Contemporary issues in environmental impact assessment

COURSE : LCHEH 455
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES AND ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT ASSESSMENT
LECTURE NOTE PREPARED BY
N. I. BARDA

INTRODUCTION:
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) developed in the latter half of the twentieth century as
a response to growing concern about the impacts of human development on the environment and a
recognition of the inadequacy of existing approaches to environmental management.
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process makes sure that
environmental issues are raised when a project or plan is first discussed and that all
concerns are addressed as a project gains momentum through to implementation.
Recommendations made by the EIA may necessitate the redesign of some project
components, require further studies, suggest changes which alter the economic
viability of the project or cause a delay in project implementation. To be of most
benefit it is essential that an environmental assessment is carried out to determine
significant impacts early in the project cycle so that recommendations can be built
into the design and cost-benefit analysis without causing major delays or increased
design costs. To be effective once implementation has commenced, the EIA should
lead to a mechanism whereby adequate monitoring is undertaken to realize
environmental management. An important output from the EIA process should be
the delineation of enabling mechanisms for such effective management.

DIFENATION:
EIA is the process by which information is collected about possible environmental impacts and
the potential impacts of the project are assessed on the basis of this information. The purpose of
EIA is to equip the decision-maker with sufficient information to determine whether the project
should be approved, and under what conditions.
EIA does not prevent decisions being made that degrade the environment, as there is usually no
prohibition on approving activities that cause significant adverse environmental impacts.
Nevertheless, EIA is clearly intended to encourage environmentally positive outcomes.
The process of EIA increases agency sensitivity to environmental issues, enhances transparency
in decision-making and may act as a deterrent to environmentally destructive projects that must
face public scrutiny. To facilitate environmental outcomes, the procedural requirements must
adequately identify the relevant impacts to be assessed at appropriate times.

OVERALL OBJECTIVES OF EIA
The overall objectives of the EIA are mainly:-
To assist with project planning; meet the regulatory requirements;
Assist in ensuring environmentally sound implementation of the
project;
provide investors with an insight of the resource values and
constraints;
 Provide a forum for local residents and industry to become
knowledgeable about the project;
 Provide a baseline of management information including
monitoring and review requirements.

GOAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
ASSESSMENT
The major Aims of EIA are:
Resources conservation
Waste Minimization
Recovery of by-products
Efficient use of Equipment
Sustainable Development

EIA — GUIDING PRINCIPLES
The EIA process should be:
purposive – meeting its aims and objectives
focused – concentrating on the effects that matter
adaptive – responding to issues and realities
participative – fully involving the public
transparent – clear and easily understood
rigorous – employing ‘best practicable’ methodology
practical – establishing mitigation measures that work
credible – carried out with objectivity and professionalism
efficient – imposing least cost burden on proponents

Transparency Certainty
Participation
Practicability
flexibility
Cost
Effectiveness
Credibility
Accountability
EIA
“ a systematic Process of
identifying future
consequences of a current
or proposed action “

KEY OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF GOOD EIA PRACTICE
EIA should:
be applied to all proposals with significant impacts
address relevant environmental, social and health impacts
begin early in the project cycle
identify and take account of public views
result in a statement of impacts and mitigation measures
facilitate informed decision making and condition setting

The EIA should identify, describe and assess the direct and indirect
effects of a project on the following factors:
Human beings
Fauna and Flora
Soil, Water & Air
Climate and Landscape
Material Assets
Cultural Heritage
Interaction between all above factors
EIA therefore should have a very strong social dimension

STEPS IN THE EIA PROCESS
The way in which an EIA is carried out is not rigid: it is a process comprising a series of steps. These
steps are outlined below, the main steps in the EIA process are:
• screening
• scoping
• prediction and mitigation
• management and monitoring
• audit
 • Screening often results in a categorization of the project and from this a decision is made on
whether or not a full EIA is to be carried out.
 • Scoping is the process of determining which are the most critical issues to study and will involve
community participation to some degree. It is at this early stage that EIA can most strongly influence
the outline proposal.
 • Detailed prediction and mitigation studies follow scoping and are carried out in parallel with
feasibility studies.
 • The main output report is called an Environmental Impact Statement, and contains a detailed plan
for managing and monitoring environmental impacts both during and after implementation.
 • Finally, an audit of the EIA process is carried out some time after implementation. The audit serves
a useful feedback and learning function.

Screening
Initial Environmental
Examination (IEE)
IEE
Review
Scooping/
Terms of
Reference
Full Scale EIA
EIA
Review
Decision
Making
Monitoring
EIA Audit and
Evaluation
Evaluate
Options
EIA Not
Required
EIA
Required
EIA
Approved
EIA Not
Approved

SCREENING
Screening is the process of deciding on whether an EIA is required. This may
be determined by size (eg greater than a predetermined surface area of irrigated
land that would be affected, more than a certain percentage or flow to be diverted
or more than a certain capital expenditure). Alternatively it may be based on site-
specific information. For example, the repair of a recently destroyed diversion
structure is unlikely to require an EIA whilst a major new headwork structure may.
Guidelines for whether or not an EIA is required will be country specific depending
on the laws or norms in operation. Legislation often specifies the criteria for
screening and full EIA. All major donors screen projects presented for financing to
decide whether an EIA is required.

SCOPING
Scoping occurs early in the project cycle at the same time as outline planning and pre-
feasibility studies. Scoping is the process of identifying the key environmental issues and is
perhaps the most important step in an EIA. Several groups, particularly decision makers, the
local population and the scientific community, have an interest in helping to deliberate the issues
which should be considered, and scoping is designed to canvass their views, (Wathern 1988).
Scoping is important for two reasons. First, so that problems can be pinpointed early allowing
mitigating design changes to be made before expensive detailed work is carried out. Second, to
ensure that detailed prediction work is only carried out for important issues. It is not the purpose
of an EIA to carry out exhaustive studies on all environmental impacts for all projects. If key
issues are identified and a full scale EIA considered necessary then the scoping should include
terms of reference for these further studies

PREDICTION AND MITIGATION
Once the scoping exercise is complete and the major impacts to be studied have been
identified, prediction work can start. This stage forms the central part of an EIA. Several major
options are likely to have been proposed either at the scoping stage or before and each option may
require separate prediction studies.
Realistic and affordable mitigating measures cannot be proposed without first estimating the
scope of the impacts, which should be in monetary terms wherever possible. It then becomes
important to quantify the impact of the suggested improvements by further prediction work. Clearly,
options need to be discarded as soon as their unsuitability can be proved or alternatives shown to
be superior in environmental or economic terms, or both. It is also important to test them, "without
project" scenario.
This phase of an EIA will require good management of a wide range of technical specialists
with particular emphasis on:
• prediction methods;
• interpretation of predictions, with and without mitigating measures;
• assessment of comparisons.

MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING
The part of the EIS covering monitoring and management is often referred to as
the Environmental Action Plan or Environmental Management Plan. This section not only sets out
the mitigation measures needed for environmental management, both in the short and long term, but
also the institutional requirements for implementation.
All the management proposals need to be clearly defined and costed. One of the more
straightforward and effective changes is to set-up a monitoring programme with clear definition as to
which agencies are responsible for data collection, collation, interpretation and implementation of
management measures.
The purpose of monitoring is to compare predicted and actual impacts, particularly if the impacts are
either very important or the scale of the impact cannot be very accurately predicted. The results of
monitoring can be used to manage the environment, particularly to highlight problems early so that
action can be taken. The range of parameters requiring monitoring may be broad or narrow and will
be dictated by the 'prediction and mitigation' stage of the EIA. Typical areas of concern where
monitoring is weak are: water quality, both inflow and outflow; stress in sensitive ecosystems; soil
fertility, particularly salinization problems; water related health hazards; equity of water distributions;
groundwater levels.

AUDITING
In order to capitalise on the experience and knowledge gained, the last stage of an EIA is to
carry out an Environmental Audit some time after completion of the project or implementation of
a programme. It will therefore usually be done by a separate team of specialists to that working
on the bulk of the EIA. The audit should include an analysis of the technical, procedural and
decision-making aspects of the EIA. Technical aspects include: the adequacy of the baseline
studies, the accuracy of predictions and the suitability of mitigation measures. Procedural
aspects include: the efficiency of the procedure, the fairness of the public involvement measures
and the degree of coordination of roles and responsibilities. Decision-making aspects include: the
utility of the process for decision making and the implications for development.
The audit will determine whether recommendations and requirements made by the earlier EIA
steps were incorporated successfully into project implementation. Lessons learnt and formally
described in an audit can greatly assist in future EIAs and build up the expertise and efficiency of
the concerned institutions.

EXOTIC EMERGING AND
RE-EMERGING DISEASES
In human history, numerous infectious diseases have emerged and re-emerged. Aside from many
others, the so-called ‘exotic’ agents in particular are a threat to our public health systems due to limited
experience in case management and lack of appropriate resources. Many of these agents are zoonotic in
origin and transmitted from animals to man either directly or via vectors.
The agents causing viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF) are a taxonomically diverse group of viruses that may
share commonalities in the process whereby they produce systemic and frequently fatal disease.
Significant progress has been made in understanding
the biology of the Ebola virus, one of the best known examples. This knowledge has guided our thinking
about other VHF agents, including Marburg, Lassa, the South American arenaviruses, yellow fever,
Crimean-Congo and Rift Valley fever viruses.
Comparisons among VHFs show that a common pathogenic feature is their ability to disable the host
immune response by attacking and manipulating the cells that initiate the antiviral response. Of equal
importance, these comparisons highlight critical gaps in our knowledge of these pathogens.

THE AGENTS
Exotic emerging viruses include Hendra and Nipah viruses and the West Nile
virus, all of which lead to acute encephalitic syndromes.Here, we will focus on the
most diverse and deadly group of exotic emerging viruses, the VHF agents.As a
group, these viruses cause an illness characterized by fever, a bleeding diathesis
and circulatory shock.
The viruses are classified into four different families of RNA viruses ;
Arenaviridae, Bunyaviridae, Filoviridae, and Flaviviridae . All of the viruses
causing VHF have a single-stranded RNA genome and a
lipid envelope, but vary considerably in morphology from typical small isometric or
moderately sized spherical virions to highly unusual pleomorphic or filamentous
particles

TRANSMISSION
Under natural conditions, members of the Arenaviridae, Bunyaviridae,
Filoviridae and Flaviviridae that cause VHF have specific geographic distribution
and diverse modes of transmission. Despite exhaustive efforts by several groups,
the natural reservoir for Filoviridae remains unknown. As a group, the other VHF
agents are linked to the ecology of their vectors or reservoirs, whether rodents or
arthropods. Human to human transmission is possible for all VHF viruses. The
majority of the person-to-person transmission for the arenaviruses and filoviruses
has been attributed to direct contact with infected blood and body fluids. The
potential for airborne transmission of the VHF agents appears to be an infrequent
event, but cannot be categorically excluded as a mode of transmission.

CLINICAL PICTURE OF VHF INFECTIONS
The overall incubation period for VHF ranges from 2 to 21 days. There is a wide constellation of clinical
manifestations with varying degrees of severity in patients infected with these viruses, and not all patients
develop classic VHF syndrome. The exact nature of the disease depends on viral virulence, routes of
exposure, dose and host factors. Patients with VHF generally have nonspecific symptoms such as fever,
myalgia and prostration; clinical examination may show only conjunctival injection, mild hypotension, flushing
and petechial hemorrhages. Illness caused by filoviruses, flaviviruses and Rift Valley fever (RVF) viruses tends
to have an abrupt onset, whereas the pathology triggered by arenaviruses has a more insidious onset.
For Lassa fever patients, hemorrhagic manifestations are not pronounced; and neurological complications
are infrequent, develop late and manifest only in the most severely ill group.Deafness is a frequent long-term
consequence of severe Lassa fever. For the South American arenaviruses, neurological and hemorrhagic
manifestations are much more prominent. Hepatic involvement is common for all VHFs, but only a small
percentage of patients with RVF, Crimean-Congo HF (CCHF), Marburg hemorrhagic fever, Ebola hemorrhagic
fever and yellow fever manifest a clinical picture dominated by jaundice and other evidence of hepatic failure.
VHF mortality may be substantial, ranging from 5% to 20% or higher in recognized cases. Ebola outbreaks in
Africa have had particularly high case fatality rates, from 50% up to 90%3–5.

CLINICAL PICTURE OF VHF INFECTIONS
Laboratory findings for VHFs may include thrombocytopenia (or abnormal platelet function) and
leukopenia (except for Lassa fever, in which there is leukocytosis). Neutrophilia is prominent in
Lassa-infected rhesus monkeys6, RVF-infected rhesus monkeys and Ebola-infected nonhuman
primates; however, neutropenia is more prominent in Argentine hemorrhagic fever (AHF) and
yellow fever. Some VHF patients have anemia, others have hemi concentration, but most have
elevated liver enzymes. Bilirubin is elevated in RVF and yellow fever. Prothrombin time, activated
partial thromboplastin time (APTT) and bleeding time are often prolonged. Patients in
disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) have elevated fibrin degradation products (FDPs)
and decreased fibrinogen. Urine tests may show proteinuria and hematuria; patients with renal
failure may have oliguria or azotemia. Blood may be present in stools.

Factors Leading to Disease Emergence and
Reemergence
Diseases may emerge and reemerge around the world for a number of
interconnected reasons. Factors involved in these outbreaks include:
• Increasing human population
• Increasing numbers of food producing animals
• Human and domestic animal encroachment into wildlife habitat and
resulting exposure to wild animals
• Environmental degradation
• Climate change
• Interspecies transfer of pathogens and
• Globalization of travel and trade

CHANGES IN GLOBAL POPULATION DEMOGRAPHICS AND DISTRIBUTION
The global demographics and distribution of human populations are rapidly changing and will continue to
evolve. These factors, perhaps more than any other, are contributing to the globalization of infectious disease
problems. Advances in modern medical technology, particularly in industrialized countries, are keeping people
alive longer. In addition, the number of people with ongoing immunosuppression continues to expand
because of the effects of newer treatment measures for a variety of chronic medical conditions..
Population demographics are altered by population growth, migration, and differential mortality; the unique
interaction of these factors has contributed to the emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases.
Planet Earth now has over 6 billion inhabitants, and population pressure will continue to intensify: it is estimated
that up to 70 million people will be added each year, based on current birth rates in the developing world. In
many industrialized countries, the number of older individuals with chronic disease (eg, diabetes mellitus,
arthritis, lung disease, malignancy) continues to increase, because the overall birth rate is decreasing while the
life-span for both men and women has been progressively prolonged as a result of modern medical
interventions and sanitation improvements

HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND SOCIETAL CHANGE
Important societal changes (eg, liberation of sexual practices and behaviors, the increased number of
women employed outside the home, and changes in human food preparation and supply) have
dramatically increased the number of individuals exposed to infectious diseases and have thereby
enhanced their transmission.
Liberation in the 1960s and 1970s of societal attitudes regarding premarital sexual activity and the
diversity of sexual behavior (ie, the Sexual Revolution) resulted in the rapid emergence of a variety of
sexually transmitted diseases (eg, N gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis, syphilis, HIV, and human
papilloma virus [HPV] infections).
Rapid urbanization and globalization of the food supply have radically changed people’s dietary habits
and the ways in which food is processed and packaged. Not only are people eating a vastly different
variety of foods, but food is also much less likely to be prepared and eaten at home. Food used to be
grown and distributed locally, but products from abroad may now be purchased routinely from local
grocery stores or markets. Mass production of common foods also means that contamination may
cause food-borne disease in many more people than was previously possible. Not surprisingly, the
number of cases of gastroenteritis due to food-borne outbreaks has risen steadily in parallel with these
changes in our dietary habits.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AND LAND USE
Climate has affected the timing and intensity of disease outbreaks throughout history, but up until recently,
typical changes happened so slowly that they were hardly noticeable even to the experts. Recent attention
has been focused on the unprecedented climatic changes being brought about by the phenomenon of global
warming. Modern technology, particularly the high volume energy consumption resulting from the burning of
fossil fuels like gas, oil, and coal, is probably responsible for the historic climatic changes being documented
by scientists worldwide.
Global warming will accelerate the emergence of infectious diseases through a disruption of Earth’s
hydrologic cycle that will increase episodes of severe rainfall, droughts, and floods. These unique
environmental conditions will promote emergence of infectious diseases by means of the expansion of vector
populations, the occurrence of food shortages, and the contamination of large water sources.
Studies of climate modeling for vector-borne diseases under enhanced global warming conditions suggest
a significant increase in the geographic areas conducive for vector-borne disease transmission. Such
temperature increases expand the niche for insect vectors that depend on higher temperature and humidity
for their breeding and survival. Recent examples abound of the consequences of expanding the geographic
areas of vectors of infectious diseases. There has been a dramatic resurgence of malaria in
many endemic areas, including Latin America, central and east Africa, and Asia, but even more worrisome
are the reports of endemic malaria cases in areas that have been historically malaria-free, such as the
southern United States.

CHRONIC MANIFESTATIONS OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
Emerging infectious diseases contribute substantially to the total
chronic disease burden in the industrialized countries where ready
access to modern medical technology can prolong life. Despite
complex and costly treatment courses that are often prolonged, many
chronic diseases induced by infectious agents result in significant
mortality. Many of these chronic conditions also create a large pool of
immunocompromised people in the population who are at risk of
contracting a wide variety of opportunistic infections that may be
transmissible (eg, Herpes zoster virus).

ENHANCED PATHOGEN DETECTION
Clinical microbiology laboratories rely mainly on phenotypic methods (ie, culture and biochemical tests)
for identification of human pathogens of interest from clinical specimens. However, the recent
development and implementation of genotypic or molecular identification methods in diagnostic
laboratories are rapidly expanding the ability to detect unusual fastidious pathogen infections.
MICROBIAL EVOLUTION
Microorganisms are constantly evolving in response to indirect and direct selection pressures in their
environment. Perhaps the most important emerging viral infection of humans is influenza . Influenza
has been causing worldwide acute respiratory infection outbreaks since ancient times. Influenza is
uniquely endowed as a respiratory pathogen by its ability readily to modify its antigenicity, a property
referred to as antigenic variation. Antigenic variation involves principally the two external glycoproteins
of the virus, the hemagglutinin (HA) and the neuraminidase (NA), and is referred to as antigenic drift or
antigenic shift depending on the magnitude of the overall change . Antigenic drift refers to minor
antigenic changes that occur frequently (typically every 1–3 years) within the virus’s HA or NA or both,
and these strains cause annual epidemics. Antigenic shift occurs when there is a major reassortment of
one or both viral antigens to create a ‘‘new’’ virus to which there is no population immunity.

Another stark example of the ability of microorganisms rapidly to adapt is the worldwide development of
many types of antimicrobial resistance in common human pathogens. In the 50 years since sulpha drugs and
penicillin were introduced, many types of bacteria have developed resistance to one or more classes or types
of antibiotic agents. Drug options for treatment of infections are increasingly limited and in some cases already
nonexistent. In recognition of the extent of the problem, the World Health Organization has
designated antimicrobial resistance a major global public health issue
Another cause for worldwide concern is the emergence of resistance to commonly used antimalarial
compounds such as chloroquine, particularly in Plasmodium falciparum. Chloroquine-resistant P falciparum is
most prevalent in Southeast Asia and the central and southern parts of Africa, and travelers to these areas are
at risk of acquiring life-threatening infections if appropriate prophylactic measures are not rigorously followed .
Multidrug- resistant M tuberculosis (M-DRTB) has also developed significant resistance to rifampin and
isoniazid, drugs that have been the cornerstone of effective treatment.
It is clear that the development of new antibiotic agents cannot keep pace with the emergence of new types
of antimicrobial resistance. Unless global programs are put in place to control the inappropriate use of
antibiotics, the incidence of serious types of antimicrobial resistance will continue to increase worldwide.
Deaths from common infections that were previously treatable will become more numerous, and heroic
modern medical procedures may be curtailed because the risk of acquiring a life-threatening infection
outweighs the risk of death due to the patient’s underlying condition.

BREAKDOWN OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH SYSTEM AND BIOTERRORISM
The recent rapid emergence of new infectious disease threats in addition to the re-emergence of old
ones has important implications for the current practice of public and global health systems and their
ability to contain the spread of these infections. The recent unexpected introduction of West Nile virus
and the SARS-coronavirus to North America from abroad starkly illustrated the ability of large infectious
disease outbreaks rapidly to overwhelm primary and public health systems in industrialized countries,
with severe economic consequences. In the past several decades there has been a withdrawal of
financial support for public health systems. Critical infrastructure support for public health initiatives is
inadequate at best, and vital technology, such as computer information systems needed to establish
communication networks for disease prevention, has not been put in place.
Existing public health infrastructure could be readily overwhelmed in many parts of the world for a
number of reasons besides new infectious disease threats. Population mobility due to rapidly changing
conditions in the world (eg, ongoing conflict, natural disasters) can also easily overwhelm the existing
public health infrastructure. Wars, earthquakes, fires, and floods rapidly cause massive environmental
disruption and displacement of large numbers of people from a particular geographic location. To some
extent, the local, national, and international public health systems have not been able to keep abreast
of or adapt to the problems caused by massive population mobility and the resultant risks of
communicable disease transmission.

The threat of bioterrorism has enforced many developed countries to put in place
preparedness plans and to implement intensive research aimed at developing new
diagnostic tests for the detection of the agents most likely to be used. Pathogen
genome sequencing projects are underway for Bacillus anthracis and other
microorganisms that may be used as biological weapons, because rapid diagnostics
will be critical to response to an attack, as was so clearly demonstrated by the
events in the United States following September 11, 2001

PREVENTIVE MEASURES OF EMERGING AND RE-EMERGING
INFECTIOUS DISEASES
Prevention and control of such diseases requires strong political commitment and sustained
financial support along with the application of various epidemiological, molecular biological,
behavioural as well as statistical approaches and technologies.
A thorough review of the public health infrastructure is warranted to create a comprehensive national
plan to develop and apply established standards for public health infrastructure (laboratory,
epidemiological, communications and research) within and across the public and private sectors.
This should be complemented by a spirit of partnership with and across all relevant sectors, notably
veterinary sciences, academia, environmental institutes and NGOs and by enhanced communication
of public health information to obtain active cooperation of the communities.
Research is a crucial part of the response to new and emerging diseases. A sustained,
forward-thinking applied research programme would enable scientists to identify the weak links in the
armour of emerging microbes, create novel ways to fight microbial foes, and evaluate the preventive
power of new approaches. To combat emerging infectious diseases, public health therefore, requires
the renewal and expansion of research on the epidemiology and biology of microbes, vectors and
intermediate hosts, and awareness of the possibility that new epidemics can and will emerge in
unexpected places.

Effective risk communication and management have critical roles in ensuring that emerging
infectious diseases are recognized early, are promptly reported and appropriately managed. The
mass media, both electronic and print, have important roles which necessitate sustained
partnerships between health authorities and the media. The rapidly expanding information
technology in this Region can be effectively utilized in risk communication and management
activities.
Advocacy for sustained political commitment at national, regional and global levels has to be
stepped up to mobilize additional resources for supporting and enhancing epidemic preparedness
plans in all Member States
Monitoring and evaluation is an integral component of surveillance, early warning and response to emerging
infectious diseases. Selected critical indicators should be incorporated into integrated disease surveillance.
Periodic internal and external assessments of the performance of the system are essential.

A chemical substance is a form of matter having constant chemical composition and
characteristic properties.Some references add that chemical substance cannot be
separated into its constituent elements by physical separation methods, i.e., without breaking
chemical bonds.Chemical substances can be simple substances, chemical compounds, or
alloys. Chemical elements may or may not be included in the definition, depending on expert
viewpoint.

THE MAIN CONCERNS ABOUT THE IMPACT OF CHEMICALS
ON HUMAN HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT
From 1950 to 2000, the global production volume of chemicals increased more than 50 fold, and worldwide
many new chemicals are being registered every day. This increases the overall chemical pressure on the
environment and people, and therefore the risk of harm. Exposure to harmful chemicals, both indoor and
outdoor, may cause many health effects, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, allergies and
cancer. Similarly, wildlife and ecosystems are affected by the use of for example pesticides and the
accumulation of persistent pollutants.
Another issue is that there is a growing concern of the risks posed by mixtures of chemicals and how they
act together, which typically is not considered during the evaluation of chemicals. We now also know that some
population groups, for example children and people with chronic diseases, are more vulnerable to chemicals
than others.
Moreover, not all chemicals have immediate impacts but can lead to diseases much later in life, like in the
case of endocrine disrupters decreasing fertility and causing high cholesterol and obesity. Some chemicals have
an effect with very low doses, while others can go unnoticed until the build-up reaches a critical level leading to
health problems.
The challenge is to maintain the human and economic benefits of chemicals while minimizing their side effects.

GLOBAL CARCON EMISSION IN 2006 AND
BREAKDOWN OF INDUSTRIAL SOURCES

Emission from the Industries imposed serious hazards to Environment and Human Health

A centuries’ old scene – a worker washes leather before
it is dyed (Fez, Morocco). Many chemicals used in the
leather tanning industry have been linked to various
forms of cancer.

REDUCE THE ADVERSE IMPACTS OF CHEMICALS
IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Concerns about chemicals in the environment have focused major attention on
the possible consequence for humans, animals, and whole ecosystems.
Substantial progress has been made, and some contaminated bodies of water
have been restored to use. However, we still lack basic knowledge and procedures
for evaluating the potential impacts of chemicals, compound mixtures, or artificial
concentrations of natural substances that have an adverse effect on human health
and the environment. Such knowledge will be essential for developing products
with adequate safeguards against unwanted side effects.
Some of the recommended actions to be taken to reduce the adverse impact of
chemicals in Environment are listed below:

1. Better test methods should be developed to evaluate, model, and monitor the potential long-term
environmental impacts of single compounds emitted as a result of new products or processes. Emphasis
should be placed on compounds that degrade only very slowly.
2. Better test methods should be developed to define and ultimately to model and predict the byproducts and
degradation products associated with production and use of materials.
3. Basic studies of biochemical effects and of the impact of various chemicals and other adverse effects on
the biochemistry of sensitive plant and animal species should be strongly supported. It is from such studies
and the monitoring program that the most-effective hypotheses about items of greatest concern and
about the continual development of testing will arise.
4. Strong support should be given to innovative ideas for modeling and tests on lower-order surrogate species
that help to reduce the cost of tests for potential adverse environmental health effects on humans or shorten
the response time needed to obtain that information.
5. International standardization of testing and international sharing of testing responsibilities should be
promoted to reduce costs and speed the availability of reliable and reproducible assessments.
6. The emerging concept of developing experimental “miniecosystems” focused on controlled-exposure
environments for testing and for developing mathematical simulations of ecosystem impact based on limited,
specific tests should be supported.

By 2020, to achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and
all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international
frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order
to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment
(Target 12.4)
By 2030, to substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from
hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination
(Target 3.9).
By 2030, to improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and
minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of
untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally (Target
6.3).
Reducing exposure to hazardous chemicals is essential to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which aim:

Human exposure to chemicals throughout their life cycle and selected programmes relevant to their prevention

List of chemicals banned or severely restricted to certain uses owing to their effects on health
and the environment in the countries
Chemical CAS number Use category Use limitation
MERCURIC OXIDE 21908-53-2 P SR
MERCUROUS CHLORIDE 10112-91-1 P SR
OTHER INORGANIC MERCURY COMPOUNDS P B
ALKYL MERCURY COMPOUNDS P SR
ALKOXYALKYL AND ARYL MERCURY
COMPOUNDS
P B
ALDRIN 309-00-2 P SR
CHLORDANE 57-74-9 P B
DIELDRIN 60-57-1 P B
DDT 50-29-3 P B
ENDRIN 72-20-8 P SR
HCH (contains < 99% gamma isomer) 608-73-1 P B
HEPTACHLOR 74-44-8 P B

Chemical CAS number Use category
Use
limitation
HEXACHLOROBENZENE 118-74-1 P B
CAMPHECHLOR (TOXAPHENE) 8001-35-2 P B
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCB), except MONO- and DICHLORINATED BIPHENYLS 1336-36-3 I B
POLYCHLORINATED TERPHENYLS (PCT) 61788-33-8 I B
PREPARATIONS with a PCB or PCT content higher than 0.01% by weight I B
TRIS(2,3-DIBROMOPROPYL) PHOSPHATE 126-72-7 I SR
TRIS-AZIRIDINYL-PHOSPHIOXIDE 545-55-1 I SR
POLYBROMINATED BIPHENYLS (PBB) I SR
CROCIDOLITE 12001-28-4 I SR
NITROFEN 1836-75-5 P B
1,2-DIBROMOETHANE 106-93-4 P B
1,2-DICHLOROETHANE 107-06-2 P B
AMOSITE 12172-73-5 B
ANTHOPHYLLITE ASBESTOS 77536-67-5 B
ACTINOLITE ASBESTOS 77536-66-4 B
TREMOLITE ASBESTOS 77536-68-6 B
CADMIUM and its compounds 7440-43-9 R
2-NAPHTYLAMINE and its salts 91-59-8 B
4-AMINOPHENYL and its salts 92-67-1 B
BENZIDINE and its salts 92-87-5 B
4-NITROPHENYL 92-93-3
B```````````````````````````
``````

PRIVATE SECTOR PARTICIPATION AND INSTITUTIONAL
ARRANGEMENT FOR PSP IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
There has been a significant increase in private sector participation (PSP) in the urban water
supply and sanitation (WSS) sector in recent years. However, even with increased PSP, public
authorities will still have to: ensure that the service providers do not use their market power to
exploit customers; internalize public health and environmental externalities; provide
mechanisms whereby water consumption is sustainable and is allocated efficiently between
alternative uses; and, serve as a guarantor of a level of service provision which is consistent
with a basic standard of living.
Among the reasons typically given for cities turning to the private sector are:
• to restructure a failing public utility;
• to attract capital investment;
• to improve technical and managerial efficiency.

According to conventional wisdom, public utilities tend to be overstaffed and inefficient. Public
sector utilities often have no competitors and little financial incentive to be efficient. With
governments under severe financial constraints, and private investors reluctant to lend public utilities,
they also have difficulty obtaining the finance required for infrastructure investment. Also, public
regulators typically control prices more vigorously than expansion targets. What can easily result is a
financially insolvent public utility, providing low-priced services to the more affluent, and leaving low-
income households to find more expensive or undesirable alternatives. In effect, it is often poor
households that are worst affected by inadequate public sector provision. Historically, there have
been many well-run public utilities but, especially when the public sector generally is under strain,
they are the exception rather than the rule.

Unregulated private companies are prone to:
Engage in monopolistic behavior – Urban infrastructure systems are natural monopolies, and monopolists can increase prices
without losing a large share of their sales (unlike competitive firms, which must by-and-large accept the market price as given). This
can lead to too little provision at too high a price.
Ignore public benefits consumers are unwilling to pay for – The price individuals are willing to pay for private sanitation and
solid waste removal is unlikely to reflect all of the benefits, since a large share of these benefits go to others (just as many of the
burdens a resident faces come from other people’s bad sanitation and waste). Even water provision provides public health benefits
above and beyond those received by the consuming household.
Ignore quality deficiencies consumers cannot perceive – Unregulated private providers can increase profits by ignoring quality
deficiencies, including even health-threatening pathogens and chemicals, so long as users cannot detect them.
Ignore the environmental costs of their own activities that they do not have to pay for – Unregulated private providers can
also increase profits by releasing the waste and sewage in an uncontrolled manner, and potentially depleting the water resources.

ROLE OF PRIVATE SECTORS IN
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
Many companies in the private sector, especially the world’s largest and most brand-visible firms, have made
substantial progress in operationalizing sustainability concepts by integrating these concepts into operations,
strategy, and communications. Driven primarily by a quest for value creation and realized through efforts to
reduce waste, gain access to new markets, and strengthen brand image. Many leading companies have spent
considerable time and resources over the last 2 decades in attempting to integrate sustainability considerations
into their day-to-day operations. But much work remains to be done. A select number of successful enterprises
in specific business sectors have undertaken more transformational sustainability initiatives. Many of them were
already successful enterprises with a history of innovation and sustained value creation. Learning how
successful firms have used sustainability tools and approaches can be an important incentive for other
companies to do the same. It can also inform efforts of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to amplify
the successes of private-sector sustainability initiatives without inhibiting the creativity and commitment that has
made such efforts possible in the first place.

POLICY FORMULATION
Policy is a course of action that create a desired objective in the interest of the masses or people in a
given country.
To begin with, the concept of policy formulation refers to the process of identifying courses of action, often
called alternatives or options, to resolve problems faced by a particular organization (Anderson, 2003 ). In
this case, an organization could be a business firm/company, government department, ministry or political
party.
The idea of formulating a policy comes as a result of policy demands or claims for action on a
particular issue that are made by other actors. The actors could be citizens, customers or the civil society,
among others. For example, a demand could be made to prohibit certain activities within the community or
organization. In response to these policy demands, officials like government ministers, Members of
Parliament (MPs), party officials and company directors make decisions that give direction on what should
be done. The decisions may be to enact a statute, issue executive orders, make administrative rules or
make judicial interpretations of laws.
The importance of formulating a policy is that it acts as the formal expression of the organization's
intentions and goals and what should be done to achieve the same goals.

Problem analysis
The problem analysis stands at the beginning of most planning processes. The results form the
basis for all following steps. The main parts of the problem analysis are the:
• formulation of objectives and goals
• analysis of the current situation
• analysis of deficiencies
An overview on these three parts. The details are described below:

PURPOSE OF PUBLIC POLICY
• Public policy has a clear and unique purpose which is;
Seeking to achieve a desired goal that is considered to be in the best interest of all members of
society. Example include clean air, clean water, good health, increased employment, an innovative
economy, active trade, high educational attainment, decent and affordable housing, minimal level of
poverty, improved literacy, low crime and socially cohesive society to name but few.
 Policy development as a decision making process
A public policy is a deliberate and usually careful decision that provides guidance for addressing
selected public concerns. Policy development can be seen, then, as a decision making process that
helps address identified goals, problems or concerns. At its core, policy development entails the
selection of a destibation of desired objective.
 Policy development as a decision making process
The actual formulation of policy involves the identification and analysis of a range of actions that
respond to these concerns. Each possible solution is assessed against a number of factors such as
probable effectiveness, potential cost, resources required for implementation, political context and
community support.

POLICY FORMULATION PROCESS
Several steps comprise the policy process
1.Selecting the desired objective
2.Identify the target of the objective
3.Determining the pathway to reach that objective
4.Designating the specific program or measure in respect of that goal:
target, cost and financing political issues
5.Implementing the measures and assessing its impact.

Equator Principles (July, 2006)
ON SOFT LOAN AND ENGAGEMENT OF LOCAL MANUFATURING OF
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH EQUIPMENTS
The objective of the Equator Principles (EP) is to provide a financial industry benchmark for determining, assessing and
managing environmental and social risk in project financing. The conditions under which The Equator Principles Financial
Institutions (EPFIs) will provide loans to projects are summarized in the following Principles.
Principle 1: Review and categorization: As part of the EPFI's internal social and environmental review and due
diligence, the EPFI will categorise each project based on the magnitude of its potential impacts and risks, in accordance
with the environmental and social screening criteria of the International Finance Corporation
Principle 2: Social and Environmental Assessment: For a project classified as category A or B, the borrower should
carry out a Social and Environmental Assessment ("Assessment") which addresses all relevant social and environmental
risks of the project. The Assessment may address, if relevant, the illustrative list of issues described in Exhibit II, which
includes the following items:
a) Assessment of baseline environmental and social conditions;
b) Consideration of feasible environmentally and socially preferable alternatives;
c) Requirements under host country laws and regulations, applicable international treaties
and agreements;

d) Protection of human rights and community health, safety and security;
e) Protection of cultural property and heritage;
f) Protection and conservation of biodiversity, including endangered species and sensitive
ecosystems in modified, natural and critical habitats, and identification of legally protected areas;
g) Sustainable management and use of renewable natural resources;
h) Use and management of dangerous substances;
i) Major hazards assessment and management;
j) Labour issues and occupational health and safety;
k) Fire prevention and life safety;
l) Socioeconomic impacts;
m) Land acquisition and involuntary resettlement;
n) Impacts on affected communities, and disadvantaged or vulnerable groups;

o) Impacts on indigenous peoples, and their unique cultural systems and values;
p) Cumulative impacts of existing projects, the proposed project, and anticipated
future projects;
q) Consultation and participation of affected parties in the design, review and
implementation of the project;
r) Efficient production, delivery and use of energy; and
s) Pollution prevention and waste minimization, pollution controls (liquid effluents
and air emissions), solid and chemical waste management

Principle 3: Covenants: An important strength of the Principles is the incorporation of covenants linked to
compliance. The borrower will covenant to:
a) Comply with all relevant host country social and environmental laws, regulations and permits;
b) Comply with the AP (where applicable);
c) Provide regular reports in a format agreed with EPFIs on compliance with the AP (where applicable), and on
compliance with relevant local, state and host country social and environmental laws, regulations and
permits; and
d) Decommission the facilities in accordance with an agreed Decommissioning Plan (where applicable). The
level of detail contained in a decommissioning plan (where necessary) will depend on the identified impacts
and risks of the project (please refer to quote below):
“The Action Plan may range from a brief description of routine mitigation measures to a series of documents
(e.g., resettlement action plan, indigenous peoples plan, emergency preparedness and response plan,
decommissioning plan, etc). The level of detail and complexity of the Action Plan and the priority of the
identified measures and actions will be commensurate with the project's potential impacts and risks” (Equator
Principles, July, 2006)

International Finance Corporation (IFC) Performance
Standards on Social and Environmental Sustainability
Performance Standard 1 Assessment and Management of Environmental and Social Risks and
Impacts. The objective of this standard include the following:
To identify and evaluate environmental and social risks and impacts of the project.
To adopt a mitigation hierarchy to anticipate and avoid, or where avoidance is not possible, minimize,5
and, where residual impacts remain, compensate/offset for risks and impacts to workers, Affected
Communities, and the environment.
To promote improved environmental and social performance of clients through the effective use of
management systems.
To ensure that grievances from Affected Communities and external communications from other
stakeholders are responded to and managed appropriately.
To promote and provide means for adequate engagement with Affected Communities throughout the
project cycle on issues that could potentially affect them and to ensure that relevant environmental
and social information is disclosed and disseminated.

Performance Standard 2 , Labor and Working Conditions.
The objective of this are:
To promote the fair treatment, non discrimination, and equal opportunity of workers.
To establish, maintain, and improve the worker-management relationship.
To promote compliance with national employment and labor laws.
To protect workers, including vulnerable categories of workers such as children, migrant workers,
workers engaged by third parties, and workers in the client’s supply chain.
To promote safe and healthy working conditions, and the health of workers.
To avoid the use of forced labor

Performance Standard 3 , Resource Efficiency and Pollution Prevention.
The objective include the following:
To avoid or minimize adverse impacts on human health and the environment by
avoiding or minimizing pollution from project activities.
To promote more sustainable use of resources, including energy and water.
To reduce project-related greenhouse Gases (GHG) emissions

Performance Standard 4, Community Health, Safety, and Security.
The objective of this standard are:
To anticipate and avoid adverse impacts on the health and safety of the Affected
Community during the project life from both routine and non-routine
circumstances.
 To ensure that the safeguarding of personnel and property is carried out in
accordance with relevant human rights principles and in a manner that avoids or
minimizes risks to the Affected Communities.

Performance Standard 5, Land Acquisition and Involuntary Resettlement:
Objective of the standard are as follows:
 To avoid, and when avoidance is not possible, minimize displacement by exploring alternative project
designs.
 To avoid forced eviction.
 To anticipate and avoid, or where avoidance is not possible, minimize adverse social and economic
impacts from land acquisition or restrictions on land use by (i) providing compensation for loss of assets
at replacement cost and (ii) ensuring that resettlement activities are implemented with appropriate
disclosure of information, consultation, and the informed participation of those affected.
 To improve, or restore, the livelihoods and standards of living of displaced persons.
 To improve living conditions among physically displaced persons through the provision of adequate
housing with security of tenure at resettlement sites.

Performance Standard 6, Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable
Management of Living Natural Resources.
Objective of the standard are as follow:
To protect and conserve biodiversity.
To maintain the benefits from ecosystem services.
To promote the sustainable management of living natural resources
through the adoption of practices that integrate conservation needs and
development priorities.

Pollution Prevention and Control Guidelines
• Reducing air emissions. Procedures suggested by the Population and Public Health Approaches (PPAH) include:
- minimize leakages of volatile organics from equipment, using good design practices and equipment maintenance
procedures;
- use mechanical seals where appropriate;
- minimize loss from storage tanks, product transfer areas, and other process areas;
- recover catalysts and reduce particulate emissions;
- reduce nitrogen oxide emissions and optimize fuel usage; and
- In some cases organics cannot be recovered and are destroyed by routing them to flares and other combustion devices.
• Elimination or reduction of pollutants. Procedures suggested by the PPAH include:
- using non-chrome-based additives in cooling water; and
- using long-life catalysts and regeneration to extend the cycle
- Recycling and reuse. Procedures suggested by the PPAH include:
- Recycling cooling water and treated waste water to the extent feasible; and
- Recovery and reuse of spent solvents and other chemicals to the extent feasible.
• Improving Operating Procedures. Procedures suggested by the PPAH include:
- Segregating process waste waters from storm water systems;
- Optimising the frequency of tank and equipment cleaning;
- Preventing solids and oily wastes from entering the drainage system; and
- Establishing and maintaining an emergency preparedness and response plan.

MDGs AS GUIDES RELATING TO ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are 8 goals that UN
Member States have agreed to try to achieve by the year 2015.
The United Nations Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2000, commits world leaders to
combat poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation, and discrimination against
women. The MDGs are derived from this Declaration. Each MDG has targets set for 2015 and
indicators to monitor progress from 1990 levels. Several of these relate directly to health.
Millennium Development Goal 7: ensure environmental sustainability.
With regard to basic sanitation, current rates of progress are too slow for the MDG target to be
met globally. In 2012, 2.5 billion people did not have access to improved sanitation facilities, with 1
billion these people still practicing open defecation. The number of people living in urban areas
without access to improved sanitation is increasing because of rapid growth in the size of urban
populations.

The Goal and Targets of MDG7
MDG7 is to ensure environmental sustainability and it is expected to be achieved by meeting
three targets – targets 9, 10 and 11 in the overall MDG framework. These targets respectively
are: integrating the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes;
reverse loss of environmental resources; and reduce by half the proportion of people without
sustainable access to safe drinking water; and achieve significant improvement in the lives of at
least 100 million slum dwellers, by 2020. Each of these three targets has a set of indicators for
monitoring progress made towards achieving them.
MDG7 – Targets and Indicators

The Environmental Millennium Development Goal:
progress and barriers to its achievement
The overall situation for MDG 7 is that most countries seem committed, in
principle, to achieving the goal of environmental sustainability, but progress is
slow in meeting the targets. Greenhouse gas emissions are still rising and
only a few countries have achieved substantial reductions. Difficulties are
being experienced in meeting the biodiversity target, as only a small number
of countries have made headway in protected area coverage.
Advances are being made in access to improved water sources, but
access to improved sanitation is still a challenge in most countries, especially
for the rural populations. The struggle to meet MDG7, and indeed other
MDGs in Africa, is exacerbated by the threat of climate change and its
potential impacts on ecosystems, water supply, and the degradation of
biodiversity.

Challenges Militating against Achievement of
Environmental Sustainability
Definitely there are challenges and limitations in the path towards achieving MDG7. Due to limited
space some of them are highlighted as follows:
• Population Explosion: The country’s population is exploding and there is no visible sign of any measure
aimed at controlling the upsurge. There is a direct link between environmental resource exhaustion and
population pressure. Increasing and uncontrolled population growth will render any well intended policies
and programmes aimed at achieving MDG7 ineffective.
• High Poverty Incidence: People are getting worse off and the situation is being compounded by collapse
of infrastructure. There is also a direct link between poverty and environmental resource depletion, thus
with increasing impoverishment of people, achieving MDG7 could be a phantasm.
• Policy Inconsistency: There have been cases of policy inconsistency. With respect to economic policies,
between 1986 and 2013, the country has experimented with:
o Structural Adjustment Program
o National Economic Empowerment and development Strategy (NEED)
o Vision 20:2020
o 7-Point Agenda
o Transformation Agenda

ROLE OF E-GOVERNANCE IN RELATION TO
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SUSTAINABILITY
The environmental sustainability of developing countries is in serious jeopardy. Sea-level rise, deforestation,
overexploitation of land, pollution, habitat degradation, and climate change have made them susceptible to
environmental disasters. They are extremely vulnerable in light of multiple environmental risks, in fact, more than
1.5 times the global average of environmental risks.
With the dramatically increasing threats to environmental sustainability, there has been, in recent decades, a
corresponding increase in information and communications technology (ICT), which many see as providing e-
government solutions for a sustainable environment as one of the main tools for coping with environmental risks.
While still in the early stages of e-government development, small island developing states (SIDS) have made
progress towards enhanced environmental sustainability through e-government. For example, the Timor-Leste
government, together with other maritime Southeast Asia governments, has set up an alert messaging service that
broadcasts severe weather warnings for events that might pose environmental risks. In Fiji, the government
provides farmers with the information on the correct use of fertilizer and insecticides for the environmental
protection of land. Many SIDS governments have introduced green ICT equipment for government operations and
have implemented Information Network Village projects that provide villagers with information and awareness on
environmental sustainability to establish and support self-sustainable communities.

E-Government for Sustainable Development

E-Government for Sustainable Development
(continued

International Programme on Chemical
Safety (IPCS)
The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) supports national
programmes for prevention and treatment of poisonings due to chemicals
of synthetic and natural origin. The potential benefits of successful national
chemical safety programmes are:
• A reduction in the number of exposures and poisonings in the home, outdoor and indoor environments
and the workplace.
• Detection and elimination of unusually hazardous commercial products through regulatory measures,
repackaging or reformulation.
• Use of appropriate first aid measures in case of toxic exposure.
• Reduction in the inappropriate use of emergency departments and emer gency medical transportation
systems.
• Improved care for poisoning victims as a result of education for health care professionals in the
management and prevention of poisonings, with a consequent reduction in disabilities and costly long-
term medical care.

Contemporary issues in environmental impact assessment

Contemporary issues in environmental impact assessment

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