The document discusses the basal ganglia circuitry which controls different functions through connections between basal ganglia regions and other areas of the brain. It specifically mentions cortical vs subcortical loops, direct and indirect pathways within the basal ganglia, and lesions that can cause hemiballism. The basal ganglia circuits connect motor, oculomotor, dorsolateral prefrontal, orbitofrontal, and anterior cingulate regions to control actions, gaze, executive function, motivation, and emotionality.
The content
- Hint anatomy of the basal ganglia
- Afferent &efferent of BG
- Intrinsic connection of BG
- Pathways of BG
- Function of BG
- Disease of BG
The content
- Hint anatomy of the basal ganglia
- Afferent &efferent of BG
- Intrinsic connection of BG
- Pathways of BG
- Function of BG
- Disease of BG
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
9. Loops through the basal ganglia
Circuit name Basal ganglia
regions:
Connected with: Functions to control:
Skeletomotor Putamen; GPi, and
SNpr
VL/VA; motor cortex,
prefrontal cortex
Actions
Oculomotor Body of the caudate,
SNpr
Intralaminar nuclei, MD,
VA; frontal and parietal eye
fields; superior colliculus
Gaze and orienting
movements
Dorsolateral
prefrontal
Head of the caudate,
GPi and SNpr
VA, VL and MD; Executive function,
strategic planning
Orbitofrontal Caudate, SNpr,
ventral pallidum
MD; orbitofrontal cortex Motivation, ability to
play well with others
Anterior
cingulate aka
limbic
Ventral striatum,
ventral pallidum
MD; anterior cingulum Emotionality,
motivated behavior
Editor's Notes
Figure 25-1. Cortical loops (brown on left) involve direct projections to the basal ganglia coupled with indirect projections, via thalamus, from basal ganglia back to cortex. In contrast, subcortical structures reach the basal ganglia only through a synapse in thalamus but receive output from the basal ganglia directly (blue on right).
Figure 25-2. A cartoon of lateral inhibition in the striatum is illustrated. Indecision could result if striatal cells supporting two candidate actions receive similar levels of excitation. To decrease the likelihood of indecision, lateral inhibitory circuits facilitate the winning margin between the leading candidate and the runner-up. Incoming excitatory input excites target striatal cells, leading to a smile of enjoyment (black pathway). The same cortical cells indirectly inhibit, via local inhibitory interneurons (red cells), off-target striatal cells favoring a volitional smile (blue pathway). The result is that the close competition between the two inputs becomes a landslide victory for the target cells
Figure 25-3A-B: A functional overview of basal ganglia pathways is illustrated. In each graph, the amount of movement (y axis) for a number of discrete movement possibilities (x axis) is plotted.
In the starting condition (A), two movements are in progress. Movements that occur simultaneously are typically both well practiced and use different muscles, for example, walking and chewing gum. When a high-priority movement arises, the first pathway engaged is the hyperdirect pathway (B). The effect of the hyperdirect pathway is to quickly stop movements in process.
Dopamine (DA) facilitates (upward blue arrow) ongoing movements. More dopamine means more movement, and less dopamine means less movement. In part, dopamine’s facilitation of movement stems from a facilitation of the direct pathway and a net inhibition (downward blue arrow) of the indirect pathways.
Figure 25-3C-D: In each graph, the amount of movement (y axis) for a number of discrete movement possibilities (x axis) is plotted.
Immediately following the hyperdirect pathway, the direct pathway is engaged (C), leading to the focal disinhibition of a salient action. This disinhibition may not be perfectly focused on the chosen action. Indirect pathways provide an annulus, or donut, of inhibition around the chosen action (D). Thus, the indirect pathways sharpen the disinhibition produced by the direct pathway and also keep other potential movements from occurring.
Dopamine (DA) facilitates (upward blue arrow) ongoing movements. More dopamine means more movement, and less dopamine means less movement. In part, dopamine’s facilitation of movement stems from a facilitation of the direct pathway and a net inhibition (downward blue arrow) of the indirect pathways.
Figure 25-4. The hyperdirect pathway within the skeletomotor circuit is illustrated. Next to each neuron is a cartoon showing the firing activity in that neuron. Neurons in somatomotor cortex are normally inactive but discharge before initiating a movement. The myelinated axons of motor cortex neurons excite neurons in the subthalamic nucleus at short latency. Excitation of subthalamic neurons in turn causes an increase in the discharge of tonically active neurons in the internal globus pallidus. GABAergic cells in the internal globus pallidus inhibit the tonically active neurons in ventral anterior (VA) and ventral lateral (VL) thalamus. Since thalamic cells project to somatomotor cortex, the inhibitory effect of the hyperdirect pathway on thalamic firing (yellow highlight) is passed on to motor cortex. Thus, we can use thalamic firing as a proxy for the effect of basal ganglia circuits. In sum, the hyperdirect pathway has an immediate but short-lasting effect of widespread suppression of motor cortex.
GABAergic neurons are shown in red, and their inhibitory terminals are shown as red squares. Excitatory neurons are shown in blue.
Figure 25-5. Magnetic resonance images (MRIs) from two individuals with hemiballism, neither of whom has a lesion in the subthalamus. A: A 34-year-old man with a stroke in the right middle cerebral artery presented with left-sided hemiballism. Affected areas include cerebral cortex and several small areas within the striatum and pallidum (arrows). B: A 69-year-old man with Parkinson’s disease presented with left-sided hemiballism. A lesion in the right striatum (arrow) was found. The left-sided hemiballism coincided with an amelioration of this patient’s symptoms of Parkinson’s disease on the left side. Note that radiological convention is that the left side of the brain is illustrated on the right and right side of the brain on the left.
Modified from Posturna, R.B., and Lang, A.E. Hemiballism: Revisiting a classic disorder. Lancet Neurol 2: 661–8, 2003, with permission of the publisher, Elsevier.
Figure 25-6. The direct pathway within the skeletomotor circuit is illustrated with the same conventions as previously. The direct pathway starts with activity in cortical neurons possessing unmyelinated axons. A burst of activity in these motor cortex neurons excites neurons in the putamen at longer latency than is involved in the hyperdirect pathway. Neurons in the putamen are GABAergic medium spiny neurons. Therefore, a burst of activity in neurons of the putamen inhibits the discharge of tonically active neurons in the internal globus pallidus. The inhibition of GABAergic pallidal output neurons leads to a disinhibition of thalamic cells (yellow highlight). As a result, the direct pathway serves to facilitate somatomotor cortex and ultimately movement.
Figure 25-7. A family of indirect pathways within the skeletomotor circuit is illustrated with the same conventions as in previous slides. Thick lines mark the conventional indirect pathway. Yet, many additional routes through the basal ganglia also exist, some of which are illustrated here in faint lines. The conventional indirect pathway involves a projection from the motor cortex to the putamen. Neurons in the putamen inhibit tonically active cells in the external globus pallidus (GPe), leading to the disinhibition of subthalamic neurons. An increase in subthalamic neuronal firing excites cells in the internal globus pallidus (GPi). An increase in the discharge of neurons in the internal globus pallidus leads to an inhibition of thalamic cells (yellow highlight). As a result, the conventional indirect pathway serves to suppress somatomotor cortex and ultimately movement. The net effect of the family of indirect pathways also appears to be net inhibition of thalamic cells and consequently a suppression of movement.
