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CHAPTER 3
The Interorganizational Context of Public Administration
1. Understanding the relationships among the many groups—
public, private, and
nonprofit—that drive the effectiveness of public programs and
affect the work of the
public manager
2. Learning about the federal system of government and the
complexities of
intergovernmental relations that result from federalism
3. Understanding how the relationship and power division
between federal and state
governments has evolved
4. Exploring the issues associated with privatization and
contracting and public-private
partnerships
5. Understanding the unique challenges of nonprofit
organizations

This chapter is concerned with relationships among public-
sector organizations, an issue that has
become an increasingly important focus for public
administrators at all levels. Given the
complexity of modern society, the work of a public
administrator likely will involve an intricate
set of relationships with a variety of groups external to the
administrator’s own agency, including
public, nonprofit, and private organizations. The chapter
includes a comprehensive discussion
about the concept of intergovernmental relations (IGR), which
the authors define as “the complex
and interdependent relationships among those at various levels
of government as they seek to
develop and implement public programs,” and federalism, which
is the relationship and division
of power between the federal government and state
governments.
This discussion addresses the changing patterns of funding for
public programs, which is
instrumental to an understanding of intergovernmental relations,
and touches on the various
approaches to federalism that have been employed in the United
States. This includes a

description of how recent presidential administrations, from
Reagan to Obama, have approached
the relationship between the federal government and the states,
and offers insights into the courts’
influence in this area as well. This chapter also addresses IGR
from the perspective of states and
localities, including funding and the use of preemptions and
mandates, and includes a discussion
of subnational relationships, including state-to-state, state-to-
local, and local-to-local.
This is followed by an examination of the relationships between
governmental and
nongovernmental organizations in the public sector,
highlighting the role of the latter in the
policy process. As the authors note, not only have nonprofit,
for-profit, and faith-based
organizations taken a leading role in delivering public services,
they also play an important part in
bringing issues to the public agenda and influencing decisions
about public problems. An
important theme running throughout this discussion concerns a
description and an evaluation of
30 Chapter 3: The Interorganizational Context of Public

Administration
privatization and contracting and public-private partnership
trends. This includes an exploration
into the rationale for these approaches and the challenges and
benefits associated with each.
The chapter concludes with a consideration of the management
of nonprofit organizations.
Because these organizations face distinct challenges, and
because they play an increasingly
important role in defining and delivering public programs, an
understanding of the way in which
these organizations operate is important to the public
administrator in order to develop more
effective interorganizational or cross-sector relationships. In
closing, the authors note that
because public programs in today’s society operate through vast
and complex webs of people and
organizations, including public, private, and nonprofit, public
managers need to develop the
ability to identify the network of people and organizations that
is or should be involved in a
particular situation and assess the effectiveness of that network.
Understanding how the various

people and organizations operate is a key to this ability.
MANAGEMENT
I. THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERGOVERNMENTAL
RELATIONS
A. Dual Federalism
B. Cooperative Federalism
C. Picket-Fence Federalism
D. The Reagan and First Bush Years
E. The Clinton Presidency
F. The Bush Administration
GOVERNANCE:
GLOBALIZATION, DEVOLUTION, AND THE ROLE OF
GOVERNMENT
G. Obama and Federalism
H. Judicial Influence
I. The State and Local Perspective

J. Funding Patterns
K. Preemptions and Mandates
1. Preemptions
2. Mandates
L. Subnational Relationships
1. State to State
2. State to Local
3. Local to Local
II. WORKING WITH NONGOVERNMENTAL
ORGANIZATIONS
A. Privatization and Contracting
Chapter 3: The Interorganizational Context of Public
Administration 31
III. THE MANAGEMENT OF NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS
A. Operational Leadership
B. Resource Development
C. Financial Management
D. Board Governance
E. Board-Staff Relations

F. Advocacy
IV. SUMMARY AND ACTION IMPLICATIONS
Block grants Grants in which the money can be used for nearly
any purpose within a specific
functional field.
Capital grants Grants for use in construction or renovation.
Categorical or project grants Grants requiring that the money
may be spent for only a limited
purpose; typically available on a competitive basis.
Charter Local government’s equivalent of a constitution.
Cooperative federalism Greater sharing of responsibilities
between federal and state
governments.
Coproduction Using volunteer activity to supplement or
supplant the work of government
officials.
Councils of government Oversight bodies representing various
localities to help coordinate
local affairs.

Cross-cutting requirements Rules that apply to most grant
programs.
Dillon’s Rule Municipalities have only those powers granted in
their charters; cities are creatures
of the state.
Direct orders Requirements or restrictions that are enforced by
one government over another.
Dual federalism Pattern in which federal and state governments
are struggling for power and
influence with little intergovernmental cooperation.
Entitlement grants Grants that provide assistance to persons
who meet certain criteria.
Formula grants Grants that employ a specific division rule to
indicate how much money any
given jurisdiction will receive.
Franchise Exclusive award to one firm (or a limited number) to
operate a certain business within
a jurisdiction.
Grants Transfers of money (and/or property) from one
government to another.
Home rule Provision allowing cities greater autonomy over
local activities.
Intergovernmental relations A term encompassing all the

complex and interdependent relations
among those at various levels of government.
32 Chapter 3: The Interorganizational Context of Public
Administration
Interorganizational networks Pattern of relationships within
and among various groups and
organizations working in a single policy area.
Mandate Order requiring a government to do something.
Negotiated investment strategy Bringing together
representatives of all affected groups to set
priorities for funding.
Operating grants Grants for use in development and operation
of specific programs.
Picket-fence federalism Pattern of intergovernmental relations
in which the horizontal bars
represent levels of government and the vertical slats represent
various substantive fields.
Preemption Federal government efforts to preempt an area
traditionally associated with state
government.

Privatization Use of nongovernmental agencies to provide
goods and services previously
provided by government.
Revenue sharing Grant pattern in which the money can be used
any way the recipient
government chooses.
Special districts Local governments created for a specific
purpose within a specific area.
Supply-side economies Argument that decreased taxes and
government spending will stimulate
capital investment and economic growth.
Urban renewal Government program designed to provide cities
with money for public housing
an urban redevelopment.
The following are links to basic information about federal-state-
local interactions:
USA.gov: (www.usa.gov).
The White House: (www.whitehouse.gov).
Governing magazine: (www.governing.com).
The following are links to data related to federal funding for

state and local governments:
Statistical Abstract of the United States:
(http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/).
Office of Budget and Management:
(http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/Overview//).
The following are links to information about innovative
practices in government and
nonprofit organizations:
Alliance for Innovation: (http://transformgov.org).
Ash Institute for Democratic Governance and Innovation,
Harvard University:
(http://www.ash.harvard.edu/).
Leader to Leader: (http://www.hesselbeininstitute.org/).
The following are links to information nonprofit management:
Aspen Institute: (www.aspeninstitute.org).
Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations, Harvard University:
(www.ksghauser.harvard.edu).
http://www.usa.gov/
http://www.whitehouse.gov/
http://www.governing.com/
http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/
http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/Overview/
http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/Overview/
http://transformgov.org/

http://www.hesselbeininstitute.org/
http://www.aspeninstitute.org/
http://www.ksghauser.harvard.edu/
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CHAPTER 2

The Political Context of Public Administration
1. Understanding the organization and function of the branches
of the federal government
2. Understanding the organization and function of the other
levels of government
3. Understanding the policy process
4. Exploring the controls exerted by the legislative branch on
administrators
5. Exploring the controls exerted by the judicial branch on
administrators
VERVIEW
This chapter explores the political context in which public
administrators operate, including
things administrators need to know in order to operate
effectively. Three themes characterize the
chapter, focusing on the structure of the three levels of
government and the resulting relationship
with public administration. The authors point out that the
complexity of the policy process in this
country derives from the Founders’ fear of concentrating power
in too few hands, which they

tried to allay by organizing the federal government into three
branches. Thus, the relations
between and among the various branches remain a central issue
in the creation and management
of public agencies and programs. The chapter offers insight into
the relationship between public
administrators and the executive, the legislature, and the
judiciary as they work together to
achieve policy goals.
The first theme concerns the history, powers, organization, and
activities of the executive branch
at all levels of government in the United States. The chapter
includes a discussion about the
development of the president’s role as chief executive officer as
the increasing size and scope of
the government created a need for greater attention to
management and organization, along with a
growing understanding of how the work of government might be
accomplished more effectively.
The organization and structure of state and local governments
are contrasted with those of the
federal government, exploring both the commonalities and
distinctive features. The authors
emphasize that understanding the role of executive leadership in

administrative organizations will
enable public administrators to act with greater confidence and
authority.
The second theme provides an account of the structure of
Congress, its operations, policy roles,
and interactions with administrative agencies. Particular
attention is devoted in this context to the
stages in the policy process and the differences between various
types of policy. The chapter also
includes an examination of sources of bureaucratic power and,
in turn, the controls exerted by the
legislative branch over bureaucratic agencies. An understanding
of these issues is crucial to
public administrators, whose work centers on the
implementation of public policies and who
often are involved in designing and evaluating policy as well.
Finally, Chapter 2 examines the role that the courts play in
administrative systems. Like the
executive and legislative branches, the judiciary also serves as a
check on the conduct of public
agencies by interpreting legislative mandates and delegation to
agencies and reviewing the

16 Chapter 2: The Political Context of Public Administration
appropriateness of agency actions. Because the involvement of
the courts in the work of
administration is both intense and inevitable, public
administrators’ understanding of the legal
system and their ability to interact with legal and judicial
officials is necessary in order to
improve their effectiveness.
I. ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATIONS AND EXECUTIVE
LEADERSHIP
A. Administrative Organizations
1. The Executive Office of the President
2. Cabinet-Level Executive Departments
3. Independent Agencies, Regulatory Commissions, and Public
Corporations
4. Agencies Supporting the Legislature and the Judiciary
B. The State Level
C. The Local Level
1. Cities
2. Counties
3. Native American Tribes
4. Special Purpose Governments

5. Nonprofit Organizations and Associations
II. RELATIONSHIPS WITH THE LEGISLATIVE BODY
A. The Policy Process
1. Agenda Setting
2. Policy Formulation
3. Policy Legitimation
4. Policy Implementation
5. Policy Evaluation and Change
B. Types of Policy
1. Regulatory Policy
2. Distributive Policy
3. Redistributive Policy
4. Constituent Policy
C. Sources of Bureaucratic Power
D. Legislative Supervision: Structural Controls
1. Legislative Veto
2. Sunset Laws
3. Sunshine Laws
4. Agency Conduct
E. Legislative Supervision: Oversight
F. Legislative Supervision: Casework

Chapter 2: The Political Context of Public Administration 17
III. RELATIONSHIPS WITH THE JUDICIARY
A. Quasi-legislative Action
B. Quasi-judicial Action
C. Agency Discretion
D. Judicial Review
E. Concerns for Due Process
IC ADMINISTRATION in History: THE SPOTTED
OWL AND
AGENCY INTERPRETATION OF THE LAW
F. The Courts and Agency Administration
IV. SUMMARY AND ACTION IMPLICATIONS
Agenda setting Phase in public policy process when certain
problems come to be viewed as
needing attention.
Cohesion Degree to which members of a group are uniformly
committed to the group and its

goals.
Constituent policy Policy designed to benefit the public
generally or to serve the government.
Distributive policy Policy involving use of general tax funds to
provide assistance and benefits
to individuals or groups.
Executive order A presidential mandate directed to and
governing, with the effect of law, the
actions of government officials and agencies.
Independent agencies Agencies intentionally created outside
the normal cabinet organization.
Iron triangle Term given to a coalition of interest groups,
agency personnel, and members of
Congress created to exert influence on a particular policy issue.
Legislative veto Statutory provision that gives Congress the
authority to approve or disapprove
certain executive actions.
Nonprofit organizations Organizations prohibited by law from
distributing surplus revenues to
individuals.
Ombudsman Permanent office that receives complaints and acts
on behalf of citizens to secure

information, request services, or pursue grievances.
Policy Statement of goals and intentions with respect to a
particular problem or set of problems.
Policy entrepreneur A person willing to invest personal time,
energy, and money in pursuit of
particular policy changes.
Public corporation An essentially commercial agency in which
work requires greater latitude
and acquires at least a portion of its funding in the marketplace
(e.g., Tennessee Valley
Authority).
Public policy Authoritative statements made by legitimate
governmental actors about public
problems.
18 Chapter 2: The Political Context of Public Administration
Redistributive policy Policy designed to take taxes from certain
groups and give them to
another group.
Regulatory commission Group formed to regulate a particular
area of the economy; usually

headed by a group of individuals appointed by the president and
confirmed by the Senate.
Regulatory policy Policy designed to limit actions of persons
or groups to protect all or parts of
the general public.
Rule making Administrative establishment of general
guidelines for application to a class of
people or a class of actions at some future time.
Sunset law Provision that sets a specific termination date for a
program.
Sunshine law Provision that requires agencies to conduct
business in public view.
The following are links to websites that can provide information
about the executive branch
of the federal government and of state and local governments:
The White House: (www.whitehouse.gov).
The federal executive branch:
(www.usa.gov/Agencies//Federal/Executive.shtml).
Executive orders: (http://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-
room/presidential-actions/executive-
orders).

State, local, and tribal governments:
(http://www.usa.gov/Agencies.shtml).
Council of State Governments: (www.csg.org).
National League of Cities: (www.nlc.org/).
National Civic League: (www.ncl.org).
U.S. Conference of Mayors: (www.usmayors.org/).
International City Management Association: (www.icma.org).
The following are links to websites that can provide information
about nonprofit
organizations:
Alliance for Nonprofit Management: (www.allianceonline.org/).
CompassPoint Nonprofit Services:
(http://www.compasspoint.org/).
Foundations: (www.cof.org and www.foundations.org/).
The following are links to sources about policy making and
legislative and judiciary
controls:
The United States Congress: (http://house.gov/).
The United States Senate: (http://www.senate.gov/).
The Library of Congress: (http://www.loc.gov/index.html).

The United States Supreme Court:
(http://www.supremecourt.gov/).
The Brookings Institution: (www.brookings.edu).
The American Enterprise Institute: (http://www.aei.org/).
http://www.whitehouse.gov/
http://www.usa.gov/Agencies/Federal/Executive.shtml
http://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-
actions/executive-orders
http://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-
actions/executive-orders
http://www.usa.gov/Agencies.shtml
http://www.csg.org/
http://www.nlc.org/
http://www.ncl.org/
http://www.usmayors.org/
http://www.icma.org/
http://www.allianceonline.org/
http://www.compasspoint.org/
http://www.cof.org/
http://www.foundations.org/
http://house.gov/
http://www.senate.gov/
http://www.loc.gov/index.html
http://www.supremecourt.gov/
http://www.brookings.edu/
http://www.aei.org/
Chapter 2: The Political Context of Public Administration 19

The Urban Institute: (http://www.urban.org/).
Center for Lobbying in the Public Interest:
(http://www.clpi.org/).
The Nonprofit Lobbying Guide:
(http://www.independentsector.org/lobby_guide).
Administrative law research:
(http://public.findlaw.com/library/pa-administrative-law.html).
http://www.urban.org/
http://www.clpi.org/
http://www.independentsector.org/lobby_guide
http://public.findlaw.com/library/pa-administrative-law.html
CHAPTER 1
Personal Action in Public Organizations
1. Defining public administration
2. Understanding the differences between public and business
administration
3. Identifying values and conflicts of public administration and
the complexity of the work
4. Understanding why one should study public administration

5. Understanding the issues that underlie the intellectual and
practical context of public
administration
The purpose of Chapter 1 is to introduce students to the
complexity of public administration and
the work of the public administrator. Approaching the topic
from both a theoretical and practical
point of view, the authors offer a detailed description of the
field of public administration. The
chapter includes a definition of public administration along with
a brief history of the field, with a
special emphasis on how the values of democracy affect the
practice of public administration.
The authors outline the reasons for their view that public
administrators are obligated not only to
achieve efficiency and effectiveness but to be responsive to the
many stakeholders who help
define the public interest and discuss the concerns that
administrators need to keep in mind as
they meet this obligation.
In addition, the chapter explores the differences between public
and business administration,
particularly in the areas of ambiguity, decision-making

processes, and visibility. Emphasizing the
concept of “publicness,” the authors address the inevitable
tension between efficiency and
responsiveness that is central to the work of public
administrators and also highlight the
increasing importance of understanding the activities of
political and administrative officials in a
global context. A key component of Chapter 1 is a focus on
what public and nonprofit managers
actually do, including a discussion about the characteristics of
the most effective and responsible
public and nonprofit managers and the kinds of skills the work
of public administration requires.
The chapter also includes a discussion about the reasons why
various people study public
administration and how the study of public administration can
help prepare for administrative
positions. The authors touch on the interaction of government
and business and the importance of
public administration in everyday life and emphasize that
understanding the world of
administrative action not only is the basis for good scholarship
but also for making things happen
in the public service.

Finally, the chapter introduces two major themes that have
characterized work in public
organizations and continue to be of great importance—politics
and administration and
bureaucracy and democracy—and discusses how these themes
manifest in today’s public
administration as the tension between efficiency and
responsiveness.
2 Chapter 1: Personal Action in Public Organizations
I. WHAT IS PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION?
A. Values of Democracy
DREAM
B. Contrasting Business and Public Administration
DIFFERENT FROM
BUSINESS
1. Ambiguity
2. Pluralistic Decision Making

3. Visibility
C. Thinking about Public Administration Today
1. Publicness
2. The Global Context
II. WHAT DO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS DO?
A. An Inventory of Public Management Skills
B. Voices of Public Administrators
III. WHY STUDY PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION?
ADMINISTRATION?
A. Preparing for Administrative Positions
B. Combining Technical and Managerial Training
C. Interaction of Business and Government
D. Influencing Public Organizations
E. Making Things Happen
DISTINGUISHED PROFESSION
IV. ISSUES IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION THEORY AND
PRACTICE
A. Politics and Administration
1. Ensuring Accountability

B. Bureaucracy and Democracy
C. Efficiency versus Responsiveness
V. SUMMARY AND ACTION IMPLICATIONS
Autocracy Government by one.
Democracy A political system in which decision-making power
is widely shared among
members of the society.
Equality The idea that all persons have an equal claim to life,
liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness.
Chapter 1: Personal Action in Public Organizations 3
Individualism The idea that the dignity and integrity of the
individual are of supreme
importance.
Liberty The idea that individual citizens of a democracy should
have a high degree of self-
determination.

Oligarchy Government by the few.
Policy analysis Process of researching or analyzing public
problems to provide policy makers
with specific information about the range of available policy
options and advantages and
disadvantages of different approaches.
Policy analysts Persons who provide important information
about public programs through
research into the operations and impacts of the programs.
Program managers Persons ranging from the executive level to
the supervisory level who are in
charge of particular governmental programs.
Public administration The management of public programs.
Staff managers Persons who support the work of program
managers through budgeting and
financial management, personnel and labor relations, and
purchasing and procurement.
The following are links to the leading organizations for those in
the field of public
administration and nonprofit management:

Academy of Management, Public and Nonprofit Division:
(http://division.aomonline.org/pnp/).
Alliance for Nonprofit Management: (www.allianceonline.org).
American Political Science Association: (www.apsanet.org).
American Society for Public Administration:
(www.aspanet.org).
Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management:
(www.appam.org).
Independent Sector: (www.independentsector.org).
International City Management Association: (www.icma.org).
National Academy of Public Administration:
(www.napawash.org).
The National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and
Administration: (www.naspaa.org).
The following are links to other helpful sources for both public
and non-profit managers:
Chronicle of Philanthropy: (www.philanthropy.com).
Government Executive magazine: (www.govexec.com).
Office of Personnel Management: (www.opm.gov).
The Public Manager: (www.thepublicmanager.org).
U.S. Census Bureau: (www.census.gov/).

U.S. Government Official Web Portal: (www.governing.com).
http://division.aomonline.org/pnp/
http://www.allianceonline.org/
http://www.apsanet.org/
http://www.aspanet.org/
http://www.appam.org/
http://www.independentsector.org/
http://www.icma.org/
http://www.napawash.org/
http://www.naspaa.org/
http://www.philanthropy.com/
http://www.govexec.com/
http://www.opm.gov/
http://www.thepublicmanager.org/
http://www.census.gov/
http://www.governing.com/

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