The document discusses leadership trait theory from the early 1900s. It aimed to identify distinguishing traits of great leaders. However, research found no definitive traits and failed to consider how traits interact with situations. Later studies showed that both personality and situations determine leadership. While traits provide some understanding, the approach is limited and not useful for leadership development as traits cannot be easily changed.
John Kotter's 8-Step Change Model provides a framework for successfully implementing organizational change. The 8 steps are: 1) Create urgency, 2) Form a powerful coalition, 3) Create a vision, 4) Communicate the vision, 5) Remove obstacles, 6) Create short-term wins, 7) Build on the change, 8) Anchor the changes in corporate culture. Following these steps helps ensure that necessary changes are properly defined, communicated, and guided to completion through leadership and employee buy-in at all levels of the organization.
This document summarizes several models of follower typologies:
1. Abraham Zaleznik's model categorizes followers as impulsive, compulsive, masochistic, or withdrawn based on their levels of dominance and submission.
2. Robert Kelley's model identifies five follower types - alienated, passive, conformist, exemplary, and pragmatic - based on their motivation and behavior.
3. Ira Chaleff's model places followers into four quadrants based on their levels of support and challenge of leaders: partners, implementers, individualists, and resources.
4. The document also discusses isolates, bystanders, participants, activists, and diehards based on their engagement levels
This document discusses various theories and models of leadership. It covers trait theories that seek to identify personal characteristics of effective leaders. Behavioral theories examine types of leader behaviors and consider how styles may vary across cultures. Contingency models propose that effective leadership depends on both leader characteristics and situational factors. Specific models covered include Fiedler's contingency model, House's path-goal model, and transformational leadership. The document also discusses substitutes for leadership and the role of gender in leadership.
Leadership is guiding others towards collective action for the common good. There are two types of leadership: formal, based on position authority, and informal, based on respect from others. Followership is the process of being guided by a leader at work. Leadership theories include trait theory, behavioral theory, and contingency theory. Contingency theory proposes that leadership effectiveness depends on the environment and follower readiness. A leader's style should match follower readiness to be most effective.
Theories of leadership & management pptAmira Mohsen
This presentation talks about the theories of education leadership and management. The presentation is part of the Diploma in Education Leadership and Management offered by Notting Hill College
The document outlines John Kotter's 8-step process for leading organizational change, which includes establishing a sense of urgency, forming a powerful coalition, creating a vision for change, communicating the vision, empowering others to act on the vision, planning for and creating short-term wins, consolidating improvements and producing still more change, and institutionalizing new approaches. The document provides contact information for a learning and development consultant who facilitates the Kotter change model.
This document defines and compares leadership and management. Leadership is defined as motivating a group towards a common goal through inspiration. Key leadership traits include being self-starting, emotionally stable, and group-oriented. There are three main types of leadership: transactional, transformational, and servant. Management is defined as handling and controlling workers and daily operations with a short-term view. Key management traits include being organized, a team player, and having conflict resolution skills. While related, leadership creates synergy among a group towards a vision, whereas management focuses on implementing plans and tasks.
The document discusses leadership trait theory from the early 1900s. It aimed to identify distinguishing traits of great leaders. However, research found no definitive traits and failed to consider how traits interact with situations. Later studies showed that both personality and situations determine leadership. While traits provide some understanding, the approach is limited and not useful for leadership development as traits cannot be easily changed.
John Kotter's 8-Step Change Model provides a framework for successfully implementing organizational change. The 8 steps are: 1) Create urgency, 2) Form a powerful coalition, 3) Create a vision, 4) Communicate the vision, 5) Remove obstacles, 6) Create short-term wins, 7) Build on the change, 8) Anchor the changes in corporate culture. Following these steps helps ensure that necessary changes are properly defined, communicated, and guided to completion through leadership and employee buy-in at all levels of the organization.
This document summarizes several models of follower typologies:
1. Abraham Zaleznik's model categorizes followers as impulsive, compulsive, masochistic, or withdrawn based on their levels of dominance and submission.
2. Robert Kelley's model identifies five follower types - alienated, passive, conformist, exemplary, and pragmatic - based on their motivation and behavior.
3. Ira Chaleff's model places followers into four quadrants based on their levels of support and challenge of leaders: partners, implementers, individualists, and resources.
4. The document also discusses isolates, bystanders, participants, activists, and diehards based on their engagement levels
This document discusses various theories and models of leadership. It covers trait theories that seek to identify personal characteristics of effective leaders. Behavioral theories examine types of leader behaviors and consider how styles may vary across cultures. Contingency models propose that effective leadership depends on both leader characteristics and situational factors. Specific models covered include Fiedler's contingency model, House's path-goal model, and transformational leadership. The document also discusses substitutes for leadership and the role of gender in leadership.
Leadership is guiding others towards collective action for the common good. There are two types of leadership: formal, based on position authority, and informal, based on respect from others. Followership is the process of being guided by a leader at work. Leadership theories include trait theory, behavioral theory, and contingency theory. Contingency theory proposes that leadership effectiveness depends on the environment and follower readiness. A leader's style should match follower readiness to be most effective.
Theories of leadership & management pptAmira Mohsen
This presentation talks about the theories of education leadership and management. The presentation is part of the Diploma in Education Leadership and Management offered by Notting Hill College
The document outlines John Kotter's 8-step process for leading organizational change, which includes establishing a sense of urgency, forming a powerful coalition, creating a vision for change, communicating the vision, empowering others to act on the vision, planning for and creating short-term wins, consolidating improvements and producing still more change, and institutionalizing new approaches. The document provides contact information for a learning and development consultant who facilitates the Kotter change model.
This document defines and compares leadership and management. Leadership is defined as motivating a group towards a common goal through inspiration. Key leadership traits include being self-starting, emotionally stable, and group-oriented. There are three main types of leadership: transactional, transformational, and servant. Management is defined as handling and controlling workers and daily operations with a short-term view. Key management traits include being organized, a team player, and having conflict resolution skills. While related, leadership creates synergy among a group towards a vision, whereas management focuses on implementing plans and tasks.
Chapter 10 Organizational Structure And Design Ppt10D
The document discusses organizational structure and design. It defines key terms like departmentalization, chain of command, span of control, and centralization. It also contrasts traditional mechanistic structures with organic structures and explains how contingency factors like strategy, size, and environment influence structure. Common structures discussed include functional, divisional, team, matrix, and virtual organizations.
This document outlines developing a leadership strategy, which is critical for organizational success. It defines what a leadership strategy is and provides steps to create one. A leadership strategy considers the quantity and qualities of leaders needed, their skills and behaviors, collective capabilities, and leadership culture. It is created by analyzing a business strategy to identify key drivers and their implications for leadership. Data is collected on the current leadership situation and compared to the desired future to develop the leadership strategy and subsequent leadership development strategy.
The document discusses different theories of leadership. It defines leadership as the ability to influence others toward goals, and management as using authority to obtain compliance. Trait theories view leadership as innate traits, though no universal traits predict leadership. Behavioral theories propose leadership behaviors can be taught. The Ohio State and University of Michigan studies identified leadership behaviors as initiating structure/production orientation and consideration/employee orientation. Contingency theories state the most effective leadership depends on the situation, such as Fiedler's model relating leader style and situational favorability, and Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership model linking leader behavior to follower readiness.
Leadership theories aim to explain how leaders influence followers to achieve goals. Trait theories propose that leaders possess unique personality traits. Behavior theories examine how leaders behave, such as consideration for followers. Contingency theories stress that leadership style depends on situational factors. Effective leaders inspire followers, motivate them through vision and passion, and adapt their style to the maturity of followers and the demands of the situation. Trust is key to leadership, developed through integrity, benevolence, and competence. While theories provide insights, cultural context is also important for understanding leadership around the world.
The document discusses leadership theories and concepts. It provides an anecdote about Shelley Lazarus' mentorship under David Ogilvy which helped her advance her career. It then reviews various leadership theories such as trait theory, situational theory, transformational leadership, and discusses qualities of effective leaders like vision, passion for change, and being a teacher.
Path-Goal Theory describes how leaders can motivate followers to achieve goals. It states that leadership should enhance employee performance and satisfaction by focusing on employee motivation. The leader must use a style that meets the motivational needs of followers based on their characteristics and the work setting. The leader determines outcomes subordinates want to achieve, rewards high performance, and ensures subordinates believe they can achieve goals and perform well.
This document contains a learning outline for a chapter on leadership from a management textbook. The outline covers various theories of leadership, including trait theories, behavioral theories, contingency theories like Fiedler's model and path-goal theory, and current approaches like transformational leadership. It also discusses leadership issues like power, trust, empowering employees, cross-cultural leadership, and when leadership may be irrelevant. The document provides definitions and comparisons of the different leadership concepts discussed in the textbook chapter.
it is about the personality perception and motivation of a person along with the theories of the personality and traits of different personality organisational behavior is the subject and it will help you prepare for the presentation for free
The chapter discusses approaches for leading change, including:
1. Leaders must serve as change agents to help organizations adapt to threats and opportunities. They can overcome resistance by defining themselves as change leaders and articulating a compelling vision for the future.
2. John Kotter's eight-stage model provides a framework for leading planned change, with steps like establishing urgency, communicating a vision, empowering others, and institutionalizing changes.
3. Appreciative inquiry engages people in creating positive change by focusing on successes through discovery, dreaming, designing, and implementing a new future state. It takes an affirmative approach compared to identifying problems.
4. Leaders can increase creativity and innovation by fostering a creative
The document discusses different aspects of organizational structure, including:
1) It describes common elements of organizational structure like division of labor, formal reporting relationships, and coordination systems.
2) It outlines different structural designs for organizing work like functional, divisional, matrix, and team-based structures.
3) It examines structural elements like spans of control, centralization/decentralization, and departmentalization and how they shape organizational design.
4) It discusses how factors like strategy, environment, and technology influence appropriate structural choices.
This document discusses human behavior in organizations and management of organizational change. It covers:
1. The importance of understanding how people behave individually and in groups within organizations. Key goals are to describe, understand, predict, and control human behavior.
2. Models of organizational change including Lewin's three step model of unfreezing, changing, and refreezing as well as the six stages of how individuals experience and respond to change.
3. Common reasons why employees may resist organizational change such as surprise, lack of skills, fear of failure, and threats to job security. Managing change effectively requires addressing sources of resistance.
Strategic planning is different from the ordinary ad-hoc planning in which few disconnected projects are identified from time to time for implementation (Imobighe, 2014:2) .
It is integral with a comprehensive vision, in which all the vital elements of its resources including human and material, are effectively engaged towards the promotion of the goals and aspirations of the organisation.
The lack of strategic planning is ruinous to the vision, mission, and values of whatever an organization stands for.
In the highly competitive environment, the Nigerian auto-industry, strategic planning is a ‘do or perish’ process without which survival is very difficult in the face of fierce competition and available ‘alternatives’.
The document discusses the differences between managers and leaders. It provides definitions showing that managers are responsible for controlling and administering organizations, while leaders guide and inspire others. Managers focus on executing plans and maintaining stability, whereas leaders set new directions and cultivate change. Both are needed - managers ensure smooth operations while leaders drive innovation and progress. Smart organizations recognize the distinct and complementary roles of both managers and leaders.
This document discusses the concept of ethical leadership. It begins by quoting Eric Hoffer saying that how we treat others reflects how we treat ourselves. It then provides statistics showing that doctors are the most trusted profession. It defines ethics as deciding what is right in a situation based on one's values. Ethical leadership is defined as knowing one's core values and having courage to live by them. It discusses the importance of consistency between one's values at work and personal life. It uses Enron as an example of a company that failed due to a lack of ethical leadership. Finally, it lists characteristics of an ethical culture such as integrating ethics into goals and performance reviews.
How To Succesfully Lead Projects with Professor John Kotter's 8-step ModelPink Elephant
How To Successfully Lead Projects With Professor John P. Kotter’s 8-Step Model
Every IT leader should know about Kotter’s 8-Step Model for leading and implementing change!
Leading Change is recognised as one of the all-time best business books and the definitive work on the subject. Harvard Business School Professor, John P. Kotter, methodically and carefully explains his 8-step process for leading and managing major organisational change in an easy to understand fashion. Leading Change captures his wealth of knowledge and experience working with major companies all over the world. Professor Kotter takes concepts like leadership, urgency, vision, strategy, quick wins, and communication and puts them in well-explained, practical terms that anyone can follow.
If you're a manager at any level of your IT organisation who is currently leading any aspect of a change (and today it’s an ongoing occurrence!), understanding Kotter’s 8-step change process is a must-know, and this is a not-to-be-missed session. Plus, learn how to apply the best practices from this book from one of the world's leading management consultants – Karen Chua. You'll gain huge benefits from her extensive transformation experience as she walks you through several real-world examples for each of the eight steps.
The Work of Leadership in Adaptive Changeduckismine
The document discusses adaptive change and leadership. It covers:
- Theories of adaptive leadership, authoritative leadership, formal and informal leadership, and organizational learning behavior.
- Qualities of adaptive leaders including the ability to make decisions, understand people, adapt to change, and take risks.
- Collins' Level 5 leadership model which focuses on personal humility and professional will.
- Implementing adaptive change at KPMG including identifying the need to change the culture, putting work back to partners, regulating distress through meetings, and the resulting cultural shift to more collaboration, creativity, and collective intelligence.
Transactional and transformational leadership(1)jjadhav1972
I apologize for any confusion, as an AI assistant I do not have a personal leadership style. I was created by Anthropic to be helpful, harmless, and honest.
This document discusses entrepreneurship and leadership. It defines a leader as someone who influences others and an entrepreneur as an individual who organizes businesses and brings innovation for social good. The key qualities of an entrepreneurial leader are being open to change, acting as a role model, and having human relations and technical expertise. Different types of entrepreneurial leadership are discussed, including laissez-faire, autocratic, participative, transactional, and transformational. Entrepreneurship requires leadership skills like seeing opportunities, decision making, and inspiring others. Leaders and entrepreneurs are both innovative and challenge the status quo to develop organizations.
With a coach approach to empowerment, managers can empower employees by becoming mentors who help employees set goals, overcome challenges, and make them equal partners in their own advancement. This involves continued skills training, effective communication of goals and expectations, and delivering feedback to employees. It is a two-way relationship where both managers and employees work together towards empowerment.
This document discusses cross-cultural leadership and analyzes different leadership styles in a cross-cultural context. It begins by defining cross-cultural leadership and examining the authentic leadership model, which has four dimensions: transparency, self-awareness, balanced processing, and ethical/moral leadership. It then connects these dimensions to Hofstede's cultural dimensions of power distance, individualism vs collectivism, and uncertainty avoidance. The document analyzes how transformational, transactional, and servant leadership styles may apply across cultures and concludes that leadership styles must be adapted to fit different cultural and organizational contexts.
Business relationships cross cultural analysisshibrah76
This document summarizes a research paper that compares cultural attitudes in business relationships between Hong Kong and Portugal. The paper uses Hofstede's cultural dimensions of individualism/collectivism and power distance to compare the two regions, which Hofstede's model rates as similarly in those dimensions despite their different histories. The research found that in some cases, attitudes aligned with Hofstede's dimensions, but organizational culture in Portugal influenced attitudes more than national culture in the individualism dimension. The paper aims to understand how well Hofstede's cultural dimensions can explain business relationship attitudes in the two regions.
Chapter 10 Organizational Structure And Design Ppt10D
The document discusses organizational structure and design. It defines key terms like departmentalization, chain of command, span of control, and centralization. It also contrasts traditional mechanistic structures with organic structures and explains how contingency factors like strategy, size, and environment influence structure. Common structures discussed include functional, divisional, team, matrix, and virtual organizations.
This document outlines developing a leadership strategy, which is critical for organizational success. It defines what a leadership strategy is and provides steps to create one. A leadership strategy considers the quantity and qualities of leaders needed, their skills and behaviors, collective capabilities, and leadership culture. It is created by analyzing a business strategy to identify key drivers and their implications for leadership. Data is collected on the current leadership situation and compared to the desired future to develop the leadership strategy and subsequent leadership development strategy.
The document discusses different theories of leadership. It defines leadership as the ability to influence others toward goals, and management as using authority to obtain compliance. Trait theories view leadership as innate traits, though no universal traits predict leadership. Behavioral theories propose leadership behaviors can be taught. The Ohio State and University of Michigan studies identified leadership behaviors as initiating structure/production orientation and consideration/employee orientation. Contingency theories state the most effective leadership depends on the situation, such as Fiedler's model relating leader style and situational favorability, and Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership model linking leader behavior to follower readiness.
Leadership theories aim to explain how leaders influence followers to achieve goals. Trait theories propose that leaders possess unique personality traits. Behavior theories examine how leaders behave, such as consideration for followers. Contingency theories stress that leadership style depends on situational factors. Effective leaders inspire followers, motivate them through vision and passion, and adapt their style to the maturity of followers and the demands of the situation. Trust is key to leadership, developed through integrity, benevolence, and competence. While theories provide insights, cultural context is also important for understanding leadership around the world.
The document discusses leadership theories and concepts. It provides an anecdote about Shelley Lazarus' mentorship under David Ogilvy which helped her advance her career. It then reviews various leadership theories such as trait theory, situational theory, transformational leadership, and discusses qualities of effective leaders like vision, passion for change, and being a teacher.
Path-Goal Theory describes how leaders can motivate followers to achieve goals. It states that leadership should enhance employee performance and satisfaction by focusing on employee motivation. The leader must use a style that meets the motivational needs of followers based on their characteristics and the work setting. The leader determines outcomes subordinates want to achieve, rewards high performance, and ensures subordinates believe they can achieve goals and perform well.
This document contains a learning outline for a chapter on leadership from a management textbook. The outline covers various theories of leadership, including trait theories, behavioral theories, contingency theories like Fiedler's model and path-goal theory, and current approaches like transformational leadership. It also discusses leadership issues like power, trust, empowering employees, cross-cultural leadership, and when leadership may be irrelevant. The document provides definitions and comparisons of the different leadership concepts discussed in the textbook chapter.
it is about the personality perception and motivation of a person along with the theories of the personality and traits of different personality organisational behavior is the subject and it will help you prepare for the presentation for free
The chapter discusses approaches for leading change, including:
1. Leaders must serve as change agents to help organizations adapt to threats and opportunities. They can overcome resistance by defining themselves as change leaders and articulating a compelling vision for the future.
2. John Kotter's eight-stage model provides a framework for leading planned change, with steps like establishing urgency, communicating a vision, empowering others, and institutionalizing changes.
3. Appreciative inquiry engages people in creating positive change by focusing on successes through discovery, dreaming, designing, and implementing a new future state. It takes an affirmative approach compared to identifying problems.
4. Leaders can increase creativity and innovation by fostering a creative
The document discusses different aspects of organizational structure, including:
1) It describes common elements of organizational structure like division of labor, formal reporting relationships, and coordination systems.
2) It outlines different structural designs for organizing work like functional, divisional, matrix, and team-based structures.
3) It examines structural elements like spans of control, centralization/decentralization, and departmentalization and how they shape organizational design.
4) It discusses how factors like strategy, environment, and technology influence appropriate structural choices.
This document discusses human behavior in organizations and management of organizational change. It covers:
1. The importance of understanding how people behave individually and in groups within organizations. Key goals are to describe, understand, predict, and control human behavior.
2. Models of organizational change including Lewin's three step model of unfreezing, changing, and refreezing as well as the six stages of how individuals experience and respond to change.
3. Common reasons why employees may resist organizational change such as surprise, lack of skills, fear of failure, and threats to job security. Managing change effectively requires addressing sources of resistance.
Strategic planning is different from the ordinary ad-hoc planning in which few disconnected projects are identified from time to time for implementation (Imobighe, 2014:2) .
It is integral with a comprehensive vision, in which all the vital elements of its resources including human and material, are effectively engaged towards the promotion of the goals and aspirations of the organisation.
The lack of strategic planning is ruinous to the vision, mission, and values of whatever an organization stands for.
In the highly competitive environment, the Nigerian auto-industry, strategic planning is a ‘do or perish’ process without which survival is very difficult in the face of fierce competition and available ‘alternatives’.
The document discusses the differences between managers and leaders. It provides definitions showing that managers are responsible for controlling and administering organizations, while leaders guide and inspire others. Managers focus on executing plans and maintaining stability, whereas leaders set new directions and cultivate change. Both are needed - managers ensure smooth operations while leaders drive innovation and progress. Smart organizations recognize the distinct and complementary roles of both managers and leaders.
This document discusses the concept of ethical leadership. It begins by quoting Eric Hoffer saying that how we treat others reflects how we treat ourselves. It then provides statistics showing that doctors are the most trusted profession. It defines ethics as deciding what is right in a situation based on one's values. Ethical leadership is defined as knowing one's core values and having courage to live by them. It discusses the importance of consistency between one's values at work and personal life. It uses Enron as an example of a company that failed due to a lack of ethical leadership. Finally, it lists characteristics of an ethical culture such as integrating ethics into goals and performance reviews.
How To Succesfully Lead Projects with Professor John Kotter's 8-step ModelPink Elephant
How To Successfully Lead Projects With Professor John P. Kotter’s 8-Step Model
Every IT leader should know about Kotter’s 8-Step Model for leading and implementing change!
Leading Change is recognised as one of the all-time best business books and the definitive work on the subject. Harvard Business School Professor, John P. Kotter, methodically and carefully explains his 8-step process for leading and managing major organisational change in an easy to understand fashion. Leading Change captures his wealth of knowledge and experience working with major companies all over the world. Professor Kotter takes concepts like leadership, urgency, vision, strategy, quick wins, and communication and puts them in well-explained, practical terms that anyone can follow.
If you're a manager at any level of your IT organisation who is currently leading any aspect of a change (and today it’s an ongoing occurrence!), understanding Kotter’s 8-step change process is a must-know, and this is a not-to-be-missed session. Plus, learn how to apply the best practices from this book from one of the world's leading management consultants – Karen Chua. You'll gain huge benefits from her extensive transformation experience as she walks you through several real-world examples for each of the eight steps.
The Work of Leadership in Adaptive Changeduckismine
The document discusses adaptive change and leadership. It covers:
- Theories of adaptive leadership, authoritative leadership, formal and informal leadership, and organizational learning behavior.
- Qualities of adaptive leaders including the ability to make decisions, understand people, adapt to change, and take risks.
- Collins' Level 5 leadership model which focuses on personal humility and professional will.
- Implementing adaptive change at KPMG including identifying the need to change the culture, putting work back to partners, regulating distress through meetings, and the resulting cultural shift to more collaboration, creativity, and collective intelligence.
Transactional and transformational leadership(1)jjadhav1972
I apologize for any confusion, as an AI assistant I do not have a personal leadership style. I was created by Anthropic to be helpful, harmless, and honest.
This document discusses entrepreneurship and leadership. It defines a leader as someone who influences others and an entrepreneur as an individual who organizes businesses and brings innovation for social good. The key qualities of an entrepreneurial leader are being open to change, acting as a role model, and having human relations and technical expertise. Different types of entrepreneurial leadership are discussed, including laissez-faire, autocratic, participative, transactional, and transformational. Entrepreneurship requires leadership skills like seeing opportunities, decision making, and inspiring others. Leaders and entrepreneurs are both innovative and challenge the status quo to develop organizations.
With a coach approach to empowerment, managers can empower employees by becoming mentors who help employees set goals, overcome challenges, and make them equal partners in their own advancement. This involves continued skills training, effective communication of goals and expectations, and delivering feedback to employees. It is a two-way relationship where both managers and employees work together towards empowerment.
This document discusses cross-cultural leadership and analyzes different leadership styles in a cross-cultural context. It begins by defining cross-cultural leadership and examining the authentic leadership model, which has four dimensions: transparency, self-awareness, balanced processing, and ethical/moral leadership. It then connects these dimensions to Hofstede's cultural dimensions of power distance, individualism vs collectivism, and uncertainty avoidance. The document analyzes how transformational, transactional, and servant leadership styles may apply across cultures and concludes that leadership styles must be adapted to fit different cultural and organizational contexts.
Business relationships cross cultural analysisshibrah76
This document summarizes a research paper that compares cultural attitudes in business relationships between Hong Kong and Portugal. The paper uses Hofstede's cultural dimensions of individualism/collectivism and power distance to compare the two regions, which Hofstede's model rates as similarly in those dimensions despite their different histories. The research found that in some cases, attitudes aligned with Hofstede's dimensions, but organizational culture in Portugal influenced attitudes more than national culture in the individualism dimension. The paper aims to understand how well Hofstede's cultural dimensions can explain business relationship attitudes in the two regions.
When the Fog Dissipates: A study on cross-cultural adjustment of internationa...Sejal Mehta
This paper presents the cross-cultural adjustment process for international students studying in the United States. A web-based survey was conducted at The Pennsylvania State University, the results were then discussed along with implications and recommendations to ease the tranistion. Adler's five-stage model of culture shock is also discussed.
Starbucks in China and Vietnam Theory of Cross - Culture BrandingPhan Anh
This document discusses Starbucks' cross-cultural branding strategy in China and Vietnam. It begins with an abstract and introduction on the importance of understanding cultural differences when expanding into foreign markets. The body then reviews literature on cross-cultural management theory and dimensions of national culture. It also examines Starbucks' philosophy and global expansion. Specifically, it analyzes Starbucks' entry into the Chinese market, which lacked a coffee culture, and the Vietnamese market, which had an existing coffee culture. The document concludes with suggestions for improving Starbucks' strategy in Vietnam.
Hyundai Motor Company is a South Korean automaker founded in 1967. It is the world's fifth largest automaker based on annual vehicle sales. Hyundai operates the largest car manufacturing plant in Ulsan, South Korea and employs over 75,000 people worldwide. Hyundai sells vehicles in 193 countries through 6,000 dealerships. In India, Hyundai is the second largest car manufacturer behind Maruti Suzuki and has a wide range of 8 vehicles. However, Hyundai faces threats from increased foreign competition in India and higher costs from rising commodity prices.
The document is an agenda for a presentation on Sony Corporation. It includes sections on the introduction and history of Sony, their mission and vision, a SWOT analysis, their product range and achievements, competitors and market share, and conclusions. Key details are provided on Sony's founding in 1946, its consumer electronics and entertainment focus, and its goal to advance technology for public benefit through exciting new digital experiences.
Environmental threat and opportunity profileChandra Pandey
This document outlines how to conduct an environmental threat and opportunity profile (ETOP) analysis for an organization. The ETOP identifies external factors in different sectors like economic, political, technological that could impact the organization. It involves subdividing sectors, identifying key issues, and assessing each issue's potential favorable, unfavorable, or neutral impact. The document provides an example ETOP analysis for a bicycle company, identifying issues in sectors like the economy, market, international trade that could threaten or benefit the company. Conducting an ETOP helps understand external opportunities and threats to inform strategic planning.
An environmental threat and opportunity profile (ETOP) describes external factors that can impact an organization. It helps identify opportunities and threats, consolidate strengths, provide strategic information, and formulate strategies. Developing an ETOP involves identifying major environmental factors like economic, political, social, technological, competitive, and geographical factors. These are analyzed to determine weaknesses/strengths and their favorable, unfavorable, or neutral impact.
This document analyzes the external environment factors that impact an organization through a PESTLE analysis framework. It identifies several macroeconomic, social, policy, technological, industrial, and business environment factors that present opportunities or threats. These include factors like rising per capita income, increasing urbanization, changes in import/excise duties, emission standards, raw material prices, and expansion plans of other players in the industry. Conducting an external analysis helps an organization understand the external environment, identify opportunities and threats, and formulate effective business strategies.
Sony has been known for its simple yet recognizable logo featuring the company name in white lettering on a black background. The logo stands out due to its unique name and cannot be copied. Sony is also known for its high quality packaging that protects its products and uses eco-friendly materials. The brand is associated with traits like sophistication, pride, and innovation. Sony delivers new, trendy products with distinct features in line with its "make.believe" slogan and core identity of representing the latest technology.
Sony Corporation was founded in 1946 in Tokyo, Japan by Masaru Ibuka and Akio Morita. It is headquartered in Minato, Tokyo and produces consumer and professional electronic equipment, communication and information equipment, semiconductors, electronic devices and components, batteries, and chemicals. Some of its major products include PlayStation, Blu-ray, televisions, cameras, and it was the first to launch magnetic tape recorders, transistors, transistor radios, portable televisions, cassette tape recorders, CD players, and camcorders.
This document discusses cross-cultural communication and provides tips for improving it. There are four fundamental patterns of cultural difference: communication styles, attitudes toward conflicts, decision making, and approaches to knowledge. High context cultures rely heavily on non-verbal cues while low context cultures rely more on words. Gestures can have different meanings across cultures. Barriers to cross-cultural communication include ethnocentrism, discrimination, stereotyping, cultural blindness, and cultural imposition. Ways to improve include slowing down, separating questions, avoiding negatives, taking turns, checking meanings, and maintaining etiquette. Developing skills like respecting differences, building trust, understanding body language, and connecting with people can help overcome cultural barriers.
1) Sony is a Japanese electronics company founded in 1946 that focuses on audio, video, communications, and financial services.
2) The company aims to strengthen its core electronics business by applying information technologies to product design, production, distribution, and sales to enhance the value of its music, pictures, games and financial services.
3) Sony markets its diverse product portfolio, which includes televisions, cameras, games and robots, through an integrated strategy involving price, distribution channels like retailers, and promotions such as advertising, sales incentives and sponsorships.
A framework for developing leadership model based on national culture aspectsAlexander Decker
This document proposes a framework to help multinational companies develop culturally appropriate leadership models for their subsidiaries operating in different countries. The framework involves identifying the cultural aspects that impact the workplace in the host country, the leadership practices associated with the host country's culture, and other contextual factors. Companies would use this framework to understand how the host country's culture shapes effective leadership and to develop models that fit with cultural values. The framework is presented as a multi-step process that companies can follow, with periodic reassessment to account for cultural changes over time. The document recommends using case study and action research methods to implement the framework.
A framework for developing leadership model based on national culture aspectsAlexander Decker
This document proposes a framework to help multinational companies develop culturally appropriate leadership models for their subsidiaries operating in different countries. The framework involves identifying the cultural aspects that impact the workplace in the host country, the leadership practices associated with the host country's culture, and other contextual factors. Companies would use this framework to understand how the host country's culture shapes effective leadership and to develop models that fit each local context. The document recommends using case study and action research methods to implement the framework and build customized leadership models.
Antecedents of Organizational Commitment of Lecturer in South Sumaterainventionjournals
Theoretically it was predicted that leadership style and organizational culture have partially and simultaneously affected employees commitment to organization. Fwthermore, those factors i.e. leadership style, organizational culture and organizational commitment have impact on lecture performance, this research was conducted at Palembang, South Sumatera. This research was conducted by using descriptive quantitative approach with questionnaire as the data gathering instrument. In addition to that explanatory approach was carried out to get a deeper insight on the research phenomenon 325 samples was collected from 5 (five) participating universitir in South Sumatera, Palembang. Data analysis was carried out by using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). The research found that all independent variables have a significant effect on dependent variables both partially and simultaneously. Simultaneously it was found that leadership style and organizational culture affected organizational commitment by R2 = 0.77 with the most significant factor was on organizational communication. This result shows that there are still 43% of other factors that affected on organizational commitment. The next result was also gathered simultaneously which is the effect of leadership style, organizational culture and organizational commitment on employees ’performance with R2 = 0.79 with the most significant factor was on organizational commitment. This result shows that there are still 51% of other factors thataffected on employees 'performance that needs to be looked into in further research.
This document summarizes a research study that examined the associations between nationality, the Big Five personality traits (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism), teamwork factors (team identification, team satisfaction, in-role performance), and transformational leadership in an international company. The study hypothesized that openness to experience, agreeableness, extraversion, team identification would have positive associations with transformational leadership. 196 employees from an international consumer electronics company completed a questionnaire, and regression analysis found that openness to experience, agreeableness, and team identification explained a significant portion of the variance in transformational leadership.
This study examines how exploitative leadership (EL) influences knowledge management (KM) processes and the moderating role of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The study found that EL has a significant negative impact on KM, including its processes like knowledge creation, sharing, and utilization. OCB was found to significantly moderate the effect of EL on KM, especially knowledge creation. The findings provide insights for policymakers, managers and academics on addressing EL behaviors while considering the moderating role of OCB.
An explorative treatment of idiosyncratic supposition of management values in...Alexander Decker
This document discusses a study exploring organizational culture in the banking sector of Bangladesh using Hofstede's cultural dimensions framework. The study collected primary data from employees of public and private banks to analyze differences in management values and cultural perceptions. Factor analysis identified key dimensions of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, and collectivism. Hypotheses were developed and tested regarding decision making, risk tolerance, gender roles, and individual vs group priorities. Statistical analyses including discriminant analysis and reliability testing supported differences between public and private banks in cultural values as defined by Hofstede's model. The study aims to better understand how culture impacts management practices and competitive advantages in the banking industry.
Features of Organizational Culture and Their Impact on Banking System Perform...Fakulteti Ekonomik,UV
Abstract: Culture is recently considered by researchers as one of the important factors that affects the long-term performance of organizations. This article aims at presenting the general cultural features of major banks operating in Vlora Region, and their impact on the performance of these banks. This research paper will aim to analyze whether these cultural profiles are similar to the cultural profile that contributes to the organization high-performance. The paper methodology is based on the combination between primary and secondary research. The paper ends with the conclusions and recommendations.
Keywords: Organizational culture, financial performance, bank sector
The main objective of the current study is to investigate the effects of organizational culture on organizational health. Modern organizations are in a very intense competitive conditions and in order to survive, they need parameters which guarantee their survival. Therefore, the current study will investigate the significance of culture in this regard. Municipalities as one of the organizations providing urban services are in a position where it is possible to lose their impact due to the activities of other organizations. Accordingly, the statistical population selected for this study includes all the employees in Tehran Municipality. In order to gather the required data, after determining the sample size as 384 participants using Krejcie and Morgan table, standard questionnaire of Denison for culture (2000) and organizational health (2008) were used. The current study is a quantitative one carried out as a descriptive survey. The validity and reliability of the study are confirmed using appropriate methods. Finally, in order to test the hypotheses of the study, various descriptive and inferential statistical tests were used. It was found out that the organizational survival of Municipality was affected by various cultural parameters, among which compatibility had the highest impact.
The relationship between organizational space of offices and corporate identi...ijsptm
Institutional space as the value system determines what methods work and what behaviors are approved.
This study aimed to identify the relationship between organizational space (organizational structure,
corporate responsibility, corporate support and productivity management) with senior administration
identity of corporate managers of West Azerbaijan. 150 standardized questionnaires were distributed
among population and 100 questionnaires were returned to test hypotheses. According to normal data, the
Pearson correlation coefficient used to determine the type and extent of the relationship between the
variables. The results show there is a direct relationship between corporate responsibility, productivity
management, organizational support and corporate identity. However, a significant relationship between
the dimensions of organizational structure and corporate identity does not exist. So we suggest that serious
efforts should be made in General Offices in West Azerbaijan by exercising efficiently management and
developing appropriate organizational space (with respect to the liability of agents, productivity
management and organizational support) in order to improve organizational identity administration.
Exploitative leadership and individualismAnsaMubashira
This document proposes a research study examining how an individualistic organizational culture can foster exploitative leadership in educational institutions. The study will test a moderated mediation framework where an individualistic culture leads managers to develop exploitative leadership styles by making them egocentric. Managers' need for power will be examined as a moderator. The study aims to understand the antecedents of exploitative leadership, which prioritizes personal goals over followers and the organization. It will survey principals and teachers in Britain's education sector to analyze the relationships between individualism, egocentrism, need for power, and exploitative leadership. The results are expected to provide insights into developing exploitative leadership and inform leadership development in education.
Sheet1OSCM 3340Workshop # 2 Variation and Statistical ThinkingTeam.docxedgar6wallace88877
Sheet1OSCM 3340Workshop # 2 Variation and Statistical ThinkingTeam # Member initials:Production Run #1Round ## Good# Bad% Good123456TotalsProduction Run #2Round ## Good# Bad% Good123456TotalsProduction Run #3Round ## Good# Bad% Good123456TotalsProduction Run #4Round ## Good# Bad% Good123456Totals
% good can be calculated by considering that there is potential to have 13 good products per round. The same % can be derived from the number of cards in good product / 52 total cards.
Turkish Studies
International Periodical for the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic
Volume 12/31, p. 1-28
DOI Number: http://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.12500
ISSN: 1308-2140, ANKARA-TURKEY
Article Info/Makale Bilgisi
Referees/Hakemler: Yrd. Doç. Dr. Süreyya ECE –
Yrd. Doç. Dr. Sinan YILMAZ
This article was checked by iThenticate.
THE EFFECTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP
BEHAVIORS AND DECISION-MAKING STYLES ON
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR
Fetullah BATTAL* - İbrahim DURMUŞ** - Ertuğrul ÇINAR**
ABSTRACT
Organizational Citizenship, Decision-Making Styles and
Transformational Leadership concepts are increasingly important
paradigms in post-modern times in management science. The rapid
progress of technology and information age makes it very necessary to
plan ahead and develop the reflexes in this way in order to determine
what kind of position the Company and Institutional managers should
determine in the hyper-competitive environment.
In our work, The organizational citizenship evaluated in accordance
with Otherness, (benevolence), Conscientiousness, Courtesy, Gentility
(Sportsmanship), Civil Virtue, and Spontaneous Decision Making,
Rational Decision Making, Intuitive Decision Making, Dependent
Decision Making, Shyly Decision Making were considered types of
Decision-Making Styles.Finally, we tried to address the dimensions of the
concept of Transformational Leadership, which we have examined as a
dependent variable in our research model: "Mental Encouragement,
Charisma - Behavior, Instinctive Leadership, Interest at Individual Level
and Charisma - Attribution Dimensions".
The universe of the research, the Faculty of Economics and
Administrative Sciences and Vocational Schools of Business
Administration, which are located in Gumushane and Bayburt provinces
and are candidates for the future, constitute day students. A total of 221
students from Gümüşhane University (110) and Bayburt University (111)
participated in the research. The example of the research was formed in
this way. The turnover rate of the questionnaires is 74%.
Many previous conceptual and latent (dimensional) studies on
Organizational Citizenship, Decision-making Styles and
* Arş. Gör. Bayburt Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi İşletme Bölümü, El-mek: [email protected]
** Öğr. Gör. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi Gümüşhane.
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior.docxjeremylockett77
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Mediating
Effect of Subordinates’ Competence and Downward Influence Tactics
Lee Kim Lian
UCSI University
Low Guan Tui
Vesseltech Engineering Sdn Bhd
The objective of this study is to test a theory-based model predicting the relationships between leadership
styles, subordinates’ competence, downward influence tactics and outcome of organizational citizenship
behavior in Malaysian-based organizations. Data was collected from 347 respondents that represent
major industries like services, manufacturing, mining and construction companies. Path analysis
technique was used to test the model developed. The results show that the transformational leadership
style has significant positive relationship with subordinates’ organizational citizenship behavior, whereas
the transactional leader style is negatively related to organizational citizenship behavior. This result
illustrates the direct effects of leadership styles on the subordinates’ outcome. In addition, inspirational
appeals and consultation tactics, as downward influence tactics, were found to mediate the relationship
between transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. Likewise, subordinates’
competence mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and consultation tactics.
These results only partially support the efficacy of the influence theory, and therefore lend support to
contingency theories of leadership. Implications for research and direction for future research are also
discussed.
INTRODUCTION
This study explores how superior leadership styles may impact subordinates’ organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB). The importance of leadership style as predictor of OCB has been well
established in Western settings (Bass, 1985; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Morrman & Fetter,
1990; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Podsakoff, MacKenzie &
Bommer, 1996; MacKenzie, Podsakoff & Rich, 2001; Geyer & Steyrer, 1998; Wang, Law, Hackett,
Wang, Chen, 2005; Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006; Boerner, Eisenbeiss, Griesser, 2007). However,
there is scant research explore the indirect effects between this two variables. Hence, the inclusion of
subordinates’ competence and downward influence tactics served to investigate the role of intervening
effect between leadership styles and OCB.
Several researchers have suggested that leadership research needs to focus more on the “fundamental”
issues, such as influence processes that characterize leader-follower interaction (Bass, 1990; Hollander &
Offermann, 1990; Yukl, 1989). Research has also shown that effective leaders must have the ability to
recognize when to use different tactics of influence as well as the skill necessary to effectively carry out
Journal of Applied Business and Economics vol. 13(2) 2012 59
these influence attempts (Kipnis, Schmidt & Wilkinson, 1980; Yu.
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior.docxcroysierkathey
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Mediating
Effect of Subordinates’ Competence and Downward Influence Tactics
Lee Kim Lian
UCSI University
Low Guan Tui
Vesseltech Engineering Sdn Bhd
The objective of this study is to test a theory-based model predicting the relationships between leadership
styles, subordinates’ competence, downward influence tactics and outcome of organizational citizenship
behavior in Malaysian-based organizations. Data was collected from 347 respondents that represent
major industries like services, manufacturing, mining and construction companies. Path analysis
technique was used to test the model developed. The results show that the transformational leadership
style has significant positive relationship with subordinates’ organizational citizenship behavior, whereas
the transactional leader style is negatively related to organizational citizenship behavior. This result
illustrates the direct effects of leadership styles on the subordinates’ outcome. In addition, inspirational
appeals and consultation tactics, as downward influence tactics, were found to mediate the relationship
between transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. Likewise, subordinates’
competence mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and consultation tactics.
These results only partially support the efficacy of the influence theory, and therefore lend support to
contingency theories of leadership. Implications for research and direction for future research are also
discussed.
INTRODUCTION
This study explores how superior leadership styles may impact subordinates’ organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB). The importance of leadership style as predictor of OCB has been well
established in Western settings (Bass, 1985; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Morrman & Fetter,
1990; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Podsakoff, MacKenzie &
Bommer, 1996; MacKenzie, Podsakoff & Rich, 2001; Geyer & Steyrer, 1998; Wang, Law, Hackett,
Wang, Chen, 2005; Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006; Boerner, Eisenbeiss, Griesser, 2007). However,
there is scant research explore the indirect effects between this two variables. Hence, the inclusion of
subordinates’ competence and downward influence tactics served to investigate the role of intervening
effect between leadership styles and OCB.
Several researchers have suggested that leadership research needs to focus more on the “fundamental”
issues, such as influence processes that characterize leader-follower interaction (Bass, 1990; Hollander &
Offermann, 1990; Yukl, 1989). Research has also shown that effective leaders must have the ability to
recognize when to use different tactics of influence as well as the skill necessary to effectively carry out
Journal of Applied Business and Economics vol. 13(2) 2012 59
these influence attempts (Kipnis, Schmidt & Wilkinson, 1980; Yu ...
Management Styles and Employee Performance: A Study of a Public Sector Compan...Masroor Soomro
Abstract: This research investigated that do management styles have any significant effect over employee performance with HR being an intervening variable, a trend setter or culture molder in the organization and judging its impact over employee performance of Sui Southern Gas Company (SSGC) limited, which is an organization with diversified backgrounds and cultures of working people having different norms and values. Keeping the problem statement in the mind four hypotheses were proposed including autocratic and MBWA management styles. Culture has significant effect over employee performance with respect to autocratic and MBWA management styles. There is significant difference between employee perceived performance and HRIS employee performance record. The target population with sample size of 158 E-grade officer as respondents were provided questionnaire. Tests of Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) and Paired Sample T-test showed that two of proposed hypotheses were accepted and two were rejected. Hence, autocratic management styles do affect employee performance while management has to work hard to establish a good governing norms and values. This helpsto mold its new management styles and culture and set new image of the organization and generate productive results.
This study examines the relationships between organizational culture, leadership behaviors, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and job performance in small and medium Taiwanese firms. Surveys were distributed to 1,451 employees across 84 firms, with 749 valid responses. Significant findings include: (1) transformational leadership was positively related to organizational commitment in innovative cultures, (2) organizational commitment mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction across all cultures, and (3) organizational commitment mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and job performance in supportive and bureaucratic cultures.
Running Head FOUR-FRAME MODEL 1FOUR-FRAME MODEL7Fou.docxcowinhelen
Running Head: FOUR-FRAME MODEL
1
FOUR-FRAME MODEL
7
Four Frame Model
Rubin Wilkins
Module 5 Assignment 2
Argosy University Los Angeles
Professor: Dale Mancini
February 15, 2017
Four-frame Model
Introduction
Bolman and Deal synthesized the foregoing leadership theory into four contemporary cognitive perspectives which they further organized into frames to assist leaders in the decision-making process in relation to each individual situation. It was their understanding that the use of such frames would assist leaders in analyzing respective events in a different manner and perspective. In essence, they provide ‘windows’ that enhance the leaders’ to have a broader understanding of the challenges being faced by the organization and solutions that are potentially available. This insightful piece therefore proceeds to help in understanding the frames.
The Four-Frame Model of leadership is a creation stemming from the meshing of various organizational theories to form a wide-encompassing one. These consolidated theories include; the trait theory, power and influence theory, situational and contingency theory, and the behavioral theory (Bateman, 2007). They have been developed over a span of many years. The multiple perspectives emanating from the various theoretical underpinnings are the ones termed as frames by the two theorists; through which an organization is viewed by the leaders and other related persons. These ‘windows’ further operate to bring an organization into focus and subsequently serve as filters which offer the leaders order and assist them in making decisions. Furthermore, the frames comprise of the structural frame, human resource frame, political frame and the symbolic frame. Each individual frame represents a perspective
accompanied by its own assumptions and attributes.
The structural frame is used in viewing the world from an orderly point of view furnished with a multiplicity of rules and procedures. The human resource frame then comes in to assume that goals are best achieved through the meeting of organization members’ needs and fully appreciating the workforce as fundamental part of the organization. The political frame appertains to the conflicts, alliances and bartering of respective parties to properly use and allocate the scares resources owned by and charged to the organization. Finally, symbolic frame relates to the issues of culture, symbols and rituals of an organization as opposed to the established rules and procedures.
Theme among articles
Song, Kim and Kolb (2009) set out to research on the effect of learning an organization’s culture and the established linkage between interpersonal trust and the general commitment to an organization. The sample used in this study was primarily obtained from various employees working to conglomerate entities of Korea. Resultantly, it was established that learning an organization’s culture worked as a mediating factor in the explanation of associations betwe ...
Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...Alexander Decker
Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) have elevated levels of hormones like luteinizing hormone and testosterone, as well as higher levels of insulin and insulin resistance compared to healthy women. They also have increased levels of inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and leptin. This study found these abnormalities in the hormones and inflammatory cytokines of women with PCOS ages 23-40, indicating that hormone imbalances associated with insulin resistance and elevated inflammatory markers may worsen infertility in women with PCOS.
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websitesAlexander Decker
This document presents a framework for evaluating the usability of B2C e-commerce websites. It involves user testing methods like usability testing and interviews to identify usability problems in areas like navigation, design, purchasing processes, and customer service. The framework specifies goals for the evaluation, determines which website aspects to evaluate, and identifies target users. It then describes collecting data through user testing and analyzing the results to identify usability problems and suggest improvements.
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
This document discusses a study that aimed to synthesize motivation theories into a universal model for managing marketing executives in Nigerian banks. The study was guided by Maslow and McGregor's theories. A sample of 303 marketing executives was used. The results showed that managers will be most effective at motivating marketing executives if they consider individual needs and create challenging but attainable goals. The emerged model suggests managers should provide job satisfaction by tailoring assignments to abilities and monitoring performance with feedback. This addresses confusion faced by Nigerian bank managers in determining effective motivation strategies.
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized dAlexander Decker
This document presents definitions and properties related to generalized D*-metric spaces and establishes some common fixed point theorems for contractive type mappings in these spaces. It begins by introducing D*-metric spaces and generalized D*-metric spaces, defines concepts like convergence and Cauchy sequences. It presents lemmas showing the uniqueness of limits in these spaces and the equivalence of different definitions of convergence. The goal of the paper is then stated as obtaining a unique common fixed point theorem for generalized D*-metric spaces.
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistanceAlexander Decker
This document provides a review of trends in Salmonella and antibiotic resistance. It begins with an introduction to Salmonella as a facultative anaerobe that causes nontyphoidal salmonellosis. The emergence of antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella is then discussed. The document proceeds to cover the historical perspective and classification of Salmonella, definitions of antimicrobials and antibiotic resistance, and mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in Salmonella including modification or destruction of antimicrobial agents, efflux pumps, modification of antibiotic targets, and decreased membrane permeability. Specific resistance mechanisms are discussed for several classes of antimicrobials.
A transformational generative approach towards understanding al-istifhamAlexander Decker
This document discusses a transformational-generative approach to understanding Al-Istifham, which refers to interrogative sentences in Arabic. It begins with an introduction to the origin and development of Arabic grammar. The paper then explains the theoretical framework of transformational-generative grammar that is used. Basic linguistic concepts and terms related to Arabic grammar are defined. The document analyzes how interrogative sentences in Arabic can be derived and transformed via tools from transformational-generative grammar, categorizing Al-Istifham into linguistic and literary questions.
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibiaAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the determinants of savings in Namibia from 1991 to 2012. It reviews previous literature on savings determinants in developing countries. The study uses time series analysis including unit root tests, cointegration, and error correction models to analyze the relationship between savings and variables like income, inflation, population growth, deposit rates, and financial deepening in Namibia. The results found inflation and income have a positive impact on savings, while population growth negatively impacts savings. Deposit rates and financial deepening were found to have no significant impact. The study reinforces previous work and emphasizes the importance of improving income levels to achieve higher savings rates in Namibia.
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school childrenAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the importance of exercise in maintaining physical and mental fitness for school children. It discusses how physical and mental fitness are developed through participation in regular physical exercises and cannot be achieved solely through classroom learning. The document outlines different types and components of fitness and argues that developing fitness should be a key objective of education systems. It recommends that schools ensure pupils engage in graded physical activities and exercises to support their overall development.
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study examining efficiency in managing marketing executives in Nigerian banks. The study was examined through the lenses of Kaizen theory (continuous improvement) and efficiency theory. A survey of 303 marketing executives from Nigerian banks found that management plays a key role in identifying and implementing efficiency improvements. The document recommends adopting a "3H grand strategy" to improve the heads, hearts, and hands of management and marketing executives by enhancing their knowledge, attitudes, and tools.
This document discusses evaluating the link budget for effective 900MHz GSM communication. It describes the basic parameters needed for a high-level link budget calculation, including transmitter power, antenna gains, path loss, and propagation models. Common propagation models for 900MHz that are described include Okumura model for urban areas and Hata model for urban, suburban, and open areas. Rain attenuation is also incorporated using the updated ITU model to improve communication during rainfall.
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjabAlexander Decker
This document discusses contraceptive use in Punjab, Pakistan. It begins by providing background on the benefits of family planning and contraceptive use for maternal and child health. It then analyzes contraceptive commodity data from Punjab, finding that use is still low despite efforts to improve access. The document concludes by emphasizing the need for strategies to bridge gaps and meet the unmet need for effective and affordable contraceptive methods and supplies in Punjab in order to improve health outcomes.
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...Alexander Decker
1) The document discusses synthesizing Taylor's scientific management approach and Fayol's process management approach to identify an effective way to manage marketing executives in Nigerian banks.
2) It reviews Taylor's emphasis on efficiency and breaking tasks into small parts, and Fayol's focus on developing general management principles.
3) The study administered a survey to 303 marketing executives in Nigerian banks to test if combining elements of Taylor and Fayol's approaches would help manage their performance through clear roles, accountability, and motivation. Statistical analysis supported combining the two approaches.
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incrementalAlexander Decker
This document summarizes four algorithms for sequential pattern mining: GSP, ISM, FreeSpan, and PrefixSpan. GSP is an Apriori-based algorithm that incorporates time constraints. ISM extends SPADE to incrementally update patterns after database changes. FreeSpan uses frequent items to recursively project databases and grow subsequences. PrefixSpan also uses projection but claims to not require candidate generation. It recursively projects databases based on short prefix patterns. The document concludes by stating the goal was to find an efficient scheme for extracting sequential patterns from transactional datasets.
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniquesAlexander Decker
This document summarizes several techniques for live virtual machine migration in cloud computing. It discusses works that have proposed affinity-aware migration models to improve resource utilization, energy efficient migration approaches using storage migration and live VM migration, and a dynamic consolidation technique using migration control to avoid unnecessary migrations. The document also summarizes works that have designed methods to minimize migration downtime and network traffic, proposed a resource reservation framework for efficient migration of multiple VMs, and addressed real-time issues in live migration. Finally, it provides a table summarizing the techniques, tools used, and potential future work or gaps identified for each discussed work.
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo dbAlexander Decker
This document discusses data mining of big data using Hadoop and MongoDB. It provides an overview of Hadoop and MongoDB and their uses in big data analysis. Specifically, it proposes using Hadoop for distributed processing and MongoDB for data storage and input. The document reviews several related works that discuss big data analysis using these tools, as well as their capabilities for scalable data storage and mining. It aims to improve computational time and fault tolerance for big data analysis by mining data stored in Hadoop using MongoDB and MapReduce.
1. The document discusses several challenges for integrating media with cloud computing including media content convergence, scalability and expandability, finding appropriate applications, and reliability.
2. Media content convergence challenges include dealing with the heterogeneity of media types, services, networks, devices, and quality of service requirements as well as integrating technologies used by media providers and consumers.
3. Scalability and expandability challenges involve adapting to the increasing volume of media content and being able to support new media formats and outlets over time.
This document surveys trust architectures that leverage provenance in wireless sensor networks. It begins with background on provenance, which refers to the documented history or derivation of data. Provenance can be used to assess trust by providing metadata about how data was processed. The document then discusses challenges for using provenance to establish trust in wireless sensor networks, which have constraints on energy and computation. Finally, it provides background on trust, which is the subjective probability that a node will behave dependably. Trust architectures need to be lightweight to account for the constraints of wireless sensor networks.
This document discusses private equity investments in Kenya. It provides background on private equity and discusses trends in various regions. The objectives of the study discussed are to establish the extent of private equity adoption in Kenya, identify common forms of private equity utilized, and determine typical exit strategies. Private equity can involve venture capital, leveraged buyouts, or mezzanine financing. Exits allow recycling of capital into new opportunities. The document provides context on private equity globally and in developing markets like Africa to frame the goals of the study.
This document discusses a study that analyzes the financial health of the Indian logistics industry from 2005-2012 using Altman's Z-score model. The study finds that the average Z-score for selected logistics firms was in the healthy to very healthy range during the study period. The average Z-score increased from 2006 to 2010 when the Indian economy was hit by the global recession, indicating the overall performance of the Indian logistics industry was good. The document reviews previous literature on measuring financial performance and distress using ratios and Z-scores, and outlines the objectives and methodology used in the current study.
LinkedIn for Your Job Search June 17, 2024Bruce Bennett
This webinar helps you understand and navigate your way through LinkedIn. Topics covered include learning the many elements of your profile, populating your work experience history, and understanding why a profile is more than just a resume. You will be able to identify the different features available on LinkedIn and where to focus your attention. We will teach how to create a job search agent on LinkedIn and explore job applications on LinkedIn.
Khushi Saini, An Intern from The Sparks Foundationkhushisaini0924
This is my first task as an Talent Acquisition(Human resources) Intern in The Sparks Foundation on Recruitment, article and posts.
I invitr everyone to look into my work and provide me a quick feedback.
Contextual factors that impact leadership practices in cross
1. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol.4, No.15, 2014
155
Contextual Factors That Impact Leadership Practices In Cross-
Cultural Settings: An Egyptian Case Study
Asmaa M.S. Ibrahim
Maastricht School of Management, MSM, Endepolsdomein 150, 6229 EP Maastricht, Netherlands
E-mail: asmaa.salah1980@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper explores the contextual factors, other than culture, that affect the implementation of companies’
leadership competencies models, in cross-cultural settings. The study employs qualitative case study, using semi-
structured interviews. Two-case studies were conducted to reach more comprehensive findings. Based on the
research findings, leaders’ personality and national culture, subordinates’ level of experience, the host-country
situation, the company’s strategy, and the nature of the company’s departments may cause variance in leaders’
practices. However the overall variance in leader’s practices between the company’s different offices may
decrease due to the company’s culture of origin as and the company’s cross-cultural experience. Thus,
companies operating in cross-cultural settings should consider such factors when developing and customizing
their leadership model to reach a sound cultural fit. Based on research findings the paper proposes a model that
needs to be tested in further research work.
This study was conducted only on two multinational companies from the same origin and operating in the same
host-country. Thus, further research work should be conducted on companies from other origins to generalize
findings. This research is among the few studies that address the contextual factors, other than culture, that
impact the implementation of companies’ leadership practices in cross-cultural settings. It is also among the few
studies that investigates Egyptian business environment in cross-cultural settings.
Keywords: leadership, contextual factors, national culture, multinational companies, Egypt
1. Introduction
Many researches lack the deep analysis of the context of leadership. Most of researches addressed the impact of
national culture on leadership with little reference to other contextual factors that impact leaders’ practices
(Jepson 2009). Based on this, the main objective of the current study is to explore the contextual factors, other
than culture, that impact the effective implementation of companies’ leadership models and managers’ practices.
This research is conducted on two of the top companies in leadership field that operate in Egypt. Such companies
developed a sound leadership approach that fit into different host-countries national cultural aspects. Thus, this
study presents an example of the contextual factors that impact the implementation of the companies’ sound
leadership models.
Since that the researcher is interested in participants’ view, the qualitative approach guided the process of data
collection, analysis, report writing, and other phases in the research process.
2. Review of literature
2.1 Cross-Cultural Settings and Issues
Cross-cultural issues appear where people from different cultures act and interact together (Morrison 2000). One
good example is employees working in multinational companies’ subsidiaries (Suutari 1996b), who deal with
managers, peers, and subordinates from different cultures. From a cultural prospective, the best leadership style
depends on followers’ national cultural values and norms (Hofstede 1980). National culture is a major factor
which has a significant effect on the company leadership practices, and its performance (Lau & Ngo 1996; Jing
& Avery 2008).They impact work-relationship which in turn affects employees’ performance. For example in
“diffuse cultures”, identified by Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998), employees believe that leaders-
subordinates relationship affects subordinates’ performance. While in “specific cultures” employees’
performance governs the quality of leaders-subordinates relationship (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner 1998,
83). Also, in collectivistic cultures, identified by Hofstede, employees value leadership practices that consider
nurturing socialization and developing healthy relationships among colleagues. This helps in improving
employee’s performance ( Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner 1998, 83; Goleman 2000). Also, in femininity
cultures employees need leaders who focus on individual’s consideration practices (Suutari 1996a ; Harris &
2. Developing Country Studies www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online)
Vol.4, No.15, 2014
156
Carr 2008). Giving individualized consideration to subordinates increases employees’ sense of security,
motivation, satisfaction, and consequently performance (Goleman 2000).
Thus, multinational companies’ leadership approaches and practices should be consistent with the host-country
norms and values shared and internalized by the members working in multinational companies’ subsidiaries
(Suutari 1996a; Kirca et al. 2009).
2.2Contextual Factors Other than Culture
However, in addition to culture, there are further contextual factors that impact the effectiveness of leadership
practices and approaches (Luthans 2005, 581; Zhu 2007; Jepson 2009). For example, leaders' communication
skills impact the effectiveness of the authoritative leadership practices. Such practices focus on creating a clear
picture of the future, motivating subordinates, and providing clear standards of success and rewards. Further,
employees’ willingness to change and learn impact the effectiveness of coaching leadership practices. Also,
leaders’ ability to assess subordinates’ weaknesses and strengths, and leaders’ ability to provide timely feedback
impact the effectiveness of coaching leadership practices. Moreover, employees’ qualifications and experience
impacts the effective implementation of democratic leadership practices. Furthermore, the pacesetting leadership
style is effective only when employees are self-motivated and need little directions and guidance. This is
important when leaders mostly set high standards for performance and give little directions and feedback
(Goleman 2000).The paternalistic leadership style, by which leaders expect obedience and respect of the team
members, is effective only when followers are dependent on being led (De Bono et al. 2008, 20). Besides,
paternalistic leadership style is highly effective in crisis time (Goleman 2000). Also, the affiliative leadership
style, where leaders focus on creating and maintaining harmony in the workplace, is more effective when the
company is facing problems in communication, or when there is a high level of workplace stress (Goleman
2000).
Most of researches addressed that the leader, the follower, and the situation affect leadership practices without
presenting more deep analysis (Jepson 2009). As proposed by Jepson (2009) such factors should be classified
under the immediate social context such as the group, the hierarchy, the job, the technology, the department, the
organization, and the industry; the general cultural context such as the organizational culture and national
culture; and the historical and institutional context such as history, education, regulations, and socialization.
Unfortunately, few researches presented deep analysis of the context of leadership (Jepson 2009). Even cross-
cultural studies focused mostly on cultural aspects that impact leadership practices, or leadership practices in
cultural context with little reference to other contextual factors. Based on this the researcher formulated the
following working proposition:
The effectiveness of multinational companies’ approach to cross-cultural leadership differs based on
contextual factors, other than culture.
2.3 Contextual Factors Highlighted In Cross-Cultural Literature
Researchers, such as Suutari, Van Oudenhoven, and Scandura and Dorfman (the GLOBE Project researchers),
presented different frameworks addressing leadership in cross cultural settings. Yet, Van Oudenhoven (2001)
was the only one who clearly focused on contextual factors other than culture. The researcher highlighted that
gender, age, and working experience are the most relevant factors. Van Oudenhoven (2001) work depended on
using statements that reflect on leaders’ practices as a stimulus to discover aspects relevant to culture. His work
focused on cultural dimensions identified by Hofstede. He used short questionnaire in order to increase response.
This resembles a difficulty in assessing the reliability of the research instrument.
3. Methodology
Two case studies were conducted using replication logic (see Yin 2003, 46; Payne et al. 2007).The first case
study was conducted as a pilot study with the objective of exploring the factors and creating a clear picture. The
second case study was conducted with the objective of testing the validity of the first case study’s findings.
Further, a cross-cases comparison between both case studies was conducted to present more comprehensive
findings and highlight discrepancies.
3.1 Data Gathering
The researcher conducted semi-structured interviews that lasted for thirty minutes minimum and two hours
maximum. Having a structure for interviews helped the researcher in directing participants, since Egyptians tend
to prefer more structured settings (see Leat & El-Kot 2007). The researcher conducted face-to-face interviews
with Egyptian employees. Other foreign managers were not included so as to exclude other moderating
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variables, as their opinion may be affected by their home country national cultures. (See Interview questions in
the Appendix)
3.2 Sampling Procedure and Sample Size
Instead of focusing only on managers’ perception this study intended to include employees working along all the
organizational hierarchy (see Suutari & Tahvanainen 2002; Jepson 2009). Thus, “purposive sampling” was
employed to make sure that participants are from different categories (see Creswell 1994, 148; Silverman 2000,
104). The sample included Egyptian managers and their subordinates in different business units/functions, along
the hierarchy. The first case study included eighteen interviews which count for sixty percent of employees. The
study conducted interviews with seven top managers, seven middle managers, and four subordinates. The
research covered nightly percent of the company business units and fifty percent of its functions.
The second case study included thirty five interviews which count to forty percent of employees. The study
conducted interviews with eight top managers, ten middle managers, and seventeen subordinates. The research
was conducted on eighty seven percent of the business units. The researcher conducted about an equal
percentage of interviews in each job level.
It is important to mention that only employees who were interested and willing to participate were included in
the study (see Ghosh & Chakraborty 2008).Participants were both males and females with years of experience
that ranged from twelve years to almost two years. All participants were university graduates and some of them
pursued master and doctorate degrees. The researcher did not identify participants based on their years of
experience, department, or gender so as to maintain anonymity.
3.3 Data Recording and Interviews Transcribing and Coding
There searcher transcribed the interview dialogue on the data recording protocol that was designed based on
Creswell’s (1994, 152) guidelines (SeeTable1: data recording protocol). Then the researcher sent the transcripts
of interviews to participants, by email, to get their feedback on how their statements were recorded.
Further, interviews were coded and processed. First interviews’ answers were coded based on participants (see
Table 2: example of coding participants: case study I and Table 3: example of coding participants: case study
II).Second, further the coded answers were grouped based on the interview questions. Third, the findings were
processed based on interview analysis techniques and case study analysis technique.
3.3.1 Interview analysis techniques
Three techniques to analyze interviews were employed. Categorization of meaning was employed to help in
presenting the different categories that were highlighted based on interviewees’ own words, regardless of the
percentage of participants who confirm or disagree with them. Condensation of meaning was employed in order
to reduce the large interview texts into succinct statements (see Kvale 1996, 192). Structuring of meaning
through narratives was employed to condense and reconstruct the different stories told by the different
interviewees to reach a more comprehensive story, rather than depending on scattered stories highlighted by each
single interviewee (see Kvale1996, 199).
The outputs of the analysis approach were presented in tables. The tables present participants’ quotes, the main
points and categories which their statements reflect, and a comprehensive description for all quotes. Each quote
is preceded by the code of the participant who mentioned the statement. This helps the reader in tracing the
different statements that any participant mentioned, while maintaining anonymity as agreed with them. For this
reason, the whole typical interviews were not displayed or presented in the paper. However, they are ready to be
submitted if requested (See Table 4: Sample of Case Study I findings and analysis and Table 5: Sample of Case
Study II findings and analysis)
3.3.2 Case study analysis technique
Cross-case synthesis technique was employed to help in identifying and clarifying the unique patterns of each
case study and reaching a comprehended generalizable pattern across both cases (see Huberman & Miles 2002,
18). The cross-cases findings were conducted through referring to the constructed tables that display the data for
each case study to identify the similarities and differences between both cases(See Table 4: Sample of Case
Study I findings and analysis and Table 5: Sample of Case Study II findings and analysis). The cross-cases
discussion depended on argumentative interpretation rather than statistical one (see Yin 2003, 137). The cross-
cases analysis is presented in the main report. Further, a sample of each of the cases studies’ findings are
presented in the appendix (see Yin 2003, 116).
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3.4 Data Verification
The researcher focused on establishing and maintaining the study validity, credibility, reliability and
transferability. To establish validity, two-case studies were conducted to reach more robust findings (Yin 2003,
46; Payne et al. 2007). To maintain credibility, member checks were also performed. The researcher sought
respondents’ feedback about the credibility of data collected, interpretation, and conclusion to ensure verification
(Yin 1981; Creswell 1998, 213; Maxwell 2005, 110). Also, to maintain reliability the researcher used data
recording protocol during data collection (see See Table1: data recording protocol). To maintain transferability,
the researcher described in details the settings of the study (Creswell 1998, 203).The researcher explicitly
outlined the different steps of the analysis process. Thus, “the readers could retrace and check the steps of the
analysis” (Kvale 1996, 209).
4. Cross-Cases Findings’ Analysis
This section presents the main categories that were discussed by participants. The researcher presents such
categories based on both case studies, supported by some participants’ quotes. In the appendix the researcher
presents participants’ quotes; the categories developed based on such quotes; and the researcher description and
interpretation for the categories developed based on participants’ quotes for each case study individually(See
Table 4: Sample of Case Study I findings and analysis and Table 5: Sample of Case Study II findings and
analysis). Such findings were stimulated by interview questions regarding factors leading to effective or
ineffective management of leadership approach.
4.1 Leaders’ personality and national culture
Leadership practices may differ based on leaders’ personality and national culture. They affect leaders’ attitudes
towards the degree of micro-management/macro-management, involving employees in decision making,
providing guidelines, focusing on achievements/human relationships, managing conflicts, accepting socialization
at workplace, focusing on individuals’ development, and maintaining team spirit.
As mentioned by one of the first case study’s participants, “It varies from one leader to the other. Some of them
expect total compliance to orders, while others accept discussion and reaching better agreements.” Another
participant mentioned that “Emphasizing on achievements and/or human relationship depends on the leader’s
nature.” Also, as mentioned by one of the second case study’s participants, “In Egypt managers tend to micro-
manage while in other offices employees are macro managed.”
4.2 Subordinates
Leaders’ practices differ based on subordinates’ experience and subordinates’ personality. They affect the degree
of macro-management and the degree of involving employees in the decision making process. The degree of
macro-managing employees differs based on employee’s level of experience and personality. Less experienced
employees need more close directions and supervision. The degree of providing guidelines differs based on
employees’ experience. New comers need more comprehensive orientations than existing employees. Also some
employees prefer close supervision with minimal level of autonomy. Also, leaders tend to consult higher
experience employees and involve them in decision making more.
As mentioned by one of the first case study’s participants, “This depends on […] the subordinate experience
level. New comers and employees who are rotated from one business unit to the other are closely supervised and
advised to strictly follow the objective, and methodology.” Also, as mentioned by one of the second case study’s
participants, “It depends on the followers’ personalities. Even within the same team the leader tends to be
directive with some of them and consultative with the others.”
4.3 The host- country situation.
Leaders’ practices may differ based on the host-country situation. For example, the country instability affects
leaders’ ability to maintain transparency and update employees with the company situation and upcoming trends.
Such issues tend to be less clear and almost on short-term bases. Further leaders focus more on imposing rules
and providing more clarifications in critical situations. Also, leaders’ focus on developing employees and
providing training may differ based on the economic situation of the external environment.
This was mainly highlighted by the first case study’s participants. One of the participants mentioned that, “It
depends on the situation; normal circumstances versus critical situations and crisis, as how things are going on
now in Egypt. As the more critical the situation is the more rules and clarifications are needed.” Another
participants highlighted that “The focus on offering developments sessions tends to be quite less as more
external restrictions are occurring.”
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4.4 The company strategy and departments nature
Leadership practices may vary based on the company strategy as well as the nature of its departments. The
company strategy may affect the employees’ development process, mainly through trainings. Also, the more the
company focuses on growth, the more its leaders encourage innovation. Further, the nature of department affects
leaders’ attitude towards involving employees in decision making and centralization.
As mentioned by one of the first case study’s participants, “The more [the company] moves toward performance
and growth, the more they focus on leadership training.” Also, as mentioned by one of the second case study’s
participants, “In the Auditing function, employees have to follow the exact order just as military. Its team spirit
is high as people share what they learn with each other. Leaders usually consult employees however still
decision is centralized.”
4.5 The company cross-cultural experience and national culture
The company cross-cultural experience and culture of origin help in maintaining the company overall leadership
practices. The flexibility of the company leadership approach is mainly due to the flexibility of the company’s
national origin. This decreases variance in leadership practices through developing comprehensive leadership
approach. Thus, the leadership practices may not differ much from country to the other.
As mentioned by one of the first case study’s participants, “[The company’s] attributes consider all cultural
differences. The flexibility of the attributes may be due to the nature of [the company] American origin, which
tends to be flexible, along with [the company] wide experience as it operates in different places in the world.”
Also, as mentioned by one of the second case study’s participants, “[The company] has a wide experience, this
experience helped in setting comprehensive polices. Such policies highly consider cultural differences.”
5. Discussion
This section first, tackles the research main objective. Second, it compares findings to literature. Third, it revisits
the study working proposition. Fourth, it proposes a model to be employed in further studies.
This paper mainly inquires about the main factors that impact the effective implementation of companies’ sound
leadership approach and practices. Based on research findings, there are some factors that lead to variances in
leaders’ practices and others that help in decreasing differences between them. Leaders’ personality and national
culture, subordinates’ experience, the host- country situation, and the company strategy and nature of the
company’s departments may cause variance in leadership practices among different leaders. This is supported in
literature as leadership is subject to the leader, the followers, and situation (Luthans 2005, 581; De Bono et al.
2008, 20). Leader’s personality as well as their national culture affects their preferred way of carrying out tasks
and achieving goals. This consequently determines how subordinates carry out their work (Byrne & Bradley
2007). Further, followers’ nature affects leaders’ practices. Some followers tend to be dependent on being lead.
Such type of subordinates requires different leadership practices than other peers (De Bono et al. 2008, 21).
Moreover, the situation may require specific leadership practices. For example, leaders may temporarily focus on
requesting compliance and following orders when the company faces external pressures (Goleman 2000). Also,
external environment has a great effect on the stability and clarity of its rules and regulations (Karp consulting
group 2003).
On the other hand, the company’s cross-cultural experience and its culture of origin help in maintaining the
general leadership model of the company. This is even supported in literature as the company organizational
culture, which is mainly affected by its nationality (Kirca et al. 2009), affects its leadership practices in its
different offices in different countries (Lau & Ngo 1996). Also, the degree of cross-cultural experience affects
their approach. Companies operating in different cultures tend to have more experience and appreciation for the
cultural impact on its business success (Javidan et al. 2006).
Applying Jepsons’ (2009) model for contextual factors on the current study findings, the researcher proposes that
subordinate level of experience and the nature of business and departments may be classified under the
immediate social context. The company strategy may be classified under the general cultural context. The
leaders’ personality and national culture and the host-country situation may be classified under the historical,
institutional context.
The study main working proposition states that, the effectiveness of multinational companies’ approach to cross-
cultural leadership differs based on contextual factors, other than culture. Based on findings, the researcher
believes that this working proposition is partially valid. Both case studies confirmed that there are contextual
factors, other than culture, that affect the effectiveness of fitting leadership practices into cultural aspects and
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concerns. However, both case studies also agreed that there are some factors that help in decreasing differences
between leadership practices in the company’s different offices.
Thus, the working proposition should be restated as follows: there are some factors that cause variances in
leadership practices while others that help in decreasing differences between leadership practices in the
company’s different offices. Further this working proposition should be supported with two minor working
propositions. The first one states that the implementation of leadership practices differ based on contextual
factors, other than culture. The second one states that the company’s cross-cultural experience and culture of
origin help in maintaining its leadership model and approach.
However it is important to report that both cases presented such factors from different prospective. Also, the host
country situation was only highlighted in the first case study.
In reference to Jepsons (2009) model for contextual factor, and based on the current study’s findings, the
research proposes a model that needs to be tested in further research work. This model focus on the cultural
aspects associated in workplace based on Suutari (1996a), the leadership practices associated with national
culture based on Van Oudenhoven (2001), and the contextual factors based on Jepsons (2009). This model
considers the cultural aspects associated in workplace as the main independent variables, the leadership practices
associated with national culture as the main dependent variables, while considering the contextual factors that
impact with leaders’ practices as the moderating factors. (See Figure1: proposed model)
6. Implications
This research emphasizes that there are some factors that cause variances in leadership practices while others
that help in decreasing differences between leadership practices in the company’s different offices. Thus,
companies, especially those operating in cross-cultural settings, should customize their own leadership model
rather than accept any existing model. This model should consider the contextual factors in addition to the host-
country culture, to reach a sound cultural fit.
This research explored the contextual factors that impact the implementation of leadership practices in specific
context. Based on findings, the research proposes a model that needs to be tested in further research work.
Further researches may focus on the degree of impact of each factor on the different cultural dimensions and
leadership practices (see Jepson 2009).
6. Limitations and recommendations
This research presented a deep analysis for the contextual factors affecting leadership practices. However it did
not assess whether some factors exert a greater influence over leadership practice than others (see Jepson 2009).
Further the study was only conducted on two multinational companies from the same origin, similar industries,
in a specific cultural context to maintain a context for the study.
Moreover, the host country situation was only highlighted in the first case study. Thus, further studies need to be
conducted on different companies from other origins to reach more generalizable results. Also, further studies
should be conducted to assess whether some contexts exert a greater influence over leadership practice than
others (see Jepson 2009).
Appendix
Interview questions
Opening questions.
o Can an organization succeed even with an ineffective leadership? Under what condition
o What does good/successful leadership look like? Would you please give an example?
o Can an organization fail even with an effective leadership? Under what condition
o What does poor/unsuccessful leadership look like? Would you please give an example?
Factors leading to effective or ineffective management of leadership approach.
o Do you think that the leadership style (activities and practice) in Egyptian subsidiary is
adjusted to fit into the Egyptian culture (i.e., beliefs, expectations, ideas, values, attitudes and
behavior)? How? Would you please give examples?
o Would you please give examples of successful attempts?
o Would you please give examples of ineffective attempts?
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Tables
Table 1: Data recording protocol
Case #. # Interview #
Date Time Company
name
Informant
name
Informant
Position
Informant years of
experience in the
company
Instructions to the interviewer
Research question
Other points added to discussion
Reflective notes
Other comments or Suggestions
added by informant
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Table 2: Example of coding participants: Case Study I
Case study I Employees’: codes based on position rank
TL TL1 TL2 TL3 TL4 TL5 TL6 TL7
Sup Sup1 Sup2 Sup3 Sup4 Sup5 Sup6 Sup7
Sub Sub1 Sub2 Sub 3 Sub 4
Table 3: Example of coding participants: Case Study II
Case study II Employees’: based on business unit and job level
JL1 P1.1 P1.2 P1.3 P1.4 P1.5
JL2 P2.1 P2.2 P2.3
JL3 P3.1 P3.2 P3.3 P3.4 P3.5 P3.6 P3.7 P3.8 P3.9 P3.10
JL4 P4.1 P4.2 P4.3 P4.4 P4.5 P4.6 P4.7
JL5 P5.1 P5.2 P5.3 P5.4 P5.5 P5.6 P5.7 P5.8 P5.9 P5.10
Table 4: Sample of Case Study I findings and analysis
Main points
and
categories
Description for
all quotes
Participants quotes
Subordinates
level of
experience
and nature
Macro
managing
employees
differ based on
employee’s
level of
experience and
personality.
Less
experienced
employees
need more
close directions
and supervision
TL1: This depends on the situation as well as the subordinate
experience level.TL1: New comers and employees who are rotated
from one business unit to the other are closely supervised and advised
to strictly follow the objective, and methodology. TL1: In other cases,
managers remotely supervise subordinates, while providing guidance
and full support. TL1: In other cases, managers fully delegate
subordinates to fully understand the task, take designs, report to
managers, and provide feedback, as part of the job enrichment
objectives
Sup6: Some employees like direct instructions. While others don’t like
the micro management. Leaders check what type of employee and deal
with them accordingly. [treating people based on their individual
differences
The
subsidiary
country
situation
Country
instability
pushes people
to focus on
short-term
results. The
TL4: This varies based on the situation. Now companies operating in
Egypt are operating under the “survival mode”. Thus it tends to be a
short term focus
Sub4: It [short-term results and/or long-term achievement] depends on
the situation
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more critical
the situation is
the more
people focus on
short-term
issues.
The degree of
formulating
rules differs
based on the
situation.
Critical
situations need
more clear rules
and
clarifications
TL4: It depends on the situation; normal circumstances versus critical
situations and crisis, as how things are going on now in Egypt. As the
more critical the situation is the more rules are clarifications needed.
[transparency is needed in critical situations]
Host-country
situation, such
as political and
economic
factors affect
the company
practices and
emphasis. For
example, the
company may
focus less on
training due to
the country
instability
which affects
the subsidiary
performance
and priorities.
TL4: Yet, the focus on offering developments sessions tends to be quite
less as more external restrictions are occurring. While such focus
increases as the company increases focus more on growth plans. As the
more [the company] move toward performance and growth, the more
they focus on leadership training;
Sup2: Also, opportunities for leadership training and human
development for headquarters may be greater than the ones offered
for the Egyptian subsidiary. This basically might be due to the financial
issues (crisis, cost reduction) which might negatively affect trainings
opportunities. Yet, the more leadership trainings provided to
employees, the better the company situation.
In crisis time
decisions tend
to be more
centralized
TL3: Consultative practices help leaders understand subordinates
different opinions. It also reduces subordinates resistance. However, in
critical cases leaders should be directive. [centralization in crisis ]
Sub2: It depends on the situation, yet in case of centralized decisions,
employees get an insight about the reason for such decisions.
[transparency is maintained even in critical situations- centralization
increases in crisis time ]
Leaders
personality
The level of
macro
management
differs based on
leaders
TL2:
The level of work autonomy varies based on the leader’s style as well as
the subordinate level of experience.
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personality
Participation in
decision making
differs based on
leaders
personality; as
some leaders
tend to expect
total
compliance
while others
allow
employees to
provide
suggestions and
reach mutual
agreements
Sup5:
It varies from one leader to the other. Some of them expect total
compliance to orders, while others accept discussion and reaching
better agreements.
Some leaders
tend to provide
less or more
details and
guidelines
based on their
nature
TL3: It depends on the leader. It is important to guide subordinates on
how to get information needed. Also, it is important to give guidelines
rather than detailed directions on how to fulfill tasks. [discrepant
evidence for providing guidelines]
Leadership
practices may
differ based on
leaders’
personality
such as:
Focus on
managing
conflicts and
nurturing good
team spirit.
Tendency
towards
socialization
and mixing
between
personal issues
and work.
Considering
human aspects
that affect
employees’
performance at
TL3: It [the mixing process] depends on the leader’s personality. [even
if [the company] has a certain culture, or policy , still the
implementation of its culture and policies are affected by the culture
and personal style of the leader]
TL4: It [focus on developing employees] depends on the manager. Yet,
the variance will be minimal. [because [the company] strong focus on
it]
Sup1: It could differ from one leader to the other, however, the overall
leadership styles are guided by [the company] polices.
Sup2: This depends on the leaders’ personality. Getting results is
important, yet respecting the spirit of the law, considering objectives
don’t contradict with considering human relationship
Sup5: Yes [managers strive to keep subordinates happy and in
harmony], 80%, as this varies based on the personality of the leader
and subordinates.
Sub1: Not all of them. Some leaders expect employees to put personal
issues away from work, while others spend time on team building.
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work
Focus on
human
development
The nature of
the functions
inside
business
units
The focus on
short-term and
long-term
issues may
differ based on
the nature of
functions.
TL2: This depends on the function of each division inside the subsidiary;
however, overall it is a mix between strategic long term achievements
and tactical short term results.
Sup3: It is both [short-term (task) results and long-term achievement],
and mainly depending on the function.
The company
strategy
The focus on
employees
training and
development
decreases as
the company
focuses less on
growth, and
vice versa
TL4: Yet, the focus on offering developments sessions tends to be quite
less as more external restrictions are occurring. While such focus
increases as the company focuses more on growth plans. As the more
[the company] moves toward performance and growth, the more they
focus on leadership training
Company
national
culture
Some of the
participants
believe that the
company
successfully fit
into the
Egyptian
cultural aspects
affecting
workplace is
due to the
flexibility in the
company origin
TL3: Yes, as [the company] “6 Attributes” considers all cultural
differences. The flexibility of the 6 attributes may be due to the nature
of [the company] American origin, which tends to be flexible, along
with [the company] wide experience as it operates in different places in
the world. [this leads the researcher to read about [the company]
model and attributes]
Sup3: The U.S is more flexible, accepting, and tolerating differences,
and people in Egypt tend to value this.
The company
cross-cultural
experience
and strategy
Further, the
company cross-
cultural
experience
affects its
success in
dealing with the
employees’
cultural aspects
that affect
workplace.
TL2: The leadership styles in the headquarters and subsidiaries are
quite similar due to its strong corporate culture. People in regional
offices and subsidiary have the same workplace language, symbols,
acronym, business terminologies and abbreviations. [the company] has
an overall guideline provided by headquarter to be adapted and
applied in subsidiaries
TL5: The differences are minor, as [the company] has great experience
in different countries, thus their practices are flexible to suite different
cultures.
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167
Thus,
leadership
practices may
not differ much
from country to
the other
Sup1: It could differ from one leader to the other, however, the overall
leadership style is guided by [the company] polices.
Table 5: Sample of Case study II findings and analysis
Main points
and categories
Description for all quotes Participants quotes
Subordinates
level of
experience
Affect the level of guidance
and directions provided
P3.6: At the begging leaders are expected to be directive
and outline what should be done clearly, and draw clear
lines
P5.2: Yes, as leadership depends on not only the leader’s
talent but also the followers as well as the situation. For
example, you may have a great talented leader, yet s/he
can’t affect her/his followers due to their personalities.
Leaders
personality or
origin
Leaders personality affects
for example their tendency
towards macro and micro
managing employees
P3.3: Well in Egypt managers tend to micro manage while
in other offices employees are macro managed. This may
be due to accountability. As in other offices
accountability is clearer.
P4.4: Thus, good leadership is subject to the company
work frame as well as the personality of the leaders.
As the leaders’ culture of
origin is close to Egypt, they
tend to consider human
aspects more
P3.7: People who are close to our culture, such as
Italians, tend to provide support and consider human
aspects.
The company
strategy
As the company focuses
more on growth, it tends to
focus more innovation
P3.4: In Egypt we are growing country; still building the
market. Thus development and innovation; trying and
learning are needed.
Nature of
business or
department
The nature of the
department affect leaders
tendency toward
centralization and directive
style
P4.4: For example, in the Auditing function: employees
have to follow the exact order just as military. Its’ team
spirit is high as people share what they learn with each
other. Leaders usually consult employees however still
decision is centralized.
MNC’s Origin
flexibility
The company origin
flexibility, affects its
approach to Egypt
P4.6: in [the company] Egypt employees are mostly
Egyptians. The hierarchy is flat, flexible, and with low
power distance (we don’t have to use tittles when talking
to our mangers); this is mainly due to [the company’s]
origin American origin which is flexible.
Company cross The company has clear set FM.E6: It has a great experience in helping people
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culture
experience
of policies that is well
circulated and
communicated to all
employees. Each employee
receives a comp of them.
Such polices were set based
on different aspects (one of
them is the cultural aspects)
in order to be
comprehensive and flexible.
understand and deal well with different cultures.
P3.6: [the company]highly considers the cultural aspects.
For example [the company]believes in the GLOBE SMART
(program). It is basically a survey that helps employees to
understand the different cultures that they have to deal
with. It is so interesting to understand the different
cultural backgrounds and compare them. Dealing with
German is totally different that dealing with Chinese, and
so on.
P1.5: [the company] has a main guide called the spirit and
letter this tackles how to deal with different people from
different cultures and backgrounds. [The company] highly
respects local laws.
Figures
Figure 1: Proposed model
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