the US producers,
users and exporters of upland cotton.[50]
On 8 September 2004, the Panel Report recommended that the
United States "withdraw" export credit guarantees and
payments to domestic users and exporters, and "take

46. 46
appropriate steps to remove the adverse effects or withdraw" the
mandatory price-contingent subsidy measures.
While Brazil was fighting the US through the WTO's Dispute
Settlement Mechanism against a heavily subsidized cotton
industry, a group of four least-developed African countries –
Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, and Mali – also known as "Cotton-
4" have been the leading protagonist for the reduction of US
cotton subsidies through negotiations. The four introduced a
"Sectoral Initiative in Favour of Cotton" presented by Burkina
Faso's President Blaise Compaoré during the Trade
Negotiations Committee on 10 June 2003.
In addition to concerns over subsidies, the cotton industries of
some countries are criticized for employing child labor and
damaging workers' health by exposure to pesticides used in
production. The Environmental Justice Foundation has
campaigned against the prevalent use of forced child and adult
labor in cotton production in Uzbekistan, the world's third
largest cotton exporter. The international production and trade
situation has led to "fair trade" cotton clothing and footwear,
joining a rapidly growing market for organic clothing, fair

47. 47
fashion or "ethical fashion". The fair trade system was initiated
in 2005 with producers from Cameroon, Mali and Senegal.
TRADE:
Cotton is bought and sold by investors and price speculators as
a tradable commodity on 2 different stock exchanges in the
United States of America.
 Cotton futures contracts are traded on the New York
Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) under the ticker symbol TT.
They are delivered every year in March, May, July, October
and December.
 Cotton No. 2 futures contracts are traded on the New York
Board of Trade (NYBOT) under the ticker symbol CT. They
are delivered every year in March, May, July, October and
December.

48. 48
COTTON GENOME:
A public genome sequencing effort of cotton was initiated in
2007 by a consortium of public researchers. They agreed on a
strategy to sequence the genome of cultivated, tetraploid cotton.
"Tetraploid" means that cultivated cotton actually has two
separate genomes within its nucleus referred to as the A and D
genomes. The sequencing consortium first agreed to sequence
the D-genome relative of cultivated cotton (G. raimondii, a wild
Central American cotton species) because of its small size and
limited number of repetitive elements. It is nearly one-third the
number of bases of tetraploid cotton (AD), and each
chromosome is only present once. The A genome of G. arboreum
would be sequenced next. Its genome is roughly twice the size of
G. raimondii's. Part of the difference in size between the two
genomes is the amplification of retrotransposons (GORGE).
Once both diploid genomes are assembled then research could
begin sequencing the actual genomes of cultivated cotton
varieties. This strategy is out of necessity; if one were to
sequence the tetraploid genome without model diploid genomes,
the euchromatic DNA sequences of the AD genomes would co-

49. 49
assemble and the repetitive elements of AD genomes would
assembly independently into A and D sequences respectively.
Then there would be no way to untangle the mess of AD
sequences without comparing them to their diploid counterparts.
The public sector effort continues with the goal to create a high-
quality, draft genome sequence from reads generated by all
sources. The public-sector effort has generated Sanger reads of
BACs, fosmids and plasmids as well as 454 reads. These later
types of reads will be instrumental in assembling an initial draft
of the D genome. In 2010, two companies (Monsanto and
Illumina), completed enough Illumina sequencing to cover the D
genome of G. raimondii about 50x. They announced that they
would donate their raw reads to the public. This public relations
effort gave them some recognition for sequencing the cotton
genome. Once the D genome is assembled from all of this raw
material, it will undoubtedly assist in the assembly of the AD
genomes of cultivated varieties of cotton but a lot of hard work
remains.

50. 50
Dyeing Pages
Dye:
A substance, usually organic, soluble or dispersed in its medium
of application and which is designed to: Be absorbed or
absorbed by; made to react with; or deposited with in a
substrate.
In order to impart color with some degree of performance.
(Textile Institute)
OR
A colorant applied to or formed in a substrate, via the
molecularly dispersed state, which exhibits some degree of
performance. (American Association of textile chemists and
colorist)
OR
A dye is a coloring substance, either from natural or synthetic
that imparts its color throughout material by penetration
OR
A dye is a colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate
to which it is being applied. The dye is generally applied in an

51. 51
aqueous solution, and requires a mordant to improve the
fastness of the dye on the fiber.
Both dyes and pigments appear to be colored because they
absorb some wavelengths of light more than others. In contrast
with a dye, a pigment generally is insoluble, and has no affinity
for the substrate. Some dyes can be precipitated with an inert
salt to produce a lake pigment, and based on the salt used they
could be aluminum lake, calcium lake or barium lake pigments.
Why a chemical becomes dye?
Everything is a chemical. Chemistry is the study of matter and
its interactions with other matter. Anything made of matter is
therefore a chemical. Any liquid, solid, gas. Any pure substance;
any mixture. Water is a chemical. Technically speaking, so is a
chunk of your computer. A chemical can often be broken down
into components, as is true with your computer. However,
people generally use the term 'chemical' to refer to a substance
that appears homogeneous or the same throughout its structure.

52. 52
In other sense we can say to be a chemical anything needs a
chemical constitution, formula and chemical structure and must
have the capability to break down into components.
In this sense we can say all dyes are chemical compounds. But
all chemicals are not dyes because to be a dye any chemical or
substance must have to bear three basic parts-like-
1.Chromophore- which is responsible for color
2.Auxochrome-which is responsible for dye properties
3.Chromogen- which holds the above two together.
When any chemical possesses these three parts (eg.
Chromophore, auxochrome and chromogen) it becomes a dye.
Necessary Conditions To be a Dye:
Dye is a natural or synthetic coloring matter which is used in
solution to stain materials especially fabrics. All the colored
substances are not dyes. A colored substance is termed as a dye
if it fulfills the following conditions,
It must have a suitable color.

53. 53
It can be fixed on the fabric either directly or with the help of
mordant.
When fixed it must be fast to light and washing, i.e., it must be
resistant to the action of water, acids and alkalies, particularly
to alkalies as washing soda and soap have alkaline nature.
Classification of Dye:
Dyestuff are classified on different bases:
1.Physical form
2.Application form
3.Chemical form

54. 54
On the Basis of Application Method:
DYE
Readymade Dye
Water Sulible
Acid dye
Basic dye
Reactive dye
Direct dye
Water insoluble
Vat dye
Sulpher dye
Disperse dye
Mordant dye
Ingrain Dye
Azoic dye
Oxidation color
Mineral color

55. 55
Chemical Form:
1.Nitroso
2.Nitro
3.Azo
4.Stilbene
5.Diphenylmethane
6.Xanthane
7.Acridine
8.Quinone
9.Thiazole
10. Indamine
11. Azine
12. Oxazine
13. Thiazine
14. Lactone

56. 56
15. Indigoid
16. Indophenol
17. Triaryl Methane
Color Index International:
Color Index International is a reference database jointly
maintained by the Society of Dyers and Colorists and the
American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists. It was
first printed in 1925 but is now published exclusively on the web.
The index serves as a common reference database of
manufactured color products and is used by manufacturers and
consumers, such as artists and decorators.
Colorants (both dyes and pigments) are listed according to
Color Index Generic Names and Color Index Constitution
Numbers. These numbers are prefixed in Brazil and various
other countries with C.I. or CI, for example, CI 15510. This
abbreviation is sometimes thought to be CL, due to the font used
to display the information. A detailed record of products

57. 57
available on the market is presented under each Color Index
reference. For each product name, Color Index International
lists the manufacturer, physical form, and principal uses, with
comments supplied by the manufacturer to guide prospective
customers. For manufacturers and consumers, the availability of
a standard classification system for pigments is helpful because
it resolves conflicting historic, proprietary, and generic names
that have been applied to colors.
DYEING:
Dyeing is the process of adding color to textile products like
fibers, yarns, and fabrics. Dyeing is normally done in a special
solution containing dyes and particular chemical material. After
dyeing, dye molecules have uncut chemical bond with fiber
molecules. The temperature and time controlling are two key
factors in dyeing. There are mainly two classes of dye, natural
and man-made.
The primary source of dye, historically, has generally been
nature, with the dyes being extracted from animals or plants.

58. 58
Since the mid-18th century, however, humans have produced
artificial dyes to achieve a broader range of colors and to
render the dyes more stable to resist washing and general use.
Different classes of dyes are used for different types of fiber and
at different stages of the textile production process, from loose
fibers through yarn and cloth to completed garments.
Acrylic fibers are dyed with basic dyes, while nylon and protein
fibers such as wool and silk are dyed with acid dyes, and
polyester yarn is dyed with disperse dyes. Cotton is dyed with a
range of dye types, including vat dyes, and modern synthetic
reactive and direct dyes.
Reactive Dye:
In a reactive dye a chromophore contains a substituent that
reacts with the substrate. Reactive dyes have good fastness
properties owing to the bonding that occurs during dyeing.
Reactive dyes are most commonly used in dyeing of cellulose
like cotton or flax, but also wool is dye able with reactive dyes.
Reactive dyeing is the most important method for the coloration
of cellulosic fibers. Reactive dyes can also be applied on wool

59. 59
and nylon; in the latter case they are applied under weakly
acidic conditions. Reactive dyes have a low utilization degree
compared to other types of dyestuff, since the functional group
also bonds to water, creating hydrolysis.
Usage:
Reactive dyes had been tested in the late 1800s involving both
adding functionalized dyes to the substrate and then activating
the substrate first followed by fixation of the dye. The first
commercial success was described in the early 1950s. Rattee
and Stephens at the (Imperial Chemical Industries popularlize
the chlorotriazines as linkers between the substrate and the
chromophore.
Trichlorotriazines remain a popular platform for reactive dyes.
The chromophore, with an amine functional group, is attached
to the triazine, displacing one chloride:
(NCCl)3 + dye-NH2 → N3C3Cl2(NHdye) + HCl

60. 60
The resulting dichlorotriazine can then be affixed to the
cellulose fibre by displacement of one of the two chloride
groups:
N3C3Cl2(NHdye)+HO-cellulose→N3C3Cl(NHdye)(Ocellulose) +
HCl
The fixation process is conducted in a buffered alkaline dye
bath.
An alternative fixation process that is more dominant
commercially is the vinylsulfonyl group. Like the
chlorotriazines, this functional group adds to the hydroxyl
groups of cellulose. The most popular version of this technology
is Remazol. The dye is first attached to the ethylsulfonyl group.

61. 61
Methods for attaching reactive dyes to fibres (Cell = cellulose;
R = chromophore).

62. 62
Reactive dyes are categorized by functional group.
Functionality Fixation Temperature Includ in Brands
Monochlorotriazine Haloheterocycle 80˚C Basilen E & P,
Cibacron E,
Procion H,HE
Monofluorochlorotriazine Haloheterocycle 40˚C Cibacron F & C
Dichlorotriazine Haloheterocycle 30˚C Basilen M,
Procion MX
Difluorochloropyrimidine Haloheterocycle 40˚C Levafix EA,
Drimarene K & R
Dichloroquinoxaline Haloheterocycle 40˚C Levafix E
Trichloropyrimidine Haloheterocycle 80-98˚C Drimarene X &Z,
Cibacron T
Vinyl sulfone activated double
bond
40˚C Remazol
Vinyl amide activated double
bond
40˚C Remazol

63. 63
Bi- and polyfunctional reactive dyes
Dyestuffs with only one functional group sometimes have a low
degree of fixation. To overcome this deficiency, dyestuffs
containing two (or more) different reactive groups were
developed. These dyestuffs containing two groups are also
known as bifunctional dyestuffs although some still refer to the
original combination. Some contain two monochlorotriazines,
others have a combination of the triazines and one vinyl sulfone
group). Bifunctional dyes can be more tolerant to temperature
deviations (better process). Other bifunctionals have been
created, some with fastness (better quality) or only fixation
degree (better environment/economy) in mind.

64. 64
CONCLUSION:
Cotton is soft fiber that grows with the seeds of the cotton plant.
(Fiber is long and thin, like hair.) After the cotton fiber is
gathered from the plant, it can be made into thread. The cotton
thread can then be made into cloth. The cloth can be used to
make clothes for people and many other things. Cotton clothing
is very nice to wear, especially in hot weather, and is easy to
move around in. There are different types of cotton plants. Some
cotton plants grow wild in tropical and subtropical areas of the
world. This is how cotton was discovered many years ago. Most
of the cotton gathered to make cloth comes from crops grown on
cotton farms. Cotton farms can be found in Africa, Asia, Europe,
Australia, and the Americas. Cotton soaks up to 24-27 of its own
weight in water (very absorbent). All parts of cotton plants are
useful. In addition to the textile industry cotton is used in fishing
nets, coffee filters, tents, explosives manufacture (see
nitrocellulose), cotton paper, and in bookbinding. The first
Chinese paper was made of cotton fiber. Fire hoses were once
made of cotton.

65. 65
REFERANCE:
The Biology of Gossypium hirsutum L. and Gossypium
barbadense L. (cotton). ogtr.gov.au
Metcalf, Allan A. (1999). The World in So Many Words.
Houghton Mifflin. p. 123. ISBN 0-395-95920-9.
"Natural fibres: Cotton", International Year of Natural Fibres
National Cotton Council of America, "U.S. Cotton Bale
Dimensions" (accessed 5 October 2013).
Moulherat, C.; Tengberg, M.; Haquet, J. R. M. F.; Mille,
B. ̂T. (2002). "First Evidence of Cotton at Neolithic Mehrgarh,
Pakistan: Analysis of Mineralized Fibres from a Copper Bead".
Journal of Archaeological Science 29 (12): 1393.
doi:10.1006/jasc.2001.0779. edit
Stein, Burton (1998). A History of India. Blackwell
Publishing. ISBN 0-631-20546-2, p. 47
Wisseman & Williams, p. 127

66. 66
Fuller, D.Q. (2008). "The spread of textile production and
textile crops in India beyond the Harappan zone: an aspect of
the emergence of craft specialization and systematic trade", pp.
1–26 in Osada, T., Uesugi, A. (eds.) Linguistics, Archaeology
and the Human Past. Indus Project Occasional Paper 3 series.
Kyoto: Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and
Nature. ISBN 978-4-902325-16-4
"cotton" in The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–
07.
Roche, Julian (1994). The International Cotton Trade.
Cambridge, England: Woodhead Publishing Ltd. pp. 4–5.
ISBN 1-85573-104-5.
Huckell, Lisa W. (1993). "Plant Remains from the Pinaleño
Cotton Cache, Arizona". Kiva, the Journal of Southwest
Anthropology and History 59 (2): 147–203. JSTOR 30246122
Maxwell, Robyn J. (2003). Textiles of Southeast Asia:
tradition, trade and transformation (revised ed.). Tuttle
Publishing. p. 410. ISBN 0-7946-0104-9.

67. 67
Hughs, S. E.; Valco, T. D.; Williford, J. R. (2008). "100 Years
of Cotton Production, Harvesting, and Ginning Systems".
Transactions of the ASABE 51 (4): 1187–98.
doi:10.13031/2013.25234. edit
Yafa, Stephen (2004). Cotton: The Biography of a
Revolutionary Fiber. Penguin (Non-Classics). p. 16. ISBN 0-14-
303722-6.
"Planting Cotton Seeds". cottonspinning.com.
Wegerich, K. (2002). "Natural drought or human-made water
scarcity in Uzbekistan?". Central Asia and the Caucasus 2:
154–162.
Pearce, Fred (2004). "9 "A Salty Hell"". Keepers of the
spring. Island Press. pp. 109–122. ISBN 1-55963-681-5.
Zachary, G. Pascal (14 January 2007) "Out of Africa: Cotton
and Cash". New York Times
"Production of Cotton by countries". UN Food & Agriculture
Organization. 2011. Retrieved 26 August 2013.

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National Cotton Council of America – Rankings. Cotton.org
(13 March 2011). Retrieved on 2011-11-27.
"Three largest producing states of important crops" (PDF).
Retrieved 6 April 2008.
Womach, Jasper (2004). "Cotton Production and Support in
the United States" (PDF). CRS Report for Congress.