Conjecture: Every card that has an even number on one side is red
on the other side.
Which cards does one have to turn over to find out whether the
conjecture is true?
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 1
Every card has a colour on one side and a number on the other.
Is this a valid inference?
Premise: Every person at the party was a twentysomething.
Conclusion: Every person at the party who was wearing a jacket was
a twentysomething.
Valid! Not valid!
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 2
13: Everything
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Tom Donaldson
Things to be getting on with
• Take it easy – relax after the midterm.
• There will be an assignment next week.
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 13 4
1: Beyond Statement
Logic
Beyond Statement Logic
• There are certain inferences which cannot be adequately
evaluated using the tools we’ve discussed so far.
• Let’s look at some examples.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 6
Tense Logic
Premise: Ashni will swim and Ben will swim, but Ashni won’t
swim while Ben swims.
Conclusion: Either Ashni will swim and then Ben will, or Ben will
swim and then Ashni will.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 7
Deontic Logic
Premise: You may have coffee.
Premise: You may have tea.
Conclusion: You may have coffee and tea.
Premise: C
Premise: T
Conclusion: (C & T)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 8
The Logic of Quantification
Premise: Every dog is a mammal.
Premise: Fido is a dog.
Conclusion: Fido is a mammal.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 9
We’ll focus on the logic of quantification …
• Tense isn’t relevant in (pure) mathematics.
• Deontic notions (such as obligation and permission) are also not
relevant.
• But “every” is everywhere in mathematics!
• Every natural number has a unique prime factorization.
• Every polynomial of degree three has a real root.
• Every polynomial is differentiable.
• The negation of an “every” statement is equivalent to a “some”
statement.
• So we’ll focus on “every” and “some”.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 10
2: Introducing “Every”
Universal Generalizations
Universal generalizations in English often contain the word “every”, or
“everything” or “everyone”, or “any”, or “all”:
• Every whale is a mammal.
• Everything is broken.
• All dogs are hairy.
But there are exceptions:
• Dogs have four legs.
• A bear is a mammal.
• Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 12
The Need for Symbols
Compare:
• A bear is a mammal.
• A bear goes through my trash can every night.
As we said earlier in the term, English is extremely complicated, so
in logic we need to use artificial symbols instead.
We won’t introduce any new symbols today, however.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 13
Strict vs. Loose
• There are two sorts of universal generalization – strict and loose.
• Strict: “Every single dog without exception is a mammal.”
• Loose: “Dogs have four legs.”
• A s.
Assignment 2 FederalismThe system of federalism was instituted wi.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Federalism
The system of federalism was instituted with the writing and authorization of the Constitution in 1787. In dividing power between states and the national government, federalism has undergone challenges to the placement of power. Should power reside primarily in national or in state government? The Civil War was the most dramatic challenge to the placement of power. Southern states argued, under the leadership of John C. Calhoun, that states’ power superseded national power, while northern states, under the leadership of President Abraham Lincoln, stressed the need for union under the leadership and direction of the national government.
In the more than two hundred years since the Constitution’s adoption, there have been many changes to the meaning of federalism, with power shifting between state and national governments. In the twentieth century, the shifts of power became largely associated with the national government’s ability to provide increased funding sources. With more funding available, the national government has expanded its impact on all areas of state governments. This increased power has had many advocates and many detractors, each with strong justifications.
Research federalism using your textbook, the online library resources, and the Internet. Write a paper on federalism. Structure your paper as follows:
Define federalism.
Explain three advantages of federalism.
Explain three disadvantages of federalism.
Identify and describe at least two ways in which American federalism has changed since the ratification of the Constitution.
Discuss one advantage or disadvantage of federalism most relevant to you.
Describe the relationship between contemporary politics and trends in the size and power of the federal government.
Write a 2–3-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards for writing style to your work.
.
Assignment 2 FederalismThe system of federalism was instituted .docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Federalism
The system of federalism was instituted with the writing and authorization of the Constitution in 1787. In dividing power between states and the national government, federalism has undergone challenges to the placement of power. Should power reside primarily in national or in state government? The Civil War was the most dramatic challenge to the placement of power. Southern states argued, under the leadership of John C. Calhoun, that states’ power superseded national power, while northern states, under the leadership of President Abraham Lincoln, stressed the need for union under the leadership and direction of the national government.
In the more than two hundred years since the Constitution’s adoption, there have been many changes to the meaning of federalism, with power shifting between state and national governments. In the twentieth century, the shifts of power became largely associated with the national government’s ability to provide increased funding sources. With more funding available, the national government has expanded its impact on all areas of state governments. This increased power has had many advocates and many detractors, each with strong justifications.
Research federalism using your textbook, the Argosy University online library resources, and the Internet. Write a paper on federalism. Structure your paper as follows:
Define federalism.
Explain three advantages of federalism.
Explain three disadvantages of federalism.
Identify and describe at least two ways in which American federalism has changed since the ratification of the Constitution.
Discuss one advantage or disadvantage of federalism most relevant to you.
Describe the relationship between contemporary politics and trends in the size and power of the federal government.
Write a 2–3-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards for writing style to your work. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M2_A2.doc.
By
Wednesday, July 30, 2014
, deliver your assignment to the
M2: Assignment 2 Dropbox
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Significant advantages and disadvantages of federalism are identified and explained.
20
Significant changes in American federalism are identified and explained.
16
Impact of federalism to your life is identified and discussed objectively.
12
Impact of size and power of the federal government of contemporary politics is accurately identified and explained.
20
Statements are supported by reasons and research information.
12
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
100
.
Assignment 2 Evidence Based Practice at Good Seed Drop-InAcco.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Evidence Based Practice at Good Seed Drop-In
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 4: Engage In Practice-informed Research and Research-informed Practice:
Social workers understand quantitative and qualitative research methods and their respective roles in advancing a science of social work and in evaluating their practice. Social workers know the principles of logic, scientific inquiry, and culturally informed and ethical approaches to building knowledge. Social workers understand that evidence that informs practice derives from multi-disciplinary sources and multiple ways of knowing.
They also understand the processes for translating research findings into effective practice. Social workers:
Use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research;
Apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods and research findings; and
Use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery.
This assignment is intended to help students demonstrate the behavioral components of this competency in their field education.
To Prepare: Meet with your Field Instructor. During the meeting, you are expected to assess the population(s) served by the agency. After meeting with the Field Instructor, conduct extensive research regarding the agency’s client population. You will be expected to use at least 5 peer-reviewed resources. The purpose of the research is to discover “evidenced based practices” that are most effective while working with clients served within the population. If the agency serves more than one population, select one sub-population within the agency to conduct the review.
(Homeless youth from 18-25 years-old, Population Served Transition Aged Youth or "TAY")
The Assignment: Create a 10-12 slide PowerPoint Presentation, where you will explain the following:
1. Population researched
2. Best evidenced based practices modalities used to engage the population
3. Current modalities used in the agency
4. Briefly discuss and suggest to methods of implementing evidence-based practices in the agency
5. Analyze the findings from the articles you researched
Note: You are expected to use a minimum of five references.
Assignment 2: Evidence Based
.
Assignment 2 Evidence Based PracticeAccording to the Council .docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Evidence Based Practice
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 4: Engage In Practice-informed Research and Research-informed Practice:
Social workers understand quantitative and qualitative research methods and their respective roles in advancing a science of social work and in evaluating their practice. Social workers know the principles of logic, scientific inquiry, and culturally informed and ethical approaches to building knowledge. Social workers understand that evidence that informs practice derives from multi-disciplinary sources and multiple ways of knowing. They also understand the processes for translating research findings into effective practice. Social workers:
· Use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research;
· Apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods and research findings; and
· Use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery.
This assignment is intended to help students demonstrate the behavioral components of this competency in their field education.
To Prepare:
· Assess the population(s) served by the agency. My agency works with at risk youth and their families in Indiana. The at risk youth and/or their families are referred to my agency by the Indiana Department of Child Services due to reports of child abuse and/or neglect. My agency provides Parenting classes, Father Engagement classes, mental health therapy, supervised visitation, and home-based case management services to our clients.
· Conduct extensive research regarding the agency’s client population.
· Use at least 5 peer-reviewed resources.
· Discover “evidenced based practices” that are most effective while working with clients served within the population.
The Assignment: Create a 10-12 slide PowerPoint Presentation, where you will explain the following:
1. Population researched
2. Best evidenced based practices modalities used to engage the population
3. Current modalities used in the agency
4. Briefly discuss and suggest to methods of implementing evidence-based practices in the agency
5. Analyze the findings from the articles you researched
Note: You are expected to use a minimum of five references. References should be from 2013-2019.
Research class Discussion Board due date January 11
The Essentials of Master's Education in Nursing reelects the profession's continuing call for imagination, transformative thinking, and evolutionary change. Explain the importance of following the essentials of Master's Education in Nursing in a clinical nurse practitioner program such as the “Florida National University “? Please select one of the essentials and expand as to why the selected essential is crucial in succeeding in this program. (Essentials I-IX)
Discussion Rubric
The initial post will be regarding the topic of the week and will be a minimum of 250 words. Make sure you pr.
Assignment 2 Evidence Based PracticeAccording to the Council on.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Evidence Based Practice
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 4: Engage In Practice-informed Research and Research-informed Practice:
Social workers understand quantitative and qualitative research methods and their respective roles in advancing a science of social work and in evaluating their practice. Social workers know the principles of logic, scientific inquiry, and culturally informed and ethical approaches to building knowledge. Social workers understand that evidence that informs practice derives from multi-disciplinary sources and multiple ways of knowing. They also understand the processes for translating research findings into effective practice. Social workers:
Use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research;
Apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods and research findings; and
Use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery.
This assignment is intended to help students demonstrate the behavioral components of this competency in their field education.
To Prepare
: Meet with your Field Instructor. During the meeting, you are expected to assess the population(s) served by the agency. After meeting with the Field Instructor, conduct extensive research regarding the agency’s client population. You will be expected to use
at least
5 peer-reviewed resources. The purpose of the research is to discover “evidenced based practices” that are most effective while working with clients served within the population. If the agency serves more than one population, select one sub-population within the agency to conduct the review.
The Assignment: Create a 10-12 slide PowerPoint Presentation, where you will explain the following:
Population researched
Best evidenced based practices modalities used to engage the population
Current modalities used in the agency
Briefly discuss and suggest to methods of implementing evidence-based practices in the agency
Analyze the findings from the articles you researched
.
Assignment 2 Examining DifferencesIn this module, we examined cri.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Examining Differences
In this module, we examined crimes against persons, crimes against property, and white-collar crimes. These crimes are all treated differently by the legislature as well as the media. These differences are a reflection of how society views them. As you consider these differences, you should also consider how these differences have evolved over time.
Tasks:
Prepare a 3- to 5-page report that describes all of the following points:
The differences in the treatment of each type of crime by the legislature. Explore the different crime levels (misdemeanor
vs.
felony) and different punishments.
The differences in the descriptions utilized by the media. How does the media depict the different types of criminals? Have there been any changes?
The differences in the theoretical applications for these types of crimes. How do the theories differentiate between these types of criminal behavior?
Submission Details:
Save your report as M4_A2_Lastname_Firstname.doc.
By
Wednesday, July 9, 2014
, submit your document to the
M4: Assignment 2 Dropbox
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Identified differences between crime levels in terms of classification and punishment.
20
Analyzed the role of the media in crime depiction and descriptions.
28
Explained differences among theoretical applications.
32
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in the accurate representation and attribution of sources; and used accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
.
Assignment 2 Ethics and Emerging TechnologiesRead the following.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Ethics and Emerging Technologies
Read the following paper from the online library:
Neelakantan, M., & Armstrong, A. (2006). Source code, object code, and The Da Vinci code: The debate on intellectual property protection for software programs.
Computer & Internet Lawyer, 23
(10), 1 – 5
Read the paper to identify the reasons for which Intellectual Property Right (IPR) laws in software are not always effective.
Conduct online research on the Internet to identify at least two examples of international regulatory protocols to prevent IPR infringement in software programs.
Create a three-page double-spaced business research article on the legal and ethical implications of IPR violation in software programming. Use the following format:
Page 1:
Reasons for IPR violations in software development
Page 2:
Ethical implications of IPR violations in software development
Page 3:
International regulations for IPR violations in software development
All written assignments and responses should follow APA rules for attributing sources.
Must be original work as it will be submitted to TURNITIN
Due By
Thursday, April 11, 2013, by 5 PM PST
.
.
Assignment 2 Ethical Issues and Foreign InvestmentsBy Friday, A.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Ethical Issues and Foreign Investments
By
Friday, April 18, 2014
, analyze the following scenario:
There are multifaceted ethical issues relating to international investments. One aspect relates to human rights. Most Latin American governments have constitutions that mandate health care as a human right, yet some of these countries provide poor health care for the majority of their population.
During the 1980s, the general populace of these countries deteriorated, even though several Latin American countries developed strategies to reposition medical personnel and services to rural areas. Throughout this time, many international donors provided assistance; however they did so with imposed conditions. An example of this constrained assistance was the World Bank, which imposed restrictions that included privatization of health care, as well as required limitations on universal access.
Did the World Bank and other international donors act responsibly and ethically in constraining their humanitarian assistance? Who has the responsibility for the health care of the Latin American people? Is it a reasonable and socially responsible practice to offer international assistance in exchange for an opportunity to shape a country's political and/or social system? Why or why not?
By
Saturday, April 19, 2014
respond to the discussion question assigned by the faculty. Submit your response to the appropriate
Discussion Area
. Use the same
Discussion Area
to comment on your classmates' submissions and continue the discussion until
Wednesday, April 23, 2014.
Comment on how your classmates would address differing views.
.
Assignment 2 FederalismThe system of federalism was instituted wi.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Federalism
The system of federalism was instituted with the writing and authorization of the Constitution in 1787. In dividing power between states and the national government, federalism has undergone challenges to the placement of power. Should power reside primarily in national or in state government? The Civil War was the most dramatic challenge to the placement of power. Southern states argued, under the leadership of John C. Calhoun, that states’ power superseded national power, while northern states, under the leadership of President Abraham Lincoln, stressed the need for union under the leadership and direction of the national government.
In the more than two hundred years since the Constitution’s adoption, there have been many changes to the meaning of federalism, with power shifting between state and national governments. In the twentieth century, the shifts of power became largely associated with the national government’s ability to provide increased funding sources. With more funding available, the national government has expanded its impact on all areas of state governments. This increased power has had many advocates and many detractors, each with strong justifications.
Research federalism using your textbook, the online library resources, and the Internet. Write a paper on federalism. Structure your paper as follows:
Define federalism.
Explain three advantages of federalism.
Explain three disadvantages of federalism.
Identify and describe at least two ways in which American federalism has changed since the ratification of the Constitution.
Discuss one advantage or disadvantage of federalism most relevant to you.
Describe the relationship between contemporary politics and trends in the size and power of the federal government.
Write a 2–3-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards for writing style to your work.
.
Assignment 2 FederalismThe system of federalism was instituted .docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Federalism
The system of federalism was instituted with the writing and authorization of the Constitution in 1787. In dividing power between states and the national government, federalism has undergone challenges to the placement of power. Should power reside primarily in national or in state government? The Civil War was the most dramatic challenge to the placement of power. Southern states argued, under the leadership of John C. Calhoun, that states’ power superseded national power, while northern states, under the leadership of President Abraham Lincoln, stressed the need for union under the leadership and direction of the national government.
In the more than two hundred years since the Constitution’s adoption, there have been many changes to the meaning of federalism, with power shifting between state and national governments. In the twentieth century, the shifts of power became largely associated with the national government’s ability to provide increased funding sources. With more funding available, the national government has expanded its impact on all areas of state governments. This increased power has had many advocates and many detractors, each with strong justifications.
Research federalism using your textbook, the Argosy University online library resources, and the Internet. Write a paper on federalism. Structure your paper as follows:
Define federalism.
Explain three advantages of federalism.
Explain three disadvantages of federalism.
Identify and describe at least two ways in which American federalism has changed since the ratification of the Constitution.
Discuss one advantage or disadvantage of federalism most relevant to you.
Describe the relationship between contemporary politics and trends in the size and power of the federal government.
Write a 2–3-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards for writing style to your work. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M2_A2.doc.
By
Wednesday, July 30, 2014
, deliver your assignment to the
M2: Assignment 2 Dropbox
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Significant advantages and disadvantages of federalism are identified and explained.
20
Significant changes in American federalism are identified and explained.
16
Impact of federalism to your life is identified and discussed objectively.
12
Impact of size and power of the federal government of contemporary politics is accurately identified and explained.
20
Statements are supported by reasons and research information.
12
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
100
.
Assignment 2 Evidence Based Practice at Good Seed Drop-InAcco.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Evidence Based Practice at Good Seed Drop-In
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 4: Engage In Practice-informed Research and Research-informed Practice:
Social workers understand quantitative and qualitative research methods and their respective roles in advancing a science of social work and in evaluating their practice. Social workers know the principles of logic, scientific inquiry, and culturally informed and ethical approaches to building knowledge. Social workers understand that evidence that informs practice derives from multi-disciplinary sources and multiple ways of knowing.
They also understand the processes for translating research findings into effective practice. Social workers:
Use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research;
Apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods and research findings; and
Use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery.
This assignment is intended to help students demonstrate the behavioral components of this competency in their field education.
To Prepare: Meet with your Field Instructor. During the meeting, you are expected to assess the population(s) served by the agency. After meeting with the Field Instructor, conduct extensive research regarding the agency’s client population. You will be expected to use at least 5 peer-reviewed resources. The purpose of the research is to discover “evidenced based practices” that are most effective while working with clients served within the population. If the agency serves more than one population, select one sub-population within the agency to conduct the review.
(Homeless youth from 18-25 years-old, Population Served Transition Aged Youth or "TAY")
The Assignment: Create a 10-12 slide PowerPoint Presentation, where you will explain the following:
1. Population researched
2. Best evidenced based practices modalities used to engage the population
3. Current modalities used in the agency
4. Briefly discuss and suggest to methods of implementing evidence-based practices in the agency
5. Analyze the findings from the articles you researched
Note: You are expected to use a minimum of five references.
Assignment 2: Evidence Based
.
Assignment 2 Evidence Based PracticeAccording to the Council .docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Evidence Based Practice
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 4: Engage In Practice-informed Research and Research-informed Practice:
Social workers understand quantitative and qualitative research methods and their respective roles in advancing a science of social work and in evaluating their practice. Social workers know the principles of logic, scientific inquiry, and culturally informed and ethical approaches to building knowledge. Social workers understand that evidence that informs practice derives from multi-disciplinary sources and multiple ways of knowing. They also understand the processes for translating research findings into effective practice. Social workers:
· Use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research;
· Apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods and research findings; and
· Use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery.
This assignment is intended to help students demonstrate the behavioral components of this competency in their field education.
To Prepare:
· Assess the population(s) served by the agency. My agency works with at risk youth and their families in Indiana. The at risk youth and/or their families are referred to my agency by the Indiana Department of Child Services due to reports of child abuse and/or neglect. My agency provides Parenting classes, Father Engagement classes, mental health therapy, supervised visitation, and home-based case management services to our clients.
· Conduct extensive research regarding the agency’s client population.
· Use at least 5 peer-reviewed resources.
· Discover “evidenced based practices” that are most effective while working with clients served within the population.
The Assignment: Create a 10-12 slide PowerPoint Presentation, where you will explain the following:
1. Population researched
2. Best evidenced based practices modalities used to engage the population
3. Current modalities used in the agency
4. Briefly discuss and suggest to methods of implementing evidence-based practices in the agency
5. Analyze the findings from the articles you researched
Note: You are expected to use a minimum of five references. References should be from 2013-2019.
Research class Discussion Board due date January 11
The Essentials of Master's Education in Nursing reelects the profession's continuing call for imagination, transformative thinking, and evolutionary change. Explain the importance of following the essentials of Master's Education in Nursing in a clinical nurse practitioner program such as the “Florida National University “? Please select one of the essentials and expand as to why the selected essential is crucial in succeeding in this program. (Essentials I-IX)
Discussion Rubric
The initial post will be regarding the topic of the week and will be a minimum of 250 words. Make sure you pr.
Assignment 2 Evidence Based PracticeAccording to the Council on.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Evidence Based Practice
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 4: Engage In Practice-informed Research and Research-informed Practice:
Social workers understand quantitative and qualitative research methods and their respective roles in advancing a science of social work and in evaluating their practice. Social workers know the principles of logic, scientific inquiry, and culturally informed and ethical approaches to building knowledge. Social workers understand that evidence that informs practice derives from multi-disciplinary sources and multiple ways of knowing. They also understand the processes for translating research findings into effective practice. Social workers:
Use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research;
Apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods and research findings; and
Use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery.
This assignment is intended to help students demonstrate the behavioral components of this competency in their field education.
To Prepare
: Meet with your Field Instructor. During the meeting, you are expected to assess the population(s) served by the agency. After meeting with the Field Instructor, conduct extensive research regarding the agency’s client population. You will be expected to use
at least
5 peer-reviewed resources. The purpose of the research is to discover “evidenced based practices” that are most effective while working with clients served within the population. If the agency serves more than one population, select one sub-population within the agency to conduct the review.
The Assignment: Create a 10-12 slide PowerPoint Presentation, where you will explain the following:
Population researched
Best evidenced based practices modalities used to engage the population
Current modalities used in the agency
Briefly discuss and suggest to methods of implementing evidence-based practices in the agency
Analyze the findings from the articles you researched
.
Assignment 2 Examining DifferencesIn this module, we examined cri.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Examining Differences
In this module, we examined crimes against persons, crimes against property, and white-collar crimes. These crimes are all treated differently by the legislature as well as the media. These differences are a reflection of how society views them. As you consider these differences, you should also consider how these differences have evolved over time.
Tasks:
Prepare a 3- to 5-page report that describes all of the following points:
The differences in the treatment of each type of crime by the legislature. Explore the different crime levels (misdemeanor
vs.
felony) and different punishments.
The differences in the descriptions utilized by the media. How does the media depict the different types of criminals? Have there been any changes?
The differences in the theoretical applications for these types of crimes. How do the theories differentiate between these types of criminal behavior?
Submission Details:
Save your report as M4_A2_Lastname_Firstname.doc.
By
Wednesday, July 9, 2014
, submit your document to the
M4: Assignment 2 Dropbox
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Identified differences between crime levels in terms of classification and punishment.
20
Analyzed the role of the media in crime depiction and descriptions.
28
Explained differences among theoretical applications.
32
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in the accurate representation and attribution of sources; and used accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
.
Assignment 2 Ethics and Emerging TechnologiesRead the following.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Ethics and Emerging Technologies
Read the following paper from the online library:
Neelakantan, M., & Armstrong, A. (2006). Source code, object code, and The Da Vinci code: The debate on intellectual property protection for software programs.
Computer & Internet Lawyer, 23
(10), 1 – 5
Read the paper to identify the reasons for which Intellectual Property Right (IPR) laws in software are not always effective.
Conduct online research on the Internet to identify at least two examples of international regulatory protocols to prevent IPR infringement in software programs.
Create a three-page double-spaced business research article on the legal and ethical implications of IPR violation in software programming. Use the following format:
Page 1:
Reasons for IPR violations in software development
Page 2:
Ethical implications of IPR violations in software development
Page 3:
International regulations for IPR violations in software development
All written assignments and responses should follow APA rules for attributing sources.
Must be original work as it will be submitted to TURNITIN
Due By
Thursday, April 11, 2013, by 5 PM PST
.
.
Assignment 2 Ethical Issues and Foreign InvestmentsBy Friday, A.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Ethical Issues and Foreign Investments
By
Friday, April 18, 2014
, analyze the following scenario:
There are multifaceted ethical issues relating to international investments. One aspect relates to human rights. Most Latin American governments have constitutions that mandate health care as a human right, yet some of these countries provide poor health care for the majority of their population.
During the 1980s, the general populace of these countries deteriorated, even though several Latin American countries developed strategies to reposition medical personnel and services to rural areas. Throughout this time, many international donors provided assistance; however they did so with imposed conditions. An example of this constrained assistance was the World Bank, which imposed restrictions that included privatization of health care, as well as required limitations on universal access.
Did the World Bank and other international donors act responsibly and ethically in constraining their humanitarian assistance? Who has the responsibility for the health care of the Latin American people? Is it a reasonable and socially responsible practice to offer international assistance in exchange for an opportunity to shape a country's political and/or social system? Why or why not?
By
Saturday, April 19, 2014
respond to the discussion question assigned by the faculty. Submit your response to the appropriate
Discussion Area
. Use the same
Discussion Area
to comment on your classmates' submissions and continue the discussion until
Wednesday, April 23, 2014.
Comment on how your classmates would address differing views.
.
Assignment 2 Ethical BehaviorIdentify a case in the news that y.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Ethical Behavior
Identify a case in the news that you feel displays unethical police behaviors. In a 3-page written research informative paper, answer the following questions in detail with support from research and examples. Your paper should be written in APA format and style, include a title and reference page, and include at least 2 resources, one of which can be your textbook.
Identify the case and describe when and where it occurred. Be sure to summarize the case thoroughly.
Identify at least 2 unethical behaviors from the case and explain why they are unethical.
Explain whether any of the behaviors violate any criminal laws.
Explain whether any behaviors violate the Constitutional rights of the defendant.
.
Assignment 2 Ethical (Moral) RelativismIn America, many are comfo.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Ethical (Moral) Relativism
In America, many are comfortable describing ethics as follows: “Well, what’s right for me is right for me and what’s right for you is right for you. Let’s just agree to disagree.” This is an affirmation of what philosophers call
individual
or
subjective moral relativism
. In this understanding of relativism, morality is a matter of individual feelings and personal preference. In individual moral relativism, the determination of what is right and wrong in a situation varies according to the individual. Moral relativists do not believe in natural law or universal truths.
Cultural moral relativism
puts culture at the forefront of relative ethical decision-making. It says the individual must include the precepts of his or her culture as a prominent part of the relativistic moral action.
Lawrence
Kohlberg,
a prominent psychologist known for recognizing moral stages of development, takes it a step farther saying cultural relativists are persons stuck in the “
Conventional
Stage” of ethical development
.
In your paper, please define individual moral relativism and cultural moral relativism in detail, noting how they differ from each other, their strengths and weaknesses, and give your position on Kohlberg’s stance on ethical relativism.
What aspects of ethical relativism do you identify and agree with? What aspects do you disagree with? Give a personal example that illustrates your stance on ethical relativism, describing how you made a moral decision in an ethical dilemma. Include at least two references to support your thoughts.
Post a 500-word paper to the
M4: Assignment 2 Dropbox
by due
Wednesday, July 9, 2014
. All written assignments and responses should follow proper citation rules for attributing sources. Please use Microsoft Word spelling/grammar checker. Be mindful of plagiarism policies.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Significant critical analysis of individual ethical relativism, cultural ethical relativism, and Kohlberg’s position; including definitions, strengths, and weaknesses.
36
Described personal ethical stances on each form of relativism in relation to own personal ethical system, including whether and how personal ethical system is compatible or incompatible with relativism.
24
Used a personal example to illustrate and support stance on ethical relativism in relation to own ethical system.
16
Justified ideas and responses by using appropriate scholarly examples and at least two references from texts, Web sites, and other references.
4
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
100
.
Assignment 2 Essay Power in Swift and Moliere Both Moliere and S.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Essay: Power in Swift and Moliere
Both Moliere and Swift use humor to provide an analysis of serious social problems. In doing so, they both describe various types and uses of power, from the governmental power that restores Orgon’s property and the English laws that do not take into account the conditions of the Irish, to the power that a landlord holds over a renter or a father over a family, to the exercise of religion and wealth within a community, to the wishes and desires of the young, and more.
Your task is to identify at least two types of power in our readings for this module. You may use either
Tartuffe
or
A Modest Proposal
, or a mix of both. Once you have found two types of power, determine who you think has the power and how that power is exercised. Where is each power abused? What checks or limits are placed on each type of power? Be sure to cite examples from your readings to support your claims.
Submit your assignment to the
M4: Assignment 2 Dropbox
by
Wednesday, August 13, 2014
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Identified two uses of power in this module’s readings.
24
Described who has each type of power and how their power is exercised (citing examples in the text).
28
Identified at least one example of how each power is misused and any limitations on the power that is being misused.
28
Justified ideas and responses by using appropriate examples and references from texts, Web sites, and other references or personal experience. Followed APA rules for attributing sources.
20
Total:
100
.
Assignment 2 E taxonomy· Information TechnologyInformatio.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2 E taxonomy
· Information Technology:
Information Technology is an important and intelligent field of study, which is a broad field that is all about computing technology, information, and "people" especially in issues that are related to the users and meeting their needs of technology. In general, information technology is applying, managing, and supporting the technology used in solving problems. In addition, information technology is a study that mainly focuses on solving problems by using technology and computing. Information technology focuses on how to satisfy users by presenting new uses of technologies.
· A “taxonomy” of information technology:
I. People: people provide intelligence of the systems and use technology to solve their problems, by getting the benefits of technology, which are efficiency and productivity.
1. Users:
· Definition: People who use technology in their work or anything else in their life.
· Examples: engineers, students, and some medical specialties…etc.
2. Programmer:
· Definition: People who program computer software, by giving the computer systems instructions to perform a given action.
· Examples: PHP, Java, HTML, or SQL programmers.
3. IT professionals:
· Definition: IT professionals define as applying, managing, and supporting the technology used in solving problems.
· Concerned about: Implementation, configuration, and maintenance.
· Goal: Solving problems by processing data into information.
· IT professionals should provide:
· Productivity.
· Efficiency.
· Origin of IT professionals:
a) Meaning of anything is linked to its origin.
b) The main reason is people created a tool to solve a problem.
1. Calculation:
· William Schickard:
· 17th century.
· In Germany.
· Conceived a design of a mechanical calculator.
· Blaise Pascal:
· 1640s.
· In France.
· Built his machine to help his father in calculation.
2. Automatic Execution:
· Jacquard:
· 1810s.
· In France.
· A mechanical loom.
3. Automatic Logic:
· George Boole:
· In 1850s.
· In Ireland.
· Envisioned the Laws of Thought
· Boolean algebra (AND, OR, XOR, NOT)
a) AND (0 0=0, 0 1=0, 1 0=0, 1 1=1)
b) OR (0 0=0, 0 1=1, 1 0=1, 1 1=1)
c) XOR (0 0=0, 0 1 =1, 1 0=1, 1 1= 1)
d) NOT (0=1, 1=1)
4. General purpose:
· Charles Babages (grandfather of computer age):
· 18th century.
· In England.
· Designed the Difference Engine.
· Augusta Ada (one of the first programmers):
· 18th century.
· In England.
· Interpreter of Babbage's works.
· What should IT professionals know?
1. People and ethics.
· It’s related to understanding other people.
· Behave in ethical ways.
2. Users needs.
· What do you need to solve users problems?
· Users centric design.
3. Problems solving.
· Improve that by doing it (practice).
· Problem solving steps:
a) Understand the problem.
b) Planning the solutions.
c) Create algorithms.
d) Test the algorithms.
· Develop knowledge to get some expertise.
· Practice to gain experience.
4. How to use tools.
· Use technologi.
Assignment 2 Dropbox AssignmentCurrent Trends and Issues in Manag.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Dropbox Assignment
Current Trends and Issues in Managed Care
Compensation and reimbursement models are another method of controlling access, cost, and quality in a managed care environment. An MCO doesn't have direct control over physicians or hospitals but through contractual agreements that set incentives for meeting agreed-upon standards, it can exert influence.
This week, you are required to write an essay on the following topics:
Managed care hospital reimbursement
Managed care provider reimbursement
Using South University Online library (e.g. CINAHL) or the Internet, review at least two articles for each topic and write a review for each source of information. Use the following guidelines for developing your essay:
Write a summary for each topic tying together the information learned about that topic.
Analyze the market forces that would favor using one reimbursement method over another.
Evaluate the key differences between different types of payment methodologies from the provider and hospital point of view.
Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the payment methodologies reviewed from the provider and hospital point of view.
Evaluate new payment methodologies resulting from the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) and discuss future changes in reimbursement methodologies.
Compare and contrast each article to the information discussed in the course textbook.
Based on your understanding, create a 3- to 4-page Microsoft Word document that includes the answers to the questions for the above topics.
Support your responses with examples.
Cite any sources in APA format.
Submission Details
Name your document SU_HSC3020_W4_A2_LastName_FirstInitial.doc.
Submit your document to the
W4 Assignment 2 Dropbox
by
Tuesday, January 14, 2014
.
.
Assignment 2 Discussion—The Impact of CommunicationRemember a tim.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discussion—The Impact of Communication
Remember a time when you did not have a cell phone? Do you remember the days before texting? This handy pocket technology has revolutionized how we stay connected and how we access and use information today. The growth of our technological society is directly related to the rate at which information can be exchanged. In general, this exchange of information is called communication.
Respond to the following:
Explain the scientific and technical concepts related to communication.
Which types of electromagnetic radiation are typically involved in the process of communication?
How is information transmitted?
What are the main differences between wired and wireless communications?
Describe your perspective on communication technology such as wireless communication, the Internet, and smart phone technology.
Provide at least three examples of communication technology you use in your daily life. Examine the underlying scientific concepts used in this technology.
Consider the developments that have led to the United States’ current infrastructure and make a prediction of the future of communication in society.
Support your statements with examples. Provide a minimum of two scholarly references.
Write your initial response in 3–4 paragraphs. Apply APA standards to citation of sources.
By
Sunday, August 31, 2014
, post your response to the appropriate
Discussion Area
. Through
Wednesday, September 3, 2014
, review and comment on at least two peers’ responses.
.
Assignment 2 Discussion—Technology and GlobalizationYour Module.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discussion—Technology and Globalization
Your
Module 1
readings provide insight into the impact of technology on global business. Technological innovations such as the Internet, wireless technology, broadband, tablets, personal digital assistants (PDAs), global positional systems (GPSs), social media, videoconferencing, and others have changed the way we do global business.
Use your module readings, the Argosy University online library resources, and the Internet to research the impact of technology on global business.
Then, respond to the following:
Describe how changes in technology contributed to the globalization of markets.
Explain how the Internet affects international business activity and the globalization of the world economy.
Write your initial response in 300–500 words. Your response should be thorough and address all components of the discussion question in detail, include citations of all sources, where needed, according to the APA Style, and demonstrate accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation
Do the following when responding to your peers:
Read your peers’ answers.
Provide substantive comments by
contributing new, relevant information from course readings, Web sites, or other sources;
building on the remarks or questions of others; or
sharing practical examples of key concepts from your professional or personal experiences
Respond to feedback on your posting and provide feedback to other students on their ideas.
Make sure your writing
is clear, concise, and organized;
demonstrates ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; and
displays accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
Grading Criteria
Assignment Components
Max Points
Initial response was:
Insightful, original, accurate, and timely.
Substantive and demonstrated advanced understanding of concepts.
Compiled/synthesized theories and concepts drawn from a variety of sources to support statements and conclusions.
16
Discussion Response and Participation:
Responded to a minimum of two peers in a timely manner.
Offered points of view supported by research.
Asked challenging questions that promoted discussion.
Drew relationships between one or more points in the discussion.
16
Writing:
Wrote in a clear, concise, formal, and organized manner.
Responses were error free.
Information from sources, where applicable, was paraphrased appropriately and accurately cited.
8
Total:
40
.
Assignment 2 Discussion—Providing GuidanceThe Genesis team has re.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discussion—Providing Guidance
The Genesis team has reviewed the guidelines and models that can be used to assist in determining the appropriate mix of debt and equity financing. However, they are yet undecided and request additional literature that would help them make an informed decision.
Research module readings, Argosy University online library resources, and the Internet to identify tools, resources, and readings to help educate the Genesis operations management team.
Address the following:
How will these resources help them and further support the recommendations or guidelines you are creating on their behalf?
Write your initial response in 3–4 paragraphs. Apply APA standards to citation of sources.
.
Assignment 2 Discussion—Munger’s Mental ModelsIn his article A L.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discussion—Munger’s Mental Models
In his article “A Lesson on Elementary, Worldly Wisdom as it Relates to Investment Management & Business,” Charles Munger (1995) wrote about tools, techniques, and critical skills that great managers need to develop.
Consider Munger’s thoughts on the importance of mental models. Respond to the following:
In your own words, describe what Munger means by mental models.
Examine how Munger’s concept of mental models has changed your ideas of decision making in investment management and business.
Describe at least one example from your own experience where your perspective or experience provided a mode of thought that brought new light to a discussion or a tough decision.
Explain how this experience has affected your decision-making process.
Write your initial response in approximately 300–500 words. Apply APA standards to citation of sources.
By
Saturday, January 4, 2014
, post your response to the appropriate
Discussion Area
. Through
Monday, January 6, 2014
, review and comment on at least two peers’ responses. Consider the following in your comments:
Examine the discussed mental models and how they changed a decision or direction.
Provide suggestions for ways to influence situations with new mental models.
Munger, C. T. (1995). A lesson on elementary, worldly wisdom as it relates to investment management & business.
Outstanding Investor Digest, 1,
49–63.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Initial response:
Was insightful, original, accurate, and timely.
Was substantive and demonstrated advanced understanding of concepts.
Compiled/synthesized theories and concepts drawn from a variety of sources to support statements and conclusions.
16
Discussion response and participation:
Responded to a minimum of two peers in a timely manner.
Offered points of view supported by research.
Asked challenging questions that promoted the discussion.
Drew relationships between one or more points in the discussion.
16
Writing:
Wrote in a clear, concise, formal, and organized manner.
Responses were error free.
Information from sources, where applicable, was paraphrased appropriately and accurately cited.
8
Total:
40
.
Assignment 2 DiscussionDuring the first year or two of its exis.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discussion
During the first year or two of its existence, what reasons are there for a small-town nursing home to engage in any sort of strategic planning? This is a time when the venture’s resources are stretched to the limit and all its attention is focused on reaching bed capacity with admitting new residents. Are there any disadvantages for the organization if it fails to think about long-term strategy? Explain why.
By
Saturday, January 4, 2014
, respond to the assigned discussion question, and submit your response to the
Discussion Area
. Use the same
Discussion Area
to comment on your classmates' submissions and continue the discussion until
Wednesday, January 8, 2014
.
Comment on how your classmates would address differing views.
.
Assignment 2 Discussion QuestionWorking in teams leads to complex.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discussion Question
Working in teams leads to complex interpersonal problems. Do you think working in teams is worth the effort to manage through work place problems and find viable solutions? Are there effective alternatives to team work? Explain your opinion.
By
Sunday, July 27, 2014,
respond to the discussion question above. Submit your responses to the appropriate
Discussion Area
. Use the same
Discussion Area
to comment on your classmates' submissions and continue the discussion until
Wednesday, July 30, 2014.
Comment on how your classmates would address differing views.
.
Assignment 2: Discussion Question
Strong corporate cultures have a powerful effect on employee behavior.
Discuss how this creates inadvertent control mechanisms.
For example, are strong cultures an ethical way to control behavior?
Provide examples to support your views.
.
Assignment 2 Discussion - Global ManagementThis assignment is des.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discussion - Global Management
This assignment is designed to integrate the reflection of personal experience and the information covered in the textbook.
A
ssuming
you are
Ludmilla
responding to a recent email from Juanita, answer the following questions:
Besides cultural differences, what other factors might affect human resource management with this international office?
What abilities will help Juanita succeed and potentially fail in this assignment as an expatriate?
What has been the reason for the high failure rate of expatirate managers in Uzbekistan? What can Ludmilla do to increase the success of expats?
Since Uzbekistan has been significantly influenced by Russia for over 70 years, from Hofstede’s perspective, what impact has culture had on appraisal systems, self- managing teams, and systems for gathering suggestions from workers?
By
Sunday, April 13, 2014
submit your response to the appropriate
Discussion Area
. Use the same
Discussion Area
to comment on your classmates' submissions and continue the discussion until
Wednesday, April 16, 2014.
Comment on how your classmates would address differing views.
.
Assignment 2 Discrimination in EmploymentThere are numerous ways .docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discrimination in Employment
There are numerous ways discrimination can occur in the workplace. Choose one type of discrimination covered by the US EEOC as listed below:
Age
Disability
Genetic information
National origin
Pregnancy
Race and color
Religion
Sex
Tasks:
Address the following in a 3–5-page paper:
Explain the type of discrimination you selected, including relevant laws. Discuss the implications and consequences of a violation.
Cite at least two court cases that involve this type of discrimination in employment. Analyze the cases to determine whether and where illegal behavior occurred.
Discuss ways employers can prevent or reduce the risk of this type of discrimination in the workplace.
Discuss the law in the current and future employment context. Many laws covering discrimination are decades old. Are these laws still applicable? Do they still accomplish what they are intended to do? What modifications may be necessary or appropriate in the future?
Include reference to the original text of the law, court cases, and other scholarly resources in the APA format.
Submission Details:
Wednesday, October 16, 2013
, submit it
.
Assignment 2 Differences in CareWrite a 2-3 page paper whic.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Differences in Care
Write a 2-3 page paper which incorporates examples of primary, secondary, and tertiary care. Include in the paper an example of a patient who would receive services at the different types of institutions. Include a brief synopsis of which types of insurance might be accepted at the different types of institutions. Justify your response and conclusions by utilizing at least 2 outside sources.
Present your paper in a Microsoft Word document which follows APA format. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M2_A2.doc. For example, if your name is John Smith, your document will be named SmithJ_M2_A2.doc.
Submit the 2-3 page paper to the
M2: Assignment 2 Dropbox
by
Wednesday, August 7, 2013
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Provided examples of primary, secondary, and tertiary care.
30
Illustrated an example of how a patient would receive services at each of the three different types of institutions.
30
Included a brief synopsis of which types of insurance might be accepted at the different types of institutions.
30
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of at least two sources; displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
10
Total:
100
.
Assignment 2 Cultural Sensitivity Paper-InternationalGlobal Pe.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Cultural Sensitivity Paper-International/Global Perspective
(Total: 100 Points) – Competency 2: (P.B. 2.1, 2.2. & 2.3); Competency 4 (P.B. 4.1, 4.2, 4.3); Competency 5 (P.B. 5.3) – Due Date: September 14, 2020
A major value in social work is the respect and dignity of people of all cultures and races. Social workers understand how diversity and cultural values characterize and shape the human life experiences, and how they may oppress, marginalize, alienate, or create or enhance privilege and power. Cultural sensitivity is an important aspect of understanding, accepting, and appreciating differences in all people and aware of personal biases and values when working width diverse groups. Therefore, the challenge starts with the “self.” It is not necessary to know your exact family tree to be able to explore your “ethnicity.” If you know nothing, you can start looking for clues such as your racial makeup, the names in your family (English, German, etc.), or where you and other family members grew up. Then look at some of your customs, what your religion is, and think of some stories you may have heard as a child. Chances are you will be on the trail of discovering who you are. Even if you are not sure about your background, you can most likely identify with one group more than others. There is no minimum length of the paper, but the paper must be properly written and all the following items must be addressed:
A.
Exploration of your own cultural background:
1. What do you believe is your cultural background? With what ethnic group do you most identify? African American 2. Describe anything distinguishing about your culture that sets it apart from others, such as a common religion, a common geographic region, a separate language, etc.?
3. For the ethnic group you select, describe their customary behaviors and attitudes regarding each of the following: I am African American.
a. The role of each family member.... (i.e., how do they relate to each other? Mother and Father are both at home. Who makes the decisions? My father makes the decisions Who cooks? My mother and father both cooks. Who works outside home? both my parents work outside the home. Who has the most power?). My father has the most power.
b. Selection of a life-long partner (For you and/or for your parents when they were growing up.) Is marriage important? marriage is very important as both my parents are religious (missionary baptist) we attended church all of our lives.
c. Earning a living what does "success” mean in your culture? success is very important and getting a college degree is very important in our family. Does your family or culture consider some occupations better than others. no, just having a job is good.
d. Methods of communications: Is it okay to express affection? yes. Anger? yes. Other emotions? yes. Can everyone speak out or must they “hold their tongue? yes.
4. What are your earliest memories of meeting people wi.
Assignment 2 Cross-cultural CommunicationDo the following for thi.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Cross-cultural Communication
Do the following for this assignment:
Research a minimum of four peer-reviewed articles and business magazines for cases demonstrating pitfalls in cross-cultural communication using technology.
Identify one specific case.
Develop recommendations to avoid such communication problems. Support your recommendations with specific, current research related to cross-cultural communication and technology.
Summarize the findings in a 2–3-page report. Apply APA standards to citation of sources.
Make sure you write in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrate ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; and display accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Use the APA format.
Grading Criteria
Proficient
Maximum Points
Summarize a case demonstrating pitfalls in cross-cultural communication using modern technology.
Appropriately identified provided a summary of a case that demonstrates pitfalls in cross-cultural communication.
16
Develop recommendations to avoid such communication problems. Support your recommendations with specific, current research related to cross-cultural communication and technology.
Applied knowledge from scholarly research to provide detailed suggestions for avoiding pitfalls in cross-cultural communications and technology.
32
Writing Standards
Write in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrate ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources (i.e. APA); and display accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; and displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
12
Total:
60
.
Assignment 2 Crime PreventionThe property crime rate in Centerval.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Crime Prevention
The property crime rate in Centervale has increased by 50% in the past five years. The citizens have been complaining about the rise in property crimes and nothing being done about it. The Centerville City Council approves a new position of Crime Analyst for the Centerville Police Department.
Your application is accepted, and your interview date and time are set. You have been asked to prepare a written document containing a crime prevention strategy that you feel would make a big difference in the city’s crime rate.
Task:
Use the textbook readings, the Argosy University online library, and any other outside sources to prepare a 2–3-page report. In your report:
Explain a proactive crime prevention strategy that will most likely substantially decrease victimization in Centerville for all types of crimes, specifically property crimes.
Analyze and explain the victimology theory from your prior readings that best fits your strategy and explain how. Also, include which crime victim theory best fits crimes on campus.
Explain how the crime rate is determined and define the
dark figure of crime
.
Include an APA-formatted reference page that links back to your in-text citations and supports your recommendations. Remember, you cannot have only in-text citations or only references. You must have both because in-text citations and references link to each other.
Submission Details:
Save the report as M4_A2_Lastname_Firstname.doc.
By
Wednesday, June 4, 2014
, submit your report to the
M4: Assignment 2 Dropbox
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Analyzed and explained a proactive crime prevention strategy that will likely decrease victimization in Centerville substantially.
28
Analyzed and justified the victimology theory that best fits your strategy and explained how.
32
Explained how the crime rate is determined and what the dark figure of crime is.
20
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in the accurate representation and attribution of sources; and used accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
.
Assignment 2 Crime Control vs. Due ProcessFor man.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Crime Control vs. Due Process
For many years, New York City suffered from very high rates of both violent and property crime. In 2001, the September 11 attack brought down the World Trade Center towers. Since then, there have been several attempted acts of terrorism as well.
In response to these difficult challenges, the New York Police Department (NYPD) implemented several new procedures, including:
Stop and frisk
"Mosque crawling" (undercover surveillance of city mosques)
Prepare a report in Microsoft Word that addresses the following points:
Describe the two programs listed above.
Analyze whether these programs have been effective. To do this, you will need to locate crime statistics for New York City and determine whether crime and terrorism have increased or decreased.
Discuss how these programs relate to the issue of crime control versus due process.
Explain how the presence of crime or the potential for terrorism might impact New York economically.
Recently, the stop-and-frisk program has been suspended by a federal judge. Do you agree with this decision? Explain your reasoning
.
Assignment 2 CriminologyThe discipline of criminology requires a .docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Criminology
The discipline of criminology requires a detailed study of crime and criminals. Criminologists seek to answer the "why" question. Why would someone do something so horrible? Criminological theories try to answer this question. As you attempt to answer the "why" question, you will consider theory development.
Are the reasons someone commits a burglary the same as the reasons someone commits murder? In this assignment, you will explore various categories of crime. Ask yourself what it takes to study that particular behavior, describe those variables, and explain how you will measure the variables
.
Assignment 2 Ethical BehaviorIdentify a case in the news that y.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Ethical Behavior
Identify a case in the news that you feel displays unethical police behaviors. In a 3-page written research informative paper, answer the following questions in detail with support from research and examples. Your paper should be written in APA format and style, include a title and reference page, and include at least 2 resources, one of which can be your textbook.
Identify the case and describe when and where it occurred. Be sure to summarize the case thoroughly.
Identify at least 2 unethical behaviors from the case and explain why they are unethical.
Explain whether any of the behaviors violate any criminal laws.
Explain whether any behaviors violate the Constitutional rights of the defendant.
.
Assignment 2 Ethical (Moral) RelativismIn America, many are comfo.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Ethical (Moral) Relativism
In America, many are comfortable describing ethics as follows: “Well, what’s right for me is right for me and what’s right for you is right for you. Let’s just agree to disagree.” This is an affirmation of what philosophers call
individual
or
subjective moral relativism
. In this understanding of relativism, morality is a matter of individual feelings and personal preference. In individual moral relativism, the determination of what is right and wrong in a situation varies according to the individual. Moral relativists do not believe in natural law or universal truths.
Cultural moral relativism
puts culture at the forefront of relative ethical decision-making. It says the individual must include the precepts of his or her culture as a prominent part of the relativistic moral action.
Lawrence
Kohlberg,
a prominent psychologist known for recognizing moral stages of development, takes it a step farther saying cultural relativists are persons stuck in the “
Conventional
Stage” of ethical development
.
In your paper, please define individual moral relativism and cultural moral relativism in detail, noting how they differ from each other, their strengths and weaknesses, and give your position on Kohlberg’s stance on ethical relativism.
What aspects of ethical relativism do you identify and agree with? What aspects do you disagree with? Give a personal example that illustrates your stance on ethical relativism, describing how you made a moral decision in an ethical dilemma. Include at least two references to support your thoughts.
Post a 500-word paper to the
M4: Assignment 2 Dropbox
by due
Wednesday, July 9, 2014
. All written assignments and responses should follow proper citation rules for attributing sources. Please use Microsoft Word spelling/grammar checker. Be mindful of plagiarism policies.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Significant critical analysis of individual ethical relativism, cultural ethical relativism, and Kohlberg’s position; including definitions, strengths, and weaknesses.
36
Described personal ethical stances on each form of relativism in relation to own personal ethical system, including whether and how personal ethical system is compatible or incompatible with relativism.
24
Used a personal example to illustrate and support stance on ethical relativism in relation to own ethical system.
16
Justified ideas and responses by using appropriate scholarly examples and at least two references from texts, Web sites, and other references.
4
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
100
.
Assignment 2 Essay Power in Swift and Moliere Both Moliere and S.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Essay: Power in Swift and Moliere
Both Moliere and Swift use humor to provide an analysis of serious social problems. In doing so, they both describe various types and uses of power, from the governmental power that restores Orgon’s property and the English laws that do not take into account the conditions of the Irish, to the power that a landlord holds over a renter or a father over a family, to the exercise of religion and wealth within a community, to the wishes and desires of the young, and more.
Your task is to identify at least two types of power in our readings for this module. You may use either
Tartuffe
or
A Modest Proposal
, or a mix of both. Once you have found two types of power, determine who you think has the power and how that power is exercised. Where is each power abused? What checks or limits are placed on each type of power? Be sure to cite examples from your readings to support your claims.
Submit your assignment to the
M4: Assignment 2 Dropbox
by
Wednesday, August 13, 2014
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Identified two uses of power in this module’s readings.
24
Described who has each type of power and how their power is exercised (citing examples in the text).
28
Identified at least one example of how each power is misused and any limitations on the power that is being misused.
28
Justified ideas and responses by using appropriate examples and references from texts, Web sites, and other references or personal experience. Followed APA rules for attributing sources.
20
Total:
100
.
Assignment 2 E taxonomy· Information TechnologyInformatio.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2 E taxonomy
· Information Technology:
Information Technology is an important and intelligent field of study, which is a broad field that is all about computing technology, information, and "people" especially in issues that are related to the users and meeting their needs of technology. In general, information technology is applying, managing, and supporting the technology used in solving problems. In addition, information technology is a study that mainly focuses on solving problems by using technology and computing. Information technology focuses on how to satisfy users by presenting new uses of technologies.
· A “taxonomy” of information technology:
I. People: people provide intelligence of the systems and use technology to solve their problems, by getting the benefits of technology, which are efficiency and productivity.
1. Users:
· Definition: People who use technology in their work or anything else in their life.
· Examples: engineers, students, and some medical specialties…etc.
2. Programmer:
· Definition: People who program computer software, by giving the computer systems instructions to perform a given action.
· Examples: PHP, Java, HTML, or SQL programmers.
3. IT professionals:
· Definition: IT professionals define as applying, managing, and supporting the technology used in solving problems.
· Concerned about: Implementation, configuration, and maintenance.
· Goal: Solving problems by processing data into information.
· IT professionals should provide:
· Productivity.
· Efficiency.
· Origin of IT professionals:
a) Meaning of anything is linked to its origin.
b) The main reason is people created a tool to solve a problem.
1. Calculation:
· William Schickard:
· 17th century.
· In Germany.
· Conceived a design of a mechanical calculator.
· Blaise Pascal:
· 1640s.
· In France.
· Built his machine to help his father in calculation.
2. Automatic Execution:
· Jacquard:
· 1810s.
· In France.
· A mechanical loom.
3. Automatic Logic:
· George Boole:
· In 1850s.
· In Ireland.
· Envisioned the Laws of Thought
· Boolean algebra (AND, OR, XOR, NOT)
a) AND (0 0=0, 0 1=0, 1 0=0, 1 1=1)
b) OR (0 0=0, 0 1=1, 1 0=1, 1 1=1)
c) XOR (0 0=0, 0 1 =1, 1 0=1, 1 1= 1)
d) NOT (0=1, 1=1)
4. General purpose:
· Charles Babages (grandfather of computer age):
· 18th century.
· In England.
· Designed the Difference Engine.
· Augusta Ada (one of the first programmers):
· 18th century.
· In England.
· Interpreter of Babbage's works.
· What should IT professionals know?
1. People and ethics.
· It’s related to understanding other people.
· Behave in ethical ways.
2. Users needs.
· What do you need to solve users problems?
· Users centric design.
3. Problems solving.
· Improve that by doing it (practice).
· Problem solving steps:
a) Understand the problem.
b) Planning the solutions.
c) Create algorithms.
d) Test the algorithms.
· Develop knowledge to get some expertise.
· Practice to gain experience.
4. How to use tools.
· Use technologi.
Assignment 2 Dropbox AssignmentCurrent Trends and Issues in Manag.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Dropbox Assignment
Current Trends and Issues in Managed Care
Compensation and reimbursement models are another method of controlling access, cost, and quality in a managed care environment. An MCO doesn't have direct control over physicians or hospitals but through contractual agreements that set incentives for meeting agreed-upon standards, it can exert influence.
This week, you are required to write an essay on the following topics:
Managed care hospital reimbursement
Managed care provider reimbursement
Using South University Online library (e.g. CINAHL) or the Internet, review at least two articles for each topic and write a review for each source of information. Use the following guidelines for developing your essay:
Write a summary for each topic tying together the information learned about that topic.
Analyze the market forces that would favor using one reimbursement method over another.
Evaluate the key differences between different types of payment methodologies from the provider and hospital point of view.
Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the payment methodologies reviewed from the provider and hospital point of view.
Evaluate new payment methodologies resulting from the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) and discuss future changes in reimbursement methodologies.
Compare and contrast each article to the information discussed in the course textbook.
Based on your understanding, create a 3- to 4-page Microsoft Word document that includes the answers to the questions for the above topics.
Support your responses with examples.
Cite any sources in APA format.
Submission Details
Name your document SU_HSC3020_W4_A2_LastName_FirstInitial.doc.
Submit your document to the
W4 Assignment 2 Dropbox
by
Tuesday, January 14, 2014
.
.
Assignment 2 Discussion—The Impact of CommunicationRemember a tim.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discussion—The Impact of Communication
Remember a time when you did not have a cell phone? Do you remember the days before texting? This handy pocket technology has revolutionized how we stay connected and how we access and use information today. The growth of our technological society is directly related to the rate at which information can be exchanged. In general, this exchange of information is called communication.
Respond to the following:
Explain the scientific and technical concepts related to communication.
Which types of electromagnetic radiation are typically involved in the process of communication?
How is information transmitted?
What are the main differences between wired and wireless communications?
Describe your perspective on communication technology such as wireless communication, the Internet, and smart phone technology.
Provide at least three examples of communication technology you use in your daily life. Examine the underlying scientific concepts used in this technology.
Consider the developments that have led to the United States’ current infrastructure and make a prediction of the future of communication in society.
Support your statements with examples. Provide a minimum of two scholarly references.
Write your initial response in 3–4 paragraphs. Apply APA standards to citation of sources.
By
Sunday, August 31, 2014
, post your response to the appropriate
Discussion Area
. Through
Wednesday, September 3, 2014
, review and comment on at least two peers’ responses.
.
Assignment 2 Discussion—Technology and GlobalizationYour Module.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discussion—Technology and Globalization
Your
Module 1
readings provide insight into the impact of technology on global business. Technological innovations such as the Internet, wireless technology, broadband, tablets, personal digital assistants (PDAs), global positional systems (GPSs), social media, videoconferencing, and others have changed the way we do global business.
Use your module readings, the Argosy University online library resources, and the Internet to research the impact of technology on global business.
Then, respond to the following:
Describe how changes in technology contributed to the globalization of markets.
Explain how the Internet affects international business activity and the globalization of the world economy.
Write your initial response in 300–500 words. Your response should be thorough and address all components of the discussion question in detail, include citations of all sources, where needed, according to the APA Style, and demonstrate accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation
Do the following when responding to your peers:
Read your peers’ answers.
Provide substantive comments by
contributing new, relevant information from course readings, Web sites, or other sources;
building on the remarks or questions of others; or
sharing practical examples of key concepts from your professional or personal experiences
Respond to feedback on your posting and provide feedback to other students on their ideas.
Make sure your writing
is clear, concise, and organized;
demonstrates ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; and
displays accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
Grading Criteria
Assignment Components
Max Points
Initial response was:
Insightful, original, accurate, and timely.
Substantive and demonstrated advanced understanding of concepts.
Compiled/synthesized theories and concepts drawn from a variety of sources to support statements and conclusions.
16
Discussion Response and Participation:
Responded to a minimum of two peers in a timely manner.
Offered points of view supported by research.
Asked challenging questions that promoted discussion.
Drew relationships between one or more points in the discussion.
16
Writing:
Wrote in a clear, concise, formal, and organized manner.
Responses were error free.
Information from sources, where applicable, was paraphrased appropriately and accurately cited.
8
Total:
40
.
Assignment 2 Discussion—Providing GuidanceThe Genesis team has re.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discussion—Providing Guidance
The Genesis team has reviewed the guidelines and models that can be used to assist in determining the appropriate mix of debt and equity financing. However, they are yet undecided and request additional literature that would help them make an informed decision.
Research module readings, Argosy University online library resources, and the Internet to identify tools, resources, and readings to help educate the Genesis operations management team.
Address the following:
How will these resources help them and further support the recommendations or guidelines you are creating on their behalf?
Write your initial response in 3–4 paragraphs. Apply APA standards to citation of sources.
.
Assignment 2 Discussion—Munger’s Mental ModelsIn his article A L.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discussion—Munger’s Mental Models
In his article “A Lesson on Elementary, Worldly Wisdom as it Relates to Investment Management & Business,” Charles Munger (1995) wrote about tools, techniques, and critical skills that great managers need to develop.
Consider Munger’s thoughts on the importance of mental models. Respond to the following:
In your own words, describe what Munger means by mental models.
Examine how Munger’s concept of mental models has changed your ideas of decision making in investment management and business.
Describe at least one example from your own experience where your perspective or experience provided a mode of thought that brought new light to a discussion or a tough decision.
Explain how this experience has affected your decision-making process.
Write your initial response in approximately 300–500 words. Apply APA standards to citation of sources.
By
Saturday, January 4, 2014
, post your response to the appropriate
Discussion Area
. Through
Monday, January 6, 2014
, review and comment on at least two peers’ responses. Consider the following in your comments:
Examine the discussed mental models and how they changed a decision or direction.
Provide suggestions for ways to influence situations with new mental models.
Munger, C. T. (1995). A lesson on elementary, worldly wisdom as it relates to investment management & business.
Outstanding Investor Digest, 1,
49–63.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Initial response:
Was insightful, original, accurate, and timely.
Was substantive and demonstrated advanced understanding of concepts.
Compiled/synthesized theories and concepts drawn from a variety of sources to support statements and conclusions.
16
Discussion response and participation:
Responded to a minimum of two peers in a timely manner.
Offered points of view supported by research.
Asked challenging questions that promoted the discussion.
Drew relationships between one or more points in the discussion.
16
Writing:
Wrote in a clear, concise, formal, and organized manner.
Responses were error free.
Information from sources, where applicable, was paraphrased appropriately and accurately cited.
8
Total:
40
.
Assignment 2 DiscussionDuring the first year or two of its exis.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discussion
During the first year or two of its existence, what reasons are there for a small-town nursing home to engage in any sort of strategic planning? This is a time when the venture’s resources are stretched to the limit and all its attention is focused on reaching bed capacity with admitting new residents. Are there any disadvantages for the organization if it fails to think about long-term strategy? Explain why.
By
Saturday, January 4, 2014
, respond to the assigned discussion question, and submit your response to the
Discussion Area
. Use the same
Discussion Area
to comment on your classmates' submissions and continue the discussion until
Wednesday, January 8, 2014
.
Comment on how your classmates would address differing views.
.
Assignment 2 Discussion QuestionWorking in teams leads to complex.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discussion Question
Working in teams leads to complex interpersonal problems. Do you think working in teams is worth the effort to manage through work place problems and find viable solutions? Are there effective alternatives to team work? Explain your opinion.
By
Sunday, July 27, 2014,
respond to the discussion question above. Submit your responses to the appropriate
Discussion Area
. Use the same
Discussion Area
to comment on your classmates' submissions and continue the discussion until
Wednesday, July 30, 2014.
Comment on how your classmates would address differing views.
.
Assignment 2: Discussion Question
Strong corporate cultures have a powerful effect on employee behavior.
Discuss how this creates inadvertent control mechanisms.
For example, are strong cultures an ethical way to control behavior?
Provide examples to support your views.
.
Assignment 2 Discussion - Global ManagementThis assignment is des.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discussion - Global Management
This assignment is designed to integrate the reflection of personal experience and the information covered in the textbook.
A
ssuming
you are
Ludmilla
responding to a recent email from Juanita, answer the following questions:
Besides cultural differences, what other factors might affect human resource management with this international office?
What abilities will help Juanita succeed and potentially fail in this assignment as an expatriate?
What has been the reason for the high failure rate of expatirate managers in Uzbekistan? What can Ludmilla do to increase the success of expats?
Since Uzbekistan has been significantly influenced by Russia for over 70 years, from Hofstede’s perspective, what impact has culture had on appraisal systems, self- managing teams, and systems for gathering suggestions from workers?
By
Sunday, April 13, 2014
submit your response to the appropriate
Discussion Area
. Use the same
Discussion Area
to comment on your classmates' submissions and continue the discussion until
Wednesday, April 16, 2014.
Comment on how your classmates would address differing views.
.
Assignment 2 Discrimination in EmploymentThere are numerous ways .docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Discrimination in Employment
There are numerous ways discrimination can occur in the workplace. Choose one type of discrimination covered by the US EEOC as listed below:
Age
Disability
Genetic information
National origin
Pregnancy
Race and color
Religion
Sex
Tasks:
Address the following in a 3–5-page paper:
Explain the type of discrimination you selected, including relevant laws. Discuss the implications and consequences of a violation.
Cite at least two court cases that involve this type of discrimination in employment. Analyze the cases to determine whether and where illegal behavior occurred.
Discuss ways employers can prevent or reduce the risk of this type of discrimination in the workplace.
Discuss the law in the current and future employment context. Many laws covering discrimination are decades old. Are these laws still applicable? Do they still accomplish what they are intended to do? What modifications may be necessary or appropriate in the future?
Include reference to the original text of the law, court cases, and other scholarly resources in the APA format.
Submission Details:
Wednesday, October 16, 2013
, submit it
.
Assignment 2 Differences in CareWrite a 2-3 page paper whic.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Differences in Care
Write a 2-3 page paper which incorporates examples of primary, secondary, and tertiary care. Include in the paper an example of a patient who would receive services at the different types of institutions. Include a brief synopsis of which types of insurance might be accepted at the different types of institutions. Justify your response and conclusions by utilizing at least 2 outside sources.
Present your paper in a Microsoft Word document which follows APA format. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M2_A2.doc. For example, if your name is John Smith, your document will be named SmithJ_M2_A2.doc.
Submit the 2-3 page paper to the
M2: Assignment 2 Dropbox
by
Wednesday, August 7, 2013
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Provided examples of primary, secondary, and tertiary care.
30
Illustrated an example of how a patient would receive services at each of the three different types of institutions.
30
Included a brief synopsis of which types of insurance might be accepted at the different types of institutions.
30
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of at least two sources; displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
10
Total:
100
.
Assignment 2 Cultural Sensitivity Paper-InternationalGlobal Pe.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Cultural Sensitivity Paper-International/Global Perspective
(Total: 100 Points) – Competency 2: (P.B. 2.1, 2.2. & 2.3); Competency 4 (P.B. 4.1, 4.2, 4.3); Competency 5 (P.B. 5.3) – Due Date: September 14, 2020
A major value in social work is the respect and dignity of people of all cultures and races. Social workers understand how diversity and cultural values characterize and shape the human life experiences, and how they may oppress, marginalize, alienate, or create or enhance privilege and power. Cultural sensitivity is an important aspect of understanding, accepting, and appreciating differences in all people and aware of personal biases and values when working width diverse groups. Therefore, the challenge starts with the “self.” It is not necessary to know your exact family tree to be able to explore your “ethnicity.” If you know nothing, you can start looking for clues such as your racial makeup, the names in your family (English, German, etc.), or where you and other family members grew up. Then look at some of your customs, what your religion is, and think of some stories you may have heard as a child. Chances are you will be on the trail of discovering who you are. Even if you are not sure about your background, you can most likely identify with one group more than others. There is no minimum length of the paper, but the paper must be properly written and all the following items must be addressed:
A.
Exploration of your own cultural background:
1. What do you believe is your cultural background? With what ethnic group do you most identify? African American 2. Describe anything distinguishing about your culture that sets it apart from others, such as a common religion, a common geographic region, a separate language, etc.?
3. For the ethnic group you select, describe their customary behaviors and attitudes regarding each of the following: I am African American.
a. The role of each family member.... (i.e., how do they relate to each other? Mother and Father are both at home. Who makes the decisions? My father makes the decisions Who cooks? My mother and father both cooks. Who works outside home? both my parents work outside the home. Who has the most power?). My father has the most power.
b. Selection of a life-long partner (For you and/or for your parents when they were growing up.) Is marriage important? marriage is very important as both my parents are religious (missionary baptist) we attended church all of our lives.
c. Earning a living what does "success” mean in your culture? success is very important and getting a college degree is very important in our family. Does your family or culture consider some occupations better than others. no, just having a job is good.
d. Methods of communications: Is it okay to express affection? yes. Anger? yes. Other emotions? yes. Can everyone speak out or must they “hold their tongue? yes.
4. What are your earliest memories of meeting people wi.
Assignment 2 Cross-cultural CommunicationDo the following for thi.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Cross-cultural Communication
Do the following for this assignment:
Research a minimum of four peer-reviewed articles and business magazines for cases demonstrating pitfalls in cross-cultural communication using technology.
Identify one specific case.
Develop recommendations to avoid such communication problems. Support your recommendations with specific, current research related to cross-cultural communication and technology.
Summarize the findings in a 2–3-page report. Apply APA standards to citation of sources.
Make sure you write in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrate ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; and display accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Use the APA format.
Grading Criteria
Proficient
Maximum Points
Summarize a case demonstrating pitfalls in cross-cultural communication using modern technology.
Appropriately identified provided a summary of a case that demonstrates pitfalls in cross-cultural communication.
16
Develop recommendations to avoid such communication problems. Support your recommendations with specific, current research related to cross-cultural communication and technology.
Applied knowledge from scholarly research to provide detailed suggestions for avoiding pitfalls in cross-cultural communications and technology.
32
Writing Standards
Write in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrate ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources (i.e. APA); and display accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; and displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
12
Total:
60
.
Assignment 2 Crime PreventionThe property crime rate in Centerval.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Crime Prevention
The property crime rate in Centervale has increased by 50% in the past five years. The citizens have been complaining about the rise in property crimes and nothing being done about it. The Centerville City Council approves a new position of Crime Analyst for the Centerville Police Department.
Your application is accepted, and your interview date and time are set. You have been asked to prepare a written document containing a crime prevention strategy that you feel would make a big difference in the city’s crime rate.
Task:
Use the textbook readings, the Argosy University online library, and any other outside sources to prepare a 2–3-page report. In your report:
Explain a proactive crime prevention strategy that will most likely substantially decrease victimization in Centerville for all types of crimes, specifically property crimes.
Analyze and explain the victimology theory from your prior readings that best fits your strategy and explain how. Also, include which crime victim theory best fits crimes on campus.
Explain how the crime rate is determined and define the
dark figure of crime
.
Include an APA-formatted reference page that links back to your in-text citations and supports your recommendations. Remember, you cannot have only in-text citations or only references. You must have both because in-text citations and references link to each other.
Submission Details:
Save the report as M4_A2_Lastname_Firstname.doc.
By
Wednesday, June 4, 2014
, submit your report to the
M4: Assignment 2 Dropbox
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Analyzed and explained a proactive crime prevention strategy that will likely decrease victimization in Centerville substantially.
28
Analyzed and justified the victimology theory that best fits your strategy and explained how.
32
Explained how the crime rate is determined and what the dark figure of crime is.
20
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in the accurate representation and attribution of sources; and used accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
.
Assignment 2 Crime Control vs. Due ProcessFor man.docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Crime Control vs. Due Process
For many years, New York City suffered from very high rates of both violent and property crime. In 2001, the September 11 attack brought down the World Trade Center towers. Since then, there have been several attempted acts of terrorism as well.
In response to these difficult challenges, the New York Police Department (NYPD) implemented several new procedures, including:
Stop and frisk
"Mosque crawling" (undercover surveillance of city mosques)
Prepare a report in Microsoft Word that addresses the following points:
Describe the two programs listed above.
Analyze whether these programs have been effective. To do this, you will need to locate crime statistics for New York City and determine whether crime and terrorism have increased or decreased.
Discuss how these programs relate to the issue of crime control versus due process.
Explain how the presence of crime or the potential for terrorism might impact New York economically.
Recently, the stop-and-frisk program has been suspended by a federal judge. Do you agree with this decision? Explain your reasoning
.
Assignment 2 CriminologyThe discipline of criminology requires a .docxbobbywlane695641
Assignment 2: Criminology
The discipline of criminology requires a detailed study of crime and criminals. Criminologists seek to answer the "why" question. Why would someone do something so horrible? Criminological theories try to answer this question. As you attempt to answer the "why" question, you will consider theory development.
Are the reasons someone commits a burglary the same as the reasons someone commits murder? In this assignment, you will explore various categories of crime. Ask yourself what it takes to study that particular behavior, describe those variables, and explain how you will measure the variables
.
How to Manage Reception Report in Odoo 17Celine George
A business may deal with both sales and purchases occasionally. They buy things from vendors and then sell them to their customers. Such dealings can be confusing at times. Because multiple clients may inquire about the same product at the same time, after purchasing those products, customers must be assigned to them. Odoo has a tool called Reception Report that can be used to complete this assignment. By enabling this, a reception report comes automatically after confirming a receipt, from which we can assign products to orders.
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
CapTechTalks Webinar Slides June 2024 Donovan Wright.pptxCapitolTechU
Slides from a Capitol Technology University webinar held June 20, 2024. The webinar featured Dr. Donovan Wright, presenting on the Department of Defense Digital Transformation.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
Conjecture Every card that has an even number on one side is .docx
1. Conjecture: Every card that has an even number on one side is
red
on the other side.
Which cards does one have to turn over to find out whether the
conjecture is true?
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 1
Every card has a colour on one side and a number on the other.
Is this a valid inference?
Premise: Every person at the party was a twentysomething.
Conclusion: Every person at the party who was wearing a jacket
was
a twentysomething.
Valid! Not valid!
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 2
13: Everything
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Tom Donaldson
2. Things to be getting on with
• Take it easy – relax after the midterm.
• There will be an assignment next week.
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 13 4
1: Beyond Statement
Logic
Beyond Statement Logic
• There are certain inferences which cannot be adequately
evaluated using the tools we’ve discussed so far.
• Let’s look at some examples.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 6
Tense Logic
Premise: Ashni will swim and Ben will swim, but Ashni won’t
swim while Ben swims.
Conclusion: Either Ashni will swim and then Ben will, or Ben
will
3. swim and then Ashni will.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 7
Deontic Logic
Premise: You may have coffee.
Premise: You may have tea.
Conclusion: You may have coffee and tea.
Premise: C
Premise: T
Conclusion: (C & T)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 8
The Logic of Quantification
Premise: Every dog is a mammal.
Premise: Fido is a dog.
Conclusion: Fido is a mammal.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 9
4. We’ll focus on the logic of quantification …
• Tense isn’t relevant in (pure) mathematics.
• Deontic notions (such as obligation and permission) are also
not
relevant.
• But “every” is everywhere in mathematics!
• Every natural number has a unique prime factorization.
• Every polynomial of degree three has a real root.
• Every polynomial is differentiable.
• The negation of an “every” statement is equivalent to a
“some”
statement.
• So we’ll focus on “every” and “some”.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 10
2: Introducing “Every”
Universal Generalizations
Universal generalizations in English often contain the word
“every”, or
“everything” or “everyone”, or “any”, or “all”:
• Every whale is a mammal.
• Everything is broken.
5. • All dogs are hairy.
But there are exceptions:
• Dogs have four legs.
• A bear is a mammal.
• Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 12
The Need for Symbols
Compare:
• A bear is a mammal.
• A bear goes through my trash can every night.
As we said earlier in the term, English is extremely
complicated, so
in logic we need to use artificial symbols instead.
We won’t introduce any new symbols today, however.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 13
Strict vs. Loose
• There are two sorts of universal generalization – strict and
6. loose.
• Strict: “Every single dog without exception is a mammal.”
• Loose: “Dogs have four legs.”
• A strict universal generalization can be refuted by just one
example, a “counterexample”.
• For example, if someone claims that all birds can fly, you can
prove him
wrong by showing him a single penguin.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 14
Strict vs. Loose
• There are two sorts of “every” statement – strict and loose.
• Strict: “Every single dog without exception is a mammal.”
• Loose: “Dogs have four legs.”
• A strict universal generalization can be refuted by just one
example, a “counterexample”.
• Loose universal generalizations are not so easily refuted.
• It is sometimes unclear whether a universal generalization is
strict
or loose. Consider: “Abortions are immoral.”
• When doing philosophy, it is a good idea often to ask, “Is that
strict
7. or loose?”
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 15
Domains of Quantification
• When one says “everything”, it is rare that one means to
consider
every single thing in the whole universe without restriction.
• Example: “Every beer bottle is empty!”
• Example: “Every number is either odd or even.”
• Typically, one means to consider only the things within a
certain
“domain of quantification”.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 16
Vacuous Generalizations
• The universal generalization “Every A is a B” is said to be
“vacuous” if there are no A’s. Consider:
• Every unicorn has a horn.
• Every witch wears a black hat.
• Logicians assume that all vacuous universal generalizations
are
true.
• This might seem a bit odd at first. (Think about “All the
8. kryptonite
in Vancouver is stored in my basement.”)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 17
Premise: Every person at the party was a twentysomething.
Conclusion: Every person at the party who was wearing a jacket
was
a twentysomething.
Premise: Every A is C.
Conclusion: Every A that is B is C.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 18
Existential Generalizations
Existential generalizations often contain “some” or “there is” or
“a”:
• A dog is barking in the garden.
• Some dog is barking in the garden.
• There is a dog barking the garden.
The negation of a universal generalization is equivalent to an
existential generalization:
9. • It is not true that everyone enjoyed the party.
• Someone didn’t enjoy the party.
The negation of an existential generalization is equivalent to a
universal generalization:
• It is not true that one of the men at the party was unmarried.
• All of the men at the party were married.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 19
3: Venn Diagrams
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 21
Famous people
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 22
Famous people
Denzel
Washington
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 23
10. Famous people
Denzel
Washington
Kim
Kardashian
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 24
Famous people
Denzel
Washington
Kim
Kardashian
Tom
Donaldson
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 25
Famous people
Denzel
Washington
Kim
Kardashian
People who
11. should be
famous
Tom
Donaldson
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 26
Dogs
Black things
x
There is a dog that isn’t black.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 27
Dogs
Black things
x
Some dog is black.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 28
Dogs
12. Black things
x
Something is black.
x
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 29
No dog is black.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 30
Every dog is black.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 31
Canadians Singers
Talented People
x
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 32
Canadians Singers
13. Talented People
x
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 33
Canadians Singers
Talented People
x
x
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 34
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 35
3: Four Kinds of
Statements
Code Form Examples
A All A are B. Every zebra is a mammal.
All men are mortal.
Every single member of the club was at the party.
14. E No A are B. No person can hold their breath for thirty
minutes.
Not one person in this room is honest.
Expensive moisturizing creams are never worth buying.
I Some A is B. Some foxes live in Iceland.
There are people who can run a mile in four minutes.
At least one singer was off key.
O Some A is not B. Some logicians are not well groomed.
Some famous people do not deserve to be famous.
There are basketball players who aren’t tall.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 37
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 38
All A are B.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 39
No A are B.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 40
A
B
15. Some A is B.
x
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 41
A
B
Some A is not B.
x
4: Carrol l Diagrams
Venn Diagrams With Four Categories …
… are rather hard to draw.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 43
Venn Diagrams with Five Categories …
… are even harder!
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 44
16. This is where Carroll Diagrams come in
handy!
Carroll diagrams work just like Venn diagrams, except they use
rectangular grids rather than overlapping ellipses.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 45
B
A
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 46
B
A
C
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 47
B
A
C
D
17. 5 : Eva lua t i ng In f e r ences
Us ing Ve nn D ia g ra ms
Evaluating Inferences Using Venn Diagrams
I recommend the following procedure for evaluating inferences
using
Venn diagrams:
1. Write down a list all of the premises and the negation of the
conclusion.
2. Try to draw a Venn diagram depicting a situation in which all
the
statements on your list are true.
3. If you succeed, you have shown that the inference is invalid.
4. If you find that it is impossible to depict such a situation, this
is an
indication that the inference is valid.
A tip for step three: When drawing your diagram, deal with the
universal
generalizations first. Then think about the existential
generalizations.
To put it another way: Do your shading first!!
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 13 49
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 50
A B
18. C
All A are B.
No B are C.
Therefore:
No A are C.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 51
A B
C
All A are B.
No B are C.
Therefore:
No A are C.
All A are B.
No B are C.
Some A is C.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 52
19. A B
C
Some A is B.
All B are C.
Therefore:
Some A is C.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 53
A B
C
Some A is B.
All B are C.
Therefore:
Some A is C.
Some A is B.
All B are C.
No A is C.
20. PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 54
A B
C
Some A is B.
Some B is C.
Therefore:
Some A is C.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 55
A B
C
Some A is B.
Some B is C.
Therefore:
Some A is C.
Some A is B.
Some B is C.
No A is C
21. Some for you to try
(1) No A is B. (2) All A are B.
No B is C. All B are C.
Therefore: Therefore:
No A is C. All B are C
Valid! Invalid!
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 56
Two More
(1) No A are B. (2) All A are B.
Some A is C. No C are A.
Therefore: Therefore:
Some C is not B. No C are B.
Valid! Not valid!
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 57
One More
22. Every A is either B or C.
Everything that is not C is not B.
Something is A.
Therefore:
Something is C.
Valid! Not valid!
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 15 58
2 2 : “ L o v e ” a n d O t h e r
Tw o - P l a c e P r e d i c a t e s
P H I L 1 1 0 ; S p r i n g 2 0 2 0 ; To m D o n a l d s o n
1 : N a m e s a n d P r e d i c a t e s
Proper Names
A proper name is a word that represents an individual member
of the
domain of quantification. For example, if our domain is
philosophers, we
might use the following names:
23. • “Socrates”
• “Mary Wollstonecraft”
• “Mozi”
Similarly, if our domain is countries, we might use the
following names:
• “Canada”
• “Mexico”
• “India”
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 3
Predicates
If you take a statement and remove one or more proper names
from
it, the result is a predicate. (If you like, a predicate is a
sentence with
one or more proper-name-shaped holes in it.)
• A one-place predicate has one hole.
• A two-place predicate has two holes.
• A three-place predicate has three holes.
• (And so on!)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 4
24. Predicates
One can make a sentence by taking a predicate, and then “filling
in”
the hole with a name (or filling in the holes with names):
“Ashni” + “____ likes muffins” = “Ashni likes muffins”.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 5
Predicates
• So far, we’ve considered only one-place predicates like “____
likes
dancing.” and “____ is having fun.”
• Today, we’re going to look at two-place predicates.
• For simplicity, let’s restrict our attention to a single example:
x loves y. Lxy
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 6
Love
Lrj Romeo loves Juliet.
Ljr Juliet loves Romeo.
25. Lnn Narcissus loves himself.
Lqe Quasimodo loves Esmerelda
Notice that there’s a big difference between loving and being
loved,
so the order of the names matters.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 7
Romeo
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 8
Juliet
Quasimodo
Esmerelda
Narcissus
2 : S y m b o l i z a t i o n
P r a c t i c e
An Example
In this section, let’s suppose that the domain of quantification is
26. people at Tom’s party, and that this includes Ashni, Ben,
Chiara, and
nobody else.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 10
Symbolization Practice
English Sentence Symbolization
Ashni loves Ben. Lab
Ben loves Ashni. Lba
Ashni and Ben love each other. (Lab & Lba)
Ben loves himself. Lbb
Ashni and Ben both love Chiara. (Lac & Lbc)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 11
Existential Quantification
• The existential quantifier works in just the same way as
before!
• ‘∃ x Lxa’ means someone loves Ashni, and has the same truth
value as
this disjunction:
27. • ‘∃ x Lax’ means Ashni loves someone, and has the same truth
value as
this disjunction:
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 12
Existential Quantification
• Now for a more complex example. This is a symbolization of
“There is someone whom Ashni and Ben both love”:
∃ x (Lax & Lbx)
• And here is a symbolization of “There is someone who loves
both
Ben and Chiara”:
∃ x (Lxb & Lxc)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 13
Universal Quantification
• The universal quantifier works just as before!
• The sentence ‘∀ x Lxa’ means everyone loves Ashni, and has
the same
28. truth value as this conjunction:
((Laa & Lba) & Lca)
• This is very different, of course, to ‘∀ x Lax’, which means
Ashni loves
everyone:
((Laa & Lab) & Lac)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 14
Universal Quantification
• Now for a more complex example. Here is a symbolization of
“Everyone loves either Ashni or Ben”:
∀
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 15
Symbolization Practice
English Sentence Symbolization
There is someone who Ashni doesn’t love. ∃
∃ x Lax
∀ x Lxb
Nobody loves Ben. ∀
29. PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 16
3 : N a t u r a l D e d u c t i o n
P r a c t i c e
Exercise
In each case, show that the inference is valid by constructing a
natural deduction proof
with the given premises and the given conclusion:
(1) Premise: Everyone loves Ashni.
Conclusion: Someone loves themself.
(2) Premise: Everyone loves Ashni.
Premise: Ashni loves Ben.
Conclusion: Someone loves both Ashni and Ben.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 18
Exercise
1. ∀ x Lxa Premise (“Everyone loves Ashni”)
2. Laa 1, UI
30. 3. ∃ x Lxx 2, EG (“Someone loves themself ”)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 19
Exercise
1. ∀ x Lxa Premise (“Everyone loves Ashni”)
2. Lab Premise (“Ashni loves Ben”)
3. Laa 1, UI
4. (Laa & Lab) 2, 3 Conj
5. ∃ x (Lxa & Lxb) 4, EG (“Someone loves both Ashni and
Ben.”)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 20
4 : S t a t e m e n t s t h a t c o n t a i n
b o t h a o n e - p l a c e a n d a
t w o - p l a c e p r e d i c a t e
Love and Dancing
• Let’s continue our discussion of the party, with only Ashni,
Ben
and Chiara in attendance.
31. • Let’s use the following predicates:
Dx x is a dancer.
Lxy x loves y.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 22
Love and Dancing
English Sentence Symbolization
A Every dancer loves Ashni. ∀ x(Dx → Lxa)
E No dancer loves Ashni. ∀
I Some dancer loves Ashni. ∃ x(Dx & Lxa)
O Some dancer doesn’t love Ashni. ∃
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 23
Love and Dancing
English Sentence Symbolization
Everyone who Ashni loves is dancing. ∀ x(Lax → Dx)
Nobody who loves Ashni is dancing. ∀
Ashni loves a dancer. ∃ x(Dx & Lax)
32. There’s this dancer who Ashni doesn’t love. ∃
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 24
5 : Q u a n t i f i e r s
I n s i d e Q u a n t i f i e r s
First Example: ∀ x ∀ y Lxy
• Consider the English sentence “Everybody loves everybody.”
• This has two universal quantifiers in it!
• The correct symbolization is this: ∀ x ∀ y Lxy
• This shouldn’t be confused with this: ∀ x Lxx
• This latter statement means everybody loves themself.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 26
Second Example: ∀ ∀ y Lxy
• This is trickier to interpret!
• Here’s one approach.
∃ x∀ y
Lxy.
33. • In English: It is not the case that there is some one person who
loves everybody.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 27
Third Example: ∃ x ∃ y Lxy
• This is an easy one!
• It means, someone loves someone.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 28
Fourth Example:
(1) ∃ x ∀ y Lxy
(2) ∀ x ∃ y Lxy
• Both of these statements contain “everyone”, “someone”, and
“loves”. So each must mean something like Everyone loves
someone, or Someone loves everyone.
• But can we get clear on the difference between them?
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 29
Fourth Example:
(1) ∃ x ∀ y Lxy
(2) ∀ x ∃ y Lxy
• (1) is an existential generalization. Its instances are:
34. • ∀ y Lay Ashni loves everyone.
• ∀ y Lby Ben loves everyone.
• ∀ y Lcy Chiara loves everyone.
• So (1) amounts to: Either Ashni or Ben or Chiara loves
everyone.
• In short, (1) means: There is a single (very amorous!) person
who
loves all.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 30
Fourth Example:
(1) ∃ x ∀ y Lxy
(2) ∀ x ∃ y Lxy
• (2) is a universal quantification. Its instances are:
• ∃ y Lay Ashni loves someone.
• ∃ y Lby Ben loves someone.
• ∃ y Lcy Chiara loves someone.
• So (2) means something like this: Ashni loves someone, and
Ben
loves someone, and Chiara loves someone.
• In short, (2) means: Every person has someone that they love.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 31
35. Fourth Example:
(1) ∃ x ∀ y Lxy
(2) ∀ x ∃ y Lxy
• In summary:
• (1) means: There is a single (very amorous!) person who loves
all.
• (2) means: Every person has someone that they love.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 32
Fourth Example:
(1) ∃ x ∀ y Lxy
(2) ∀ x ∃ y Lxy
• In summary:
• (1) means: There is a single (very amorous!) person who loves
all.
• (2) means: Every person has someone that they love.
(1) (2)
a
a b c
b c
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 33
36. Fifth Example: ∃ x(Dx & ∀ y Lxy)
• Let’s start with this: ∀ y Lxy
• This means, x loves everybody.
• So the whole statement means: There is some person x, where
x is
a dancer and x loves everybody.
• To put it more succinctly: There is some (amorous!) dancer
who
loves everybody.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 34
Mx: x is male. Pxy: x is a parent of y.
Fx: x is female. Lxy: x loves y.
Yx: x is young. Kxy: x kills y.
1. ∃ x ∃ y ((Yx & Mx) & (Yy & Fy) & (Lxy & Lyx) & (Kxx &
Kyy))
2. ∃ x ∃ y ∃ z ((Mx & My & Fz) & (Pyx & Pzx) & (Kxy &
Lxz))
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 35
Great Works of Literature, in Symbols
37. Continue to assume that the domain contains just three objects:
a, b
and c. For each of the following statements, express them in
natural
English, and draw an arrow diagram showing a situation in
which
the statement is true.
(1) ∀ x Lax
(2) ∀ x Lxa
(3) ∀ x ∀ y Lxy
(4) ∀ x ∀
(5) ∃ x ∀ y Lyx
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 36
(1) ∀ x Lax
Ashni loves everyone.
b a c
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 37
(2) ∀ x Lxa
38. Everyone loves Ashni.
b a c
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 38
(3) ∀ x ∀ y Lxy
Everyone loves everyone!
a
b c
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 39
(4) ∀ x ∀ Lxy
Nobody loves anyone.
a
b c
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 40
(5) ∃ x ∀ y Lyx
There is some single individual who is loved by all.
39. b c a
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 22 41
The Exam Has Been Scheduled
• Most of you will take the exam on WED 15-Apr, 1200-15:00,
C9001
• Some of you will take the exam at the CAL.
• Some of you may qualify for “hardship”:
• You have three exams within 24 hours.
• You have an examination at one location (e.g. the Burnaby
campus)
followed immediately by an exam at another location (e.g., the
Surrey
campus).
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 1
1 7 : M o r e o n t h e
U n i v e r s a l Q u a n t i f i e r
P H I L 1 1 0 ; S p r i n g 2 0 2 0 ; To m D o n a l d s o n
1 : R e c a p
40. Symbolizing A Statements
• To symbolize an A statement, you use the universal quantifier
“∀ ”
and the arrow “→”.
• For example:
All whales are mammals. ∀ x (Wx → Mx)
Every Canadian is polite. ∀ x (Cx → Px)
• If you find this hard to understand, don’t worry! You can
simply
memorize the fact that this is how A statements are symbolized.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 4
Symbolizing E Statements
• To symbolize an E statement, you use the universal quantifier
“∀ ”,
the arrow “→”, and the negation operator
• For example:
No children play bridge. ∀
No mice understand calculus. ∀
• If you find this hard to understand, don’t worry! You can
simply
41. memorize the fact that this is how E statements are symbolized.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 5
Instances
• Let’s write “M” for “____ is a mammal” and “W” for “____ is
a whale”.
• Suppose that the domain of quantification is animals.
• Suppose that “a” is a name for something in the domain.
• Here is a symbolization of Every whale is a mammal:
∀ x (Wx → Mx)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 6
Instances
• Let’s write “M” for “____ is a mammal” and “W” for “____ is
a whale”.
• Suppose that the domain of quantification is animals.
• Suppose that “a” is a name for something in the domain.
• Here is a symbolization of Every whale is a mammal:
∀ x (Wx → Mx) A universal generalization, and ...
42. (Wa → Ma) ... one of its instances.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 7
Instances
• A universal generalization (i.e. a statement that starts with a
“∀ ”)
is true just in case all of its instances are true.
• A universal generalization is, in effect, a conjunction of all its
instances.1
1 I assume here that everything in the domain has a name.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 8
O: ____ likes opera. Universe of discourse: people.
C: ____ is a child.
S: ____ is a snob.
(1) Everyone likes opera.
(2) Every snob likes opera. (Hint: This is an A statement!)
(3) No child likes opera. (Hint: This is an E statement!)
(4) Nobody likes opera.
(5) Only snobs like opera.
43. PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 9
A Quick Symbolization Exercise
2 : T h e U n i v e r s a l
I n s t a n t i a t i o n R u l e
The UI Rule
• If you look at the inside of the back cover of your textbook,
you’ll
find a number of rules involving the universal quantifier …
• … some of them are rather complex! We’ll get to those later.
• For now, let’s focus on one rather simple rule – the UI rule:
From a universal generalization, you can infer any one of its
instances.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 11
The UI Rule
For example, the following inferences are both valid …
Premise: ∀ x Dx (Everyone likes dancing.)
Conclusion: Da (Ashni likes dancing.)
44. Premise: ∀ x (Wx → Mx) (Every whale is a mammal.)
Conclusion: (Wd → Md) (If Moby Dick is a whale, he’s a
mammal.)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 12
Example
Show that the following inference is valid, by giving a natural
deduction proof:
Premise: ∀ x (Wx → Mx) (Every whale is a mammal.)
Pre
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 13
Example
1. ∀ x (Wx → Mx) Prem
3. (Wa → Ma) 1, UI
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 14
45. Exercise
Symbolize the following inference, and show that it is valid by
giving
a natural deduction proof:
Premise: Every SFU student is clever.
Premise: Dev is an SFU student.
Conclusion: Dev is clever.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 15
3 : S o m e Wo r d s o f
C a u t i o n
1: The domain of quantification is
sometimes called the universe of discourse.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 17
2: It’s bad practice to give one variable two
jobs in one statement.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 18
46. • Suppose that you’re asked to symbolize “Everyone is dancing
and
everyone is smiling.”
• You could write:
(∀ x Dx & ∀ x Sx)
• This isn’t wrong, but it is potentially confusing, because
you’ve used the
variable “x” to do two different jobs in one statement.
• It would be much better to write:
(∀ x Dx & ∀ y Sy)
• In my lectures, I will assume that we adopt this convention!
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 19
3: The Universal Generalizations in Our
Symbolism are Strict …
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 20
Our Universal Generalizations are Strict.
• This means that a universal generalizations in our symbolism
can
be refuted by a single counterexample.
47. • For example, the following inference is valid:
an’t fly.)
∀ x(Bx → Fx) (It is not true that every bird can
fly.)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 21
Our Universal Generalizations are Strict.
2. Bp 1, Simp
4. ∀ x(Bx → Fx) Supp/RA
5. (Bp → Fp) 4, UI
6. Fp 2, 5 MP
7. ⊥ 3, 6 Conj
∀ x(Bx → Fx) 4-7, RA
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 22
Our Universal Generalizations are Strict.
48. • It’s not possible to express loose universal generalizations in
our
symbolism …
• … but this is okay, since we’re trying to understand
mathematical
proof – and mathematicians don’t use loose generalizations in
their proofs!
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 23
4: Beware the following subtle error …
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 24
On a Subtle Error in Proofs
Suppose there are twenty people at the party (one of whom is
Ashni) and
only sixty bottles of beer.
Domain of quantification: People at the party.
D “____ drinks three bottles of beer.”
R We will run out of beer.
a Ashni
Premise: (∀ x Dx → R) (If everyone drinks three bottles of beer,
we will run out.)
49. Premise: Da (Ashni drinks three bottle of beer.)
Conclusion: R (We will run out.)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 25
On a Subtle Error in Proofs
1. (∀ x Dx → R) Prem
2. Da Prem
3. (Da → R) 1, UI
4. R 2, 3 MP
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 26
5: Pay attention to the domain of
quantification!
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 27
Pay Attention to the Domain
• Suppose you’re asked to symbolize the statement “Everyone at
the
party who is dancing is happy.”
• If the domain of quantification for your symbolic sentences is
50. people,
you would write:
∀ x((Px & Dx) → Hx)
• If the domain of quantification for your symbolic sentences is
people at
the party, you would write:
∀ x(Dx → Hx)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 28
4 : F o r e s h a d o w i n g t h e
U G R u l e
Square numbers: Rectangle numbers:
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 30
51. Square numbers: Rectangle numbers:
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 31
Square numbers: Rectangle numbers:
1
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 32
Square numbers: Rectangle numbers:
52. PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 33
Square numbers: Rectangle numbers:
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 34
Square numbers: Rectangle numbers:
53. Hypothesis:
• If you add together two consecutive rectangle numbers, the
result
is always twice a square.
• For any n, the sum of the nth rectangle number and the (n+1)th
rectangle number is always twice a square.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 35
Let n be any arbitrarily chosen natural number.
Then the nth rectangle number is: n(n+1)
Also, the (n+1)th rectangle number is: (n+1)(n+2)
So, the sum of the nth rectangle number and the (n+1)th
rectangle number is:
n(n+1) + (n+1)(n+2)
= (n2 + n) + (n2 + n + 2n + 2)
= 2n2 + 4n + 2
= 2(n+1)2
This is indeed twice a square!
54. Therefore:
For any n, the sum of the nth rectangle number and the (n + 1)th
rectangle number is twice a
square.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 36
The UG Rule
• The statement we just proved is a universal generalization:
For any n, the sum of the nth rectangle number and the (n + 1)th
rectangle
number is twice a square.
• We proved it by proving that an “arbitrary instance” is true.
• This is an example of the UG rule at work.
• We’ll look at the rule in more detail next time …
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 37
Exercise
Symbolize the following inference, and show that it is valid by
giving
a natural deduction proof:
Premise: Everyone who is drinking beer is dancing.
55. Premise: Everyone who is dancing is having fun.
Premise: Ashni is drinking beer.
Conclusion: Ashni is having fun.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 17 38
“If the inference from p to q is valid, and the inference from q
to r is
valid, then the inference from p to r must be valid as well.”
I agree!
I disagree!
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 20 1
“If two objects are indistinguishable, then it can’t be true that
one of
them is red and also true that the other is not red.”
I agree!
I disagree!
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 20 2
56. 1 4 : B i v a l e n c e
P H I L 1 1 0 ; S p r i n g 2 0 2 0 ; To m D o n a l d s o n
Bivalence
• In this course, we’ve been assuming that every statement is
either
true or false.
• To put it another way, we’ve been assuming that given any
statement, either it or its negation is true.
• This is called the “principle of bivalence” (or even the “law of
bivalence”).
• In this lecture, we’ll look at some objections to the principle
of
bivalence, and discuss how to cope.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 4
1 : Va g u e Te r m s
Vagueness
• Suppose we have a sequence of 1000 tiles. We can call them
“Tile 1”, “Tile 2”, “Tile 3”, … , “Tile 1000”.
• Tile 1 is the colour of the leaf on the Canadian flag.
57. • Each tile in the sequence is a little bit less red than its
predecessor – but the differences are imperceptibly small.
Adjacent tiles in the sequence are indistinguishable.
• Tile 1000 is the colour of a pumpkin.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 6
Vagueness
• The principle of bivalence tells us that every tile in the
sequence is
either truly describable as “red” or truly describable as “not
red” –
like this:
• But, arguably, this is not plausible:
• There are tiles in the middle which we wouldn’t call “red” but
which we also
wouldn’t call “not red”.
• It isn’t credible that there are adjacent tiles, one of which is
truly describable
as “red” and one of which is truly describable as “not red”.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 7
Vagueness
• Here, arguably, is a more attractive account. The tiles at the
beginning of the sequence are properly called “red”. The tiles at
58. the end of the sequence are properly called “not red”. Then
there
are some tiles in the middle which have a third, intermediate
status. These tiles can’t truly be described as “red”, but they
can’t
truly be described as “not red” either:
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 8
Some more vague terms
• To use the philosophical jargon, “red” is vague.
• Here are some other vague terms:
• “grownup”
• “cold day”
• “too much ice cream to eat in one sitting”
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 9
2 : S t a t e m e n t s A b o u t
t h e F u t u r e
The Correspondence Theory of Truth
• Some philosophers think that a statement is true just in case it
correctly depicts a fact – some chunk of reality.
59. PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 11
Oscar is in the guitar case.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 12
Oscar is next to the flowers.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 13
The Correspondence Theory of Truth
• Some philosophers think that a statement is true just in case it
correctly depicts a fact – some chunk of reality.
• A sentence is false, on this view, if its negation correctly
depicts a
fact.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 14
Oscar is in a red cupboard.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 15
Statements About the Future
60. • Suppose we accept the correspondence theory of truth.
• Suppose we also accept the claim that the future doesn’t yet
exist.
• Now consider the statement “Canada will win an odd number
of medals in the
2020 Olympic Games.”
• Arguably, this statement isn’t true now (because there is
currently no fact to
which it corresponds).
• And arguably, this statement isn’t false now (because there is
currently no
fact to which its negation corresponds).
• If this is right, then the statement is a counterexample to the
principle of
bivalence. Our statement has some third status, “open,” perhaps,
or
“unsettled.”
• Many have attributed this view to Aristotle – although the
attribution is
contentious.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 16
3 : T h e L i a r P a r a d o x
61. The Liar Paradox
Consider the following sentence:
The red sentence on slide 18 is false.
• If we say that this sentence is true, this implies that the
sentence is
false, which is a contradiction!
• If we say that the sentence is false, we’re saying that it’s false
that the
sentence is false – i.e. that the sentence is true. This is a
contradiction
again!
• Perhaps it’s best to refrain from saying that the sentence is
either true
nor false!
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 20 18
4 : R e f o r m i n g S t a t e m e n t
L o g i c
Bivalence
• As I said, the classical approach to logic assumes the principle
of
bivalence – we assume that every statement is either true or
false.
62. • However, there are apparent counterexamples to this thesis:
• Statements involving vague words.
• Statements about the future.
• Paradoxes
• Others?
• Perhaps we need to reform logic in order to accommodate such
cases …
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 20
Three-Valued Logic
• Suppose we accept the view that there are really three truth
values, not two. Some statements are true; some are false; some
are intermediate.
• Our truth tables will get bigger! For each binary connective,
we
now need a truth table with nine rows instead of just four.
• How will we fill in the rows?
• This is contentious – I will present one approach.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 21
Conjunction
63. • A conjunction is true when both conjuncts are true.
• A conjunction is false when either one of its conjuncts is
false.
• Otherwise, the conjunction is intermediate.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 22
Conjunction
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 23
p q (p & q)
T T T
T I I
T F F
I T I
I I I
I F F
F T F
F I F
F F F
64. Disjunction
• A disjunction is true when either one of the disjuncts is true.
• A disjunction is false when both of the disjuncts are false.
• Otherwise, the disjunction is intermediate.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 24
Disjunction
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 25
T T T
T I T
T F T
I T T
I I I
I F I
F T T
F I I
F F F
65. Negation
• If a statement is true, its negation is false.
• If a statement is false, its negation is true.
• If a statement is intermediate, its negation is also
intermediate.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 26
T F
I I
F T
Conditionals
• (p ↔ q) is equivalent to ((p → q) & (q → p)).
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 27
A New Connective
66. • We’ve seen that in our new logic we have to reform the truth
tables for the familiar connectives.
• We can also introduce some new connectives! For example,
we
could introduce a connective � meaning “It is neither true nor
false
that …” with the following truth table:
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 20 28
p �p
T F
I T
F F
The Definition of Validity
• If we assume the principle of bivalence, we will regard these
definitions as equivalent:
• An inference is valid just in case there is no possible situation
in which the
premises are true and the conclusion false.
• An inference is valid just in case there is no possible situation
in which the
premises are true and the conclusion is not true.
• But now we must regard these definitions as non-equivalent…
67. • Which should we choose?
• Well, let’s see what happens if we choose the first definition
…
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 29
The Definition of Validity
Consider the following three statements:
A � �A)
T F T
I T F
F F F
Given our definition of validity, we have to say that from �A
you can
�A) …
but you
�A) from �A!!
This is absurd – so we have to reject this definition of validity.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 30
The Definition of Validity
• We have to choose between two definitions of validity:
• An inference is valid just in case there is no possible situation
in which the
premises are true and the conclusion false.
68. • An inference is valid just in case there is no possible situation
in which the
premises are true and the conclusion is not true.
• The first definition turns out to be ridiculous.
• So we have to choose the second.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 31
Which of our rules are valid?
• It’s easy to check that many of our natural deduction rules are
still
valid in the new system. For example, Conj and Simp are still
valid!
• However, some of our natural deduction rules have to be
rejected –
or at least, reformed.
• Consider, for example, CP.
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 20 32
Conditional Proof
• Consider the following proof in our natural deduction system:
1. A Prem
│ 2. B Supp/CP
│ 3. (A & B) 1, 2 Conj
69. 4. (B → (A & B)) 2-3,CP
• The inference from A to (B → (A & B)) is not valid in our
new system.
• So (within our new system) we must say that there is
something wrong
with the above proof.
• But Conj is valid in our new system, as I said.
• So we have to reject CP – or at least reform it somehow.
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 20 33
Reductio ad Absurdum
• Consider this proof in our natural deduction system:
1. A Prem
│3. ⊥ 2, R
-3, RA
system.
• So (within our new system) we must reject the above proof.
• So we must reject (or at least reform) the RA rule.
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 20 34
70. A Complaint About the New System
• Arguably, CP and RA are essential to mathematics.
• We can’t live without them.
• Thus, the new logic can’t be accepted.
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 20 35
5 : A n U n s o l v e d P r o b l e m
An Unsolved Problem
• We’ve seen that the principle of bivalence is problematic.
• However, our new logic has its own problems!
• Options:
• We could defend the principle of bivalence from the
objections.
• We could accept that the principle of bivalence is mistaken,
and then offer
some alternative defence of our natural deduction rules.
• We could learn to live with our three-valued logic.
• We could find an altogether new logic …
• All of these approaches have their defenders!
71. PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 14 37
A Problem to Finish
Show that for any statement p one can construct a natural
deduction proof of the following statement:
Presumably, if we reject the law of bivalence we will also deny
that
wish to
reject at least one of the rules in your proof. Which one do you
think
we should reject?
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 20 38
1 9 : I n t r o d u c i n g t h e
E x i s t e n t i a l Q u a n t i f i e r
P H I L 1 1 0 ; S p r i n g 2 0 2 0 ; To m D o n a l d s o n
A Quick Symbolization Exercise
Domain: Animals at a particular zoo.
72. M ____ is a mammal.
T ____ has a tail.
B ____ is brown.
(a) Every mammal has a tail.
(b) Not every mammal has a tail.
(c) No mammal has a tail.
(d) Only the mammals are brown.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 19 2
1 : I n t r o d u c i n g t h e
E x i s t e n t i a l Q u a n t i f i e r
Domain: People at a certain party
D: “____ likes dancing.”
M: “____ likes muffins.”
S: “____ likes swimming.”
• Suppose that there are five people at the party: a, b, c, d, and
e.
• Suppose we wish to symbolize the statement “Someone likes
dancing”.
73. • But what if the domain is very large?
• This is where the existential quantifier comes in!
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 19 4
The Existential Quantifier
∃ x
• There is at least one x such that …
• It’s true for some x that …
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 17 5
English sentence Sentence in our symbolism
Someone likes dancing. ∃ x Dx
Someone likes dancing but
not muffins.
∃
There’s someone who either
likes dancing, or likes both
swimming and muffins.
∃
74. Instances
• Like universal quantifications, existential quantifications have
“instances”.
∃ x (Mx & Dx) (An existential quantification…)
(Ma & Da) (… and one of its instances.)
• An existential generalization is true just in case one or more
of its
instances is true.1
1 I assume here that everything in the domain has a name.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 19 6
Instances
For example, supposing that the people at the party are Ashni,
Ben,
Chiara, Deshaun, and Emma, the following two statements have
the
same truth value:
∃ x Mx
Someone likes muffins.
Either Ashni, Ben, Chiara, Deshaun, or Emma likes muffins.
75. PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 19 7
Symbolizing I-Statements
It is straightforward to symbolise I statements, using the
existential quantifier:
1. There is at least one red fox. ∃ x(Rx & Fx)
2. Some foxes are red. ∃ x(Rx & Fx)
3. At least one bear lives in Vancouver. ∃ x(Bx & Vx)
(You might object that “Some foxes are red” doesn’t mean quite
the same thing
as “There is at least one red fox.” Don’t worry – we’ll deal with
this point later in
the term!)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 19 8
Symbolizing O-Statements
It is straightforward to symbolise O statements, using the
existential quantifier:
1. There is at least one snake that is not poisonous. ∃ x(Sx &
2. Some snakes are not poisonous. ∃
3. Some philosophers are not atheists. ∃
76. PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 19 9
A Symbolisation Exercise
Domain: The people at a certain party.
D: ____ is dancing.
B: ____ is drinking beer.
F: ____ is having fun.
(1) Someone is having fun.
(2) Some dancer is having fun.
(3) At least one dancer is not having fun.
(4) Someone is dancing and drinking beer, but not having fun.
∃
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 19 10
2 : T h e E G R u l e
The Existential Generalization Rule (EG)
• There are several inference rules associated with the
existential
quantifier.
• Today, we’ll just look at one of them.
• It’s very simple!
77. • The EG rule allows us to infer an existential generalization
from
any instance.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 19 12
The Existential Generalization Rule (EG)
Here are some examples:
Premise: (Da & Fa) (Ashni is dancing and having fun.)
Conclusion: ∃ x(Fx & Fx) (Someone is dancing and having fun.)
Conclusion: ∃
having fun.)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 19 13
Example
The following inference is valid. Establish this, by giving a
natural
deduction proof.
Premise: Da Ashni is dancing.
Premise: ∀ x(Dx → Fx) Every dancer is having fun.
78. Conclusion: ∃ x(Dx & Fx) Some dancer is having fun.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 19 14
1. Da Prem
2. ∀ x(Dx → Fx) Prem
3. (Da → Fa) 2, UI
4. Fa 1, 3 MP.
5. (Da & Fa) 1, 4 Conj
6. ∃ x(Dx & Fx) 5, EG
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 19 15
Exercise
The following inference is valid. Establish this, by giving a
natural deduction proof.
Premise: Da Ashni is dancing.
Premise: (Da → Db) If Ashni is dancing, so is Ben.
Premise: Fb Ben is having fun.
Premise: ∀ x(Fx → Bx) Everyone who is having fun is drinking
beer.
79. Conclusion: ∃ x((Dx & Fx) & Bx) Someone is dancing, having
fun, and drinking beer.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 19 16
2 1 : Q u a n t i f i e r N e g a t i o n
P H I L 1 1 0 ; S p r i n g 2 0 2 0 ; To m D o n a l d s o n
Announcements
• There is a tutorial handout for you to work on. I’ll upload
answers
tomorrow.
• If you have questions about the tutorial handout, you can post
them at
Sli.do, using the code S904. There’ll be a new code for next
week’s
handout.
• Using Sli.do, Duke asks: “I wanna ask what's going to be
covered on the
final exam? will it cover knowledge points before midterm 1
and
midterm 2?”
• The answer to Duke’s question is that the final is cumulative –
it will
include everything that we’ve covered this term.
• The final online assignment will also go up tomorrow. Good
80. luck with it!
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 21 2
Exercise
Show that the following argument is valid, by providing a
natural
deduction proof:
Premise: ∃ x Bx
Premise: ∀ x (Bx → Mx)
Conclusion: ∃ x Mx
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 21 3
1 : T h e Q N R u l e
These two statements are equivalent:
• Not everyone is having a good time.
• Someone’s not having a good time.
In symbols:
∀ x Gx
81. • ∃
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 21 5
Similarly, these two statements are equivalent:
• It’s not true that someone is married.
• Everyone is unmarried.
In symbols:
∃ x Mx
• ∀
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 21 6
The Quantifier Negation Rule
∀ x Φx, derive ∃
∃ x Φx, derive ∀
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 21 7
2 : T h e S q u a r e o f
O p p o s i t i o n
82. The Square of Opposition
• We say that two statements are “contradictories” if it’s not
possible for
both to be true, and not possible for both to be false.
from p,
and vice versa.
• It’s a useful fact to remember that every A-statement is
contradictory to
the corresponding O statement, and …
• … every E statement is contradictory to the corresponding I
statement.
• These points are traditionally represented on a diagram, the
“square of
opposition”.
• https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/square/
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 21 9
A
All A are B.
E
No A are B.
I
Some A are B.
83. O
Some A are not B.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 21 10
Show that the following statements are equivalent, using natural
deduction proofs:
Not all A are B.
Some A are not B.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 21 11
First Worked example
∀ x(Ax → Bx) Prem
2. ∃
3. ∃
4. ∃
5. ∃
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 21 12
First Worked example
84. 1. ∃
2. ∃
3. ∃
4. ∃
∀ x(Ax → Bx) 4, QN
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 21 13
First Worked example
Show that the following statements are equivalent, using natural
deduction proofs:
It is not true that some A are B.
No A are B.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 21 14
Second Worked example
Show that the following statements are equivalent, using natural
deduction proofs:
∃ x(Ax & Bx)
No A are B. ∀
85. PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 21 15
Second Worked example
∃ x(Ax & Bx) Premise
2. ∀
3. ∀
4. ∀
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 21 16
Second Worked example
3 : E x e r c i s e s
An Exercise to Finish
Show that the following inference is valid, using a natural
deduction
proof:
Premise: ∃ x Bx
∃
Conclusion: ∃ x Mx
86. PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 21 18
An Exercise to Finish
Show that the following inference is valid, using a natural
deduction
proof:
Premise: ∀ x (Bx → Mx)
∀ x Mx
∀ x Bx
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 21 19
1 8 : T h e U G R u l e
P H I L 1 1 0 ; S p r i n g 2 0 1 9 ; To m D o n a l d s o n
PHIL 110 and COVID 19
• There will be a final exam of some kind – I’m not sure yet
how this
will be done. I will do my very best to ensure that the
assessment
is fair to all of you.
• The TAs will deliver the graded midterm exams to me – I have
87. them in my office. If you want to see your midterm, let me
know.
• I will omit some of the more challenging material from this
iteration of the course. This is to ensure that you all have
adequate
time to prepare for the final, despite the unusual obstacles that
2020 has produced.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 18 2
1 : T h e U G R u l e I n
A r i t h m e t i c
Square numbers: Rectangle numbers:
20
Hypothesis:
• If you add together two consecutive rectangle numbers, the
result
is always twice a square.
88. • For any n, the sum of the nth rectangle number and the (n+1)th
rectangle number is always twice a square.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 18 4
Let n be any arbitrarily chosen natural number.
Then the nth rectangle number is: n(n+1)
Also, the (n+1)th rectangle number is: (n+1)(n+2)
So, the sum of the nth rectangle number and the (n+1)th
rectangle number is:
n(n+1) + (n+1)(n+2)
= (n2 + n) + (n2 + n + 2n + 2)
= 2n2 + 4n + 2
= 2(n+1)2
This is indeed twice a square!
Therefore:
For any n, the sum of the nth rectangle number and the (n + 1)th
rectangle number is twice a
square.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 18 5
89. The UG Rule
• The statement we just proved is a universal generalization:
For any n, the sum of the nth rectangle number and the (n + 1)th
rectangle
number is twice a square.
• We proved it by proving that an “arbitrary instance” is true.
• This is an example of the UG rule at work.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 18 6
2 : T h e U G R u l e i n
G e o m e t r y
Alternate Angles
Assuming that the red lines are parallel, the angles b and c are
equal!
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 18 8
a b
c
d
90. Alternate Angles
Assuming that the red lines are parallel, the angles b and c are
equal!
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 18 9
ab
cd
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 18 10
a
b
c
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 18 11
a
b
c
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 18 12
a
91. b
c
a
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 18 13
a
b
c
a
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 18 14
a
b
c
a c
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 18 15
a
92. b
c
a c
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 18 16
a
b
c
a c
We’ve shown that the angles inside any triangle add up to 180°.
We will acknowledge only those proofs in which one can appeal
step
by step to preceding propositions and definitions. If, for the
grasp of
a proof, the corresponding figure is indispensable, then the
proof
does not satisfy the requirements that we imposed on it. … in
any
complete proof the figure is dispensable. (Pasch, 1882)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 18 17
93. [B]e careful, since [the use of diagrams] can easily be
misleading. A
theorem is only proved when the proof is completely
independent
of the diagram. The proof must call step by step on the
preceding
axioms. The making of figures is [equivalent to] the
experimentation
of the physicist … (Hilbert, 1894)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 18 18
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 15 19
3 : T h e U G R u l e Wi t h i n
N a t u r a l D e d u c t i o n
The Exam Has Been Scheduled
• Most of you will take the exam on WED 15-Apr, 1200-15:00,
C9001
• Some of you will take the exam at the CAL.
• Some of you may qualify for “hardship”:
• You have three exams within 24 hours.
• You have an examination at one location (e.g. the Burnaby
94. campus)
followed immediately by an exam at another location (e.g., the
Surrey
campus).
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 1
1 6 : T h e U n i v e r s a l Q u a n t i f i e r
P H I L 1 1 0 ; S p r i n g 2 0 2 0 ; To m D o n a l d s o n
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 14 3
Contains Chocolate
Contains Garlic
Contains Cream
Domain: Traditional Dishes
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 4
Contains Chocolate
Contains Garlic
Contains Cream
Domain: Traditional Dishes
95. PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 5
Contains Chocolate
Contains Garlic
Contains Cream
Domain: Traditional Dishes
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 6
Contains Chocolate
Contains Garlic
Contains Cream
Domain: Traditional Dishes
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 7
Contains Chocolate
Contains Garlic
Contains Cream
Domain: Traditional Dishes
x
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 8
96. Contains Chocolate
Contains Garlic
Contains Cream
Domain: Traditional Dishes
x
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 9
Contains Chocolate
Contains Garlic
Contains Cream
Domain: Traditional Dishes
x
x
Valid or not?
(1) No A are B. (2) All A are B.
Some A is C. No C are A.
Therefore: Therefore:
Some C is not B. No C are B.
97. Valid! Not valid!
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 10
Valid or not?
(1) No A are B.
Some A is C.
Therefore:
Some C is not B.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 11
Valid or not?
(2) All A are B.
No C are A.
Therefore:
No C are B.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 12
1 : T h e N e e d f o r S y m b o l s
98. The Complexities of English
Sometimes when one uses the phrase “a bear”, you mean to talk
about some particular bear; sometimes you mean to generalise
about all bears.
A universal generalization: A bear is a mammal.
An existential generalization: A bear is in my garden.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 14
Ambiguities in English Quantification
• “Everyone at the party isn’t dancing.”
• It is not true that everyone at the party is dancing.
• Nobody at the party is dancing.
• “Everything is caused by something.”
• There is some particular thing (God perhaps?) which causes
everything.
• Everything has a cause (though perhaps different things have
different
causes).
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 15
99. Goals for this lecture …
• Introduce the symbol which we use to express universal
generalizations – what we call the “universal quantifier”.
• Introduce one of the inference rules associated with this
symbol.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 16
2 : N a m e s a n d P r e d i c a t e s
Proper Names
A proper name is a word that represents an individual member
of the
domain of quantification. For example, if our domain is singers,
we might
use the following names:
• “Celine Dion”
• “Beyoncé”
• “Pavarotti”
Similarly, if our domain is countries, we might use the
following names:
• “Canada”
• “Germany”
100. • “India”
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 18
Predicates
If you take a declarative sentence and remove one or more
proper
names from it, the result is a predicate. (If you like, a predicate
is a
name with one or more proper-name-shaped holes in it.)
• A one-place predicate has one hole.
• A two-place predicate has two holes.
• A three-place predicate has three holes.
• (And so on!)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 19
Predicates
Some one-place predicates:
• “____ likes dancing.”
• “____ likes muffins”
• “____ likes swimming.”
101. Some two-place predicates:
• “____ and ____ are friends.”
• “____ is taller than ____.”
A three-place predicate:
• “____ and ____ together ate more food than ____.”
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 20
Predicates
One can make a sentence by taking a predicate, and then “filling
in”
the hole with a name (or filling in the holes with names):
“Ashni” + “____ likes muffins” = “Ashni likes muffins”.
For the moment, we’ll restrict our attention to one-place
predicates.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 21
Names and Predicates in Our Symbolism
• We will use lower-case letters (usually from the beginning of
the alphabet) as
names. We will use capital letters as predicates:
Proper Names Predicates
102. a: Ashni D: “____ likes dancing.”
b: Ben M: “____ likes muffins.”
c: Chiara S: “____ likes swimming.”
• One can form a sentence in our symbolism by writing a
predicate, and then
the appropriate number of names.
• For example, “Ma” means Ashni likes muffins.
• We can form longer statements using the now-familiar
statement operators.
• For example, “(Ma & Mb)” means Ashni and Ben both like
muffins.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 22
Examples
Proper Names Predicates
a: Ashni D: “____ likes dancing.”
b: Ben M: “____ likes muffins.”
c: Chiara S: “____ likes swimming.”
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 23
English sentence Sentence in our symbolism
Ashni likes dancing. Da
103. Ben likes swimming. Sb
Ashni likes dancing and Ben likes
swimming.
(Da & Sb)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 24
English sentence Sentence in our symbolism
Either Ashni or Ben likes dancing.
Chiara and Ben like muffins, but
Ashni doesn’t.
If Chiara likes swimming, so do Ben
and Ashni.
Proper Names Predicates
a: Ashni D: “____ likes dancing.”
b: Ben M: “____ likes muffins.”
c: Chiara S: “____ likes swimming.”
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 25
English sentence Sentence in our symbolism
104. (Da ↔ Db)
Proper Names Predicates
a: Ashni D: “____ likes dancing.”
b: Ben M: “____ likes muffins.”
c: Chiara S: “____ likes swimming.”
3 : T h e U n i v e r s a l
Q u a n t i f i e r
The Universal Quantifier
• Let’s suppose that my domain of quantification is people at
my party.
• There are five people in this domain: Ashni, Ben, Chiara,
Deshaun, and
Emma.
• I want to symbolise this statement: everyone likes dancing.
• How do I do it?
• I could write this: ((((Da & Db) & Dc) & Dd) & De)
• But what if the domain is, say, people who attended the most
recent
Canucks game?
105. • What if the domain is, numbers?
• What we need is a symbol that will allow us to ascribe some
property to
ALL the things in the domain, even if the domain is very large.
This is
what the universal quantifier is for!
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 27
The Universal Quantifier
∀ x
• For any x …
• Whatever x may be …
• It’s true for every x that …
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 28
English sentence Sentence in our symbolism
Everyone likes dancing. ∀ x Dx
Everyone likes dancing and likes
muffins.
∀ x (Dx & Mx)
Everyone either likes swimming or
likes muffins.
∀
106. The Universal Quantifier
∀ x
• For any x …
• Whatever x may be …
• It’s true for every x that …
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 29
Universal Quantifier
English sentence Sentence in our symbolism
Everyone likes dancing. ∀ x Dx
Everyone likes dancing and likes
muffins.
∀ x (Dx & Mx)
Everyone either likes swimming or
likes muffins.
∀
The Universal Quantifier
∀ x
• For any x …
107. • Whatever x may be …
• It’s true for every x that …
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 30
Variable
English sentence Sentence in our symbolism
Everyone likes dancing. ∀ x Dx
Everyone likes dancing and likes
muffins.
∀ x (Dx & Mx)
Everyone either likes swimming or
likes muffins.
∀
The Universal Quantifier
∀ y
• For any y …
• Whatever y may be …
• It’s true for every y that …
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 31
108. English sentence Sentence in our symbolism
Either everyone likes muffins or
everyone likes swimming.
(∀ ∀ y Sy)
If Ashni likes dancing, everyone
likes dancing.
(Da → ∀ y Dy)
The Universal Quantifier
∀ y
• For any y …
• Whatever y may be …
• It’s true for every y that …
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 32
English sentence Sentence in our symbolism
Either everyone likes muffins or
everyone likes swimming.
(∀ ∀ y Sy)
If Ashni likes dancing, everyone
likes dancing.
(Da → ∀ y Dy)
109. What do variables represent?
• Note that when you use a universal quantifier, the variable
doesn’t
represent any particular entity in the domain:
∀ x Dx
• Rather, one might say, it represents “any object chosen freely
from
the domain”.
• This is very common in mathematics …
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 33
Claim: For any whole number k, if k is an odd number so is k2.
Proof
Suppose that k is an odd number.
Then for some number j: k = 2j + 1
Then, k2 = (2j + 1)(2j + 1)
So: k2 = 4j2 + 4j + 1
So: k2 = 2(2j2 + 2j) + 1
So k2 is odd!
110. So, in conclusion,
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 34
What do variables represent?
• Note that when you use a universal quantifier, the variable
doesn’t
represent any particular entity in the domain:
∀ x Dx
• Rather, one might say, it represents “any object chosen freely
from
the domain”.
• This is very common in mathematics …
• Something similar happens in English too: “When a dog is hot,
he
pants.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 35
4 : I n s t a n c e s
Instances
• Suppose you take a universal generalization. That is …
111. • … a statement that begins with “∀ x”.
• You remove the initial “∀ x” …
• … and replace every occurrence of “x” in the statement with a
name for something in the domain (the same name each time!).
• The result is an instance of the universal generalization with
which you started.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 37
Instances
Universal Generalization Instance
∀ x Dx Da
∀ y (Dy & My) (Db & Mb)
∀
A universal generalization is true just in case all of its instances
are
true.1
1 I assume here that everything in the domain has a name …
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 38
Instances
112. • To repeat, a universal generalization is true just in case all of
its
instances are true.
• Indeed, you might think of a universal generalization as a
conjunction of
all of its instances.
• Suppose that the domain of quantification is people at my
party, and
suppose that the people at my party are Ashni, Ben, Chiara,
Deshaun,
and Emma. Then the following two statements have the same
truth
value:
((((Da & Db) & Dc) & Dd) & De)
∀ x Dx
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 39
5 : S y m b o l i z i n g A
a n d E s t a t e m e n t s
Symbolizing A statements
• Let’s write “M” for “____ is a mammal” and “W” for “____ is
a whale”.
• Suppose that the domain of quantification is animals.
113. • How should we symbolize “Every whale is a mammal”?
• The standard symbolization is this:
∀ x (Wx → Mx)
• This often puzzles students. (Where did the arrow come
from?!)
• So let’s take a closer look ...
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 41
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 42
Whales Mammals
Domain: Animals
• To symbolize the claim that an
animal x is inside the shaded
region, we would write
• To symbolize the claim that an
animal x is outside the shaded
region, we would write
• We can symbolize “All whales
are mammals” as
∀
114. • This is equivalent to
∀ x (Wx → Mx).
Every whale is a mammal.
Symbolizing A Statements
• More generally, we symbolize A statements with a universal
quantifier
and an arrow:
Every whale is a mammal. ∀ x (Wx → Mx)
Every dancer is happy. ∀ x (Dx → Hx)
Every SFU student is clever. ∀ x (Sx → Cx)
• I hope the last slide helped you to understand this!
• If not – that’s okay! You can just remember that this is how A
statements are symbolized.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 43
Symbolizing E Statements
• Suppose that the domain of quantification is animals.
• Let’s write “R” for “____ is a reptile” and “W” for “____ is a
whale”.
• How should we symbolize “No whale is a reptile”?
115. • Here’s one way of doing it. Note that “No whale is a reptile”
is
equivalent to “Every whale is a non-reptile”.
• This can be formalized: ∀
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 44
6 : T h e U n i v e r s a l
I n s t a n t i a t i o n R u l e
The UI Rule
• If you look at the inside of the back cover of your textbook,
you’ll
find a number of rules involving the universal quantifier …
• … some of them are rather complex! We’ll get to those later.
• For now, let’s focus on one rather simple rule – the UI rule:
From a universal quantification, you can infer any one of its
instances.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 46
The UI Rule
For example, the following inferences are both valid …
116. Premise: ∀ x Dx (Everyone likes dancing.)
Conclusion: Da (Ashni likes dancing.)
Premise: ∀ x (Wx → Mx) (Every whale is a mammal.)
Conclusion: (Wd → Md) (If Moby Dick is a whale, he’s a
mammal.)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 47
Example
Show that the following inference is valid, by giving a natural
deduction proof:
Premise: ∀ x (Wx → Mx) (Every whale is a mammal.)
is not a whale.)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 48
Example
1. ∀ x (Wx → Mx) Prem
3. (Wa → Ma) 1, UI
117. PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 49
7 : S o m e P r a c t i c e
O: ____ likes opera. Universe of discourse: people.
C: ____ is a child.
S: ____ is a snob.
(1) Everyone likes opera.
(2) Every snob likes opera.
(3) Nobody likes opera.
(4) No child likes opera.
(5) Only snobs like opera.
(6) If a child likes opera, they’re a snob.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 51
A Quick Symbolization Exercise
Show that this inference is valid, using a natural deduction
118. proof:
Premise: Every snob likes opera.
Premise: Sam is a snob.
Conclusion: Sam likes opera.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 16 52
20: The EI Rule
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Tom Donaldson
A Quick Symbolization Exercise
Domain: Movies
C ____ is a comedy.
A ____ was directed by Ang Lee.
J ____ stars Jake Gyllenhaal.
(a) Ang Lee has directed a comedy.
(b) Every movie Ang Lee has directed is a comedy.
(c) No movie directed by Ang Lee is a comedy.
(d) Ang Lee directed a movie, not a comedy, which stars Jake
Gyllenhaal.
119. PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 20 2
Natural Deduction Practice
Show that the following inference is valid, by giving a natural
deduction proof:
Premise: Every SFU student lives in Vancouver or Burnaby.
Premise: Ahmed is an SFU student who doesn’t live in Burnaby.
Conclusion: There is an SFU student who lives in Vancouver.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 20 3
1: The EI Rule
The Problem of Shared Names
• Suppose there are two people called “Ashni”. Now consider:
Ashni is currently in Toronto.
Ashni is currently in Vancouver.
Therefore:
Ashni is currently in both Toronto and Vancouver.
120. • This inference presents a challenge for us. We can suppose
that both premises are true:
• One of the Ashnis is in Toronto, so the first premise is true.
• One of the Ashnis is in Vancouver, so the second premise is
true.
• The inference appears to be an instance of the conjunction
rule.
• And yet the conclusion is false!
•
Solution
: In our symbolism, each name is only used once!
PHIL 110; Spring 2019; Lecture 18 5
Witnesses
• We’ve said that a universal generalization can be refuted by
just
one example - a “counterexample”.
• For example, if someone claims that every bird can fly, we can
refute them
121. by telling them about Pingu, the TV star.
• An existential generalization can be shown to be true using
just
one example – a “witness”.
• Suppose someone asks whether the following statement is
true: “Some
bird knows how to ice skate.”
• We can show that it is true by presenting Pingu as an example.
• Pingu is a witness to the statement “Some bird knows how to
ice skate.”
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 20 6
The EI Rule
• When we use the EI rule, we start with an existential
generalization. We then introduce a name for an arbitrary
witness.
122. • For example:
• There are residents of Burnaby who play the piano. Let’s call
one of them
“Smith” …
• Some SFU students are champion wrestlers. Let’s call one of
them “Diana”.
Then …
• We know that there are prime numbers greater than one
million. Let N be
one of them. Then …
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 20 7
We know that someone broke in to the palace on Friday wearing
muddy shoes. Let’s call the guy “Smith”. Now Smith must have
come
in through the garden, and we know from his footprints that he
was
wearing shoes with a heel, and …
123. PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 20 8
Claim: For all x and y, if x is rational and y is rational, then
x+y is rational.
Proof: Suppose that u and v are arbitrary rational numbers.
Since u is rational, there are integers x and y such that � =
�
�
.
Suppose that a and b are integers with � =
�
�
.
Since v is rational, there are integers x and y such that v =
�
124. �
.
Suppose that c and d are integers with � =
�
�
.
Then � + � =
�
�
+
�
�
=
��
��
+
125. ��
��
=
��+��
��
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 20 9
Premise: ∃ x Dx Someone is dancing.
Conclusion: Di i is dancing.
Premise: ∃ x(Sx & Rx) Some singer is rich.
Conclusion: (Sj & Rj) j is a rich singer.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 20 10
126. Premise: ∃ x(Sx & Rx)
Conclusion: ∃ x Sx
(1) ∃ x(Sx & Rx) Prem
(2) (Si & Ri) 1, EI
(3) Si 2, Simp
(4) ∃ x Sx 3, EG
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 20 11
From ∃ x Φx, infer Φi, where i is an arbitrary individual name
(one
that has not occurred either in the symbolization of the
argument or
on any previous line of the proof.)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 20 12
127. Premise: ∃ x Tx
Premise: ∃ x Vx
Conclusion: ∃ x(Tx & Vx)
(1) ∃ x Tx Prem
(2) ∃ x Vx Prem
(3) Ti 1, EI
(4) Vi 2, EI
(5) (Ti & Vi) 3, 4 Conj
(6) ∃ x(Tx & Vx) 5, EG
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 20 13
Premise: ∃ x Tx
Premise: ∃ x Vx
Conclusion: ∃ x(Tx & Vx)
(1) ∃ x Tx Prem
(2) ∃ x Vx Prem
(3) Ti 1, EI
128. (4) Vi 2, EI
(5) (Ti & Vi) 3, 4 Conj
(6) ∃ x(Tx & Vx) 5, EG
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 20 14
5: An Exercise To Finish
Show that the following inference is valid, using a natural
deduction
proof:
Premise: ∀ x(Bx → Fx) (Every bird can fly.)
∃
fly.)
Hint: Use reductio ad absurdum.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 20 16
129. 2 3 : I d e n t i t y
P H I L 1 1 0 ; S p r i n g 2 0 2 0 ; To m D o n a l d s o n
Exercise
Consider the following two inferences. You should assume that
the
domain of quantification is people. In each case:
• If the inference is valid, show that it is valid by giving a
natural
deduction proof.
• If the inference is not valid, that it is not valid by drawing an
arrow
diagram depicting a situation in which the premise is true and
the
conclusion false.
First Inference Second Inference
130. Premise: ∀ x ∃ y Lxy Premise: ∃ y ∀ x Lxy
Conclusion: ∃ y ∀ x Lxy Conclusion: ∀ x ∃ y Lxy
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 2
Exercise
First Inference
Premise: ∀ x ∃ y Lxy
Conclusion: ∃ y ∀ x Lxy
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 3
Exercise
First Inference
131. Premise: ∀ x ∃ y Lxy
Conclusion: ∃ y ∀ x Lxy
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 4
Exercise
Second Inference
Premise: ∃ y ∀ x Lxy
Conclusion: ∀ x ∃ y Lxy
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 5
Exercise
1. ∃ y ∀ x Lxy Prem
2. ∀ x Lxi 1, EI
132. ∀ x ∃ y Lxy Supp/RA
4. ∃ ∃ y Lxy 3, QN
5. ∃ x ∀
6. ∀
8. Lji 2, UI
9. ⊥ 7, 8 Conj
10. ∀ x ∃ y Lxy 3-9, RA, DN
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 6
1 : I n t r o d u c i n g I d e n t i t y
Qualitative And Numerical Sameness
• Suppose I say that Ashni and Ben’s partners are “the same”.
There
are two things I might mean:
• I might mean that Ashni and Ben are dating two people who
are very
133. similar. (Perhaps their partners are twins.)
• I might mean that Ashni and Ben are dating the very same
person – i.e.
there is one person who is dating both of them.
• There is a similar ambiguity in the English word “identical”.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 8
Qualitative And Numerical Sameness
• Philosophers avoid confusion by distinguishing between
“qualitative” and “numerical” identity.
• To say that x and y are qualitatively identical is to say that x
and y
are exactly alike (or at least very similar).
• To say that x and y are numerically identical is to say that x
and y
are not two things, but one.
134. • If x and y are not numerically identical, they are said to be
“distinct”.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 9
Qualitative And Numerical Sameness
For example:
• Adrian Brody is qualitatively identical to John Locke (but they
are
not numerically identical).
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 10
Qualitative And Numerical Sameness
For example:
• Adrian Brody is qualitatively identical to John Locke (but they
135. are
not numerically identical).
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 11
Qualitative And Numerical Sameness
For example:
• Adrian Brody is qualitatively identical to John Locke (but they
are
not numerically identical).
• Eric Blair is numerically identical to George Orwell.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 12
The Identity Symbol: =
a) In mathematics, we use the symbol “=” to express
propositions
136. about numerical identity. For example:
c) Eric Blair = George Orwell
d) 7 + 5 = 12
e) 12 = 7 + 5
g) 12 ≠ 7 + 7
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 13
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 14
a
d
c
137. b
e
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 15
a
d
c
b
e
Everything is what it is,
and not another thing.
2 : U s e s o f t h e
138. I d e n t i t y S y m b o l
First Example
• How should we symbolize “Ashni loves Ben and someone
else”?
• The statement means: Ashni loves Ben, and Ashni also loves
someone who isn’t Ben.
• In symbols: (Lab & ∃ x (Lax & x ≠ b))
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 17
Second Example
• How about “Ashni loves Ben and nobody else”?
• This means: Ashni loves Ben, and it is not the case that there
is
somebody other than Ben who Ashni loves.
139. ∃ x(Lax & x≠b))
• Equivalently: (Lab & ∀ x(Lax → x = b))
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 18
Third Example
• How would we symbolize “There are (at least) two people
dancing”?
• We might try: ∃ x ∃ y(Dx & Dy)
• But this doesn’t quite work!
• The correct approach: ∃ x ∃ y ((Dx & Dy) & x≠y)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 19
Fourth Example
140. • What about “There are (at least) three people dancing”?
• This is no good: ∃ x ∃ y ∃ z ((Dx & Dy) & Dz)
• The correct symbolization is this:
∃ x ∃ y ∃ z (Dx & Dy & Dz & x≠y & y≠z & z≠x)
(I’ve omitted some brackets to make the statement easier to
read…)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 20
Domain of Quantification: People
b: Bob Dylan P: ____ is a poet.
r: Robert Zimmerman
d: Dylan Thomas
• Robert Zimmerman and Bob Dylan are the same person.
141. • Bob Dylan and Dylan Thomas are not the same person.
• There are at least two poets.
• Dylan Thomas is a poet, and there are no other poets.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 21
• Robert Zimmerman and Bob Dylan are the same person.
r = b
• Bob Dylan and Dylan Thomas are not the same person.
b ≠ d
• There are at least two poets.
∃ x ∃ y ((Dx & Dy) & x≠y)
• Dylan Thomas is a poet, and there are no other poets.
142. (Pd & ∀ x(Px → x = d)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 22
3 : I n f e r e n c e R u l e s
f o r I d e n t i t y
The Reflexivity Of Identity
• Here is an obvious fact about identity: ∀ x x=x
• Richard Arthur allows you to assume this whenever you want.
It
should be labelled “Implicit Premise” or “Impl. Prem.” for
short.
• Suppose for example that we wish to prove the following
inference:
Premise: Da
143. Conclusion: ∃ x(Dx & x=a)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 24
The Reflexivity Of Identity
1. Da Prem
2. ∀ x x=x Impl. Prem
3. a=a 2, UI
4. (Da & a=a) 1, 3 Conj
5. ∃ x(Dx & x=a) 4, EG
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 25
The Substitution of Identicals
• Suppose you know that Ashni is in Vancouver. And suppose
144. you
know that Ashni is Mrs. Anand. Then obviously you can infer
that
Mrs. Anand is in Vancouver.
• Here is a mathematical example. Suppose you know that N is a
prime number, and you know that N=K. Then you can infer that
K
is a prime number.
• These are examples of the “SI” rule.
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 26
The Substitution of Identicals
• For example, suppose you are asked to prove the following
inference:
Premise: a=b
Premise: Da
145. Premise: Sb
Conclusion: ∃ x(Dx & Sx)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 27
The Substitution of Identicals
1. a=b Prem
2. Da Prem
3. Sb Prem
4. Db 1, 2 SI
5. (Sb & Db) 3, 4 Conj
6. ∃ x(Dx & Sx) 5, EG
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 28
146. 4 : S o m e P r a c t i c e
(1) Premise: ∀ x(Lax → b = x)
Premise: b ≠ c
(2) Premise: a = b
Premise: b = c
Premise: Da
Premise: Sc
Conclusion: ∃ x(Dx & Sx)
(3) Premise: Da
Premise: Sa
Premise: Sb
Conclusion: ∃ x ∃ y((Sx & Sy) & x ≠ y)
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 30
147. (1) Premise: ∀ x(Lax → b = x)
Premise: b ≠ c
1. ∀ x(Lax → b = x) Premise
2. b ≠ c Premise
3. (Lac → b = c) 1, UI
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 31
(2) Premise: a = b
Premise: b = c
Premise: Da
Premise: Sc
Conclusion: ∃ x(Dx & Sx)
1. a = b Premise
148. 2. b = c Premise
3. Da Premise
4. Sc Premise
5. Db 1, 3 SI
6. Dc 2, 5 SI
7. (Dc & Sc) 4, 6 Conj
8. ∃ x(Dx & Sx) 7, EG
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 32
(3) Premise: Da
Premise: Sa
Premise: Sb
Conclusion: ∃ x ∃ y((Sx & Sy) & x ≠ y)
1. Da Premise
3. Sa Premise
4. Sb Premise
5. a = b Supp/RA
6. Db 1, 5 SI
149. 7. ⊥ 2, 6 Conj
8. a ≠ b 5-7, RA
9. (Sa & Sb) 3, 4 Conj
10. ((Sa & Sb) & a ≠ b) 8, 9 Conj
11. ∃ y((Sa & Sy) & a ≠ y) 10, EG
12. ∃ x ∃ y((Sx & Sy) & x ≠ y) 11, EG
PHIL 110; Spring 2020; Lecture 23 33
PHIL 110; Spring 2020
Final Exam
This is an “open book” exam, in the sense that as you complete
the exam you may look at your notes, the
textbook, my lecture slides … or any other resource that you
find helpful.
150. The exam is designed to be taken in three hours, but you may
complete it more quickly or more slowly if
you prefer.
If you find one of the questions unclear, you may email me (at
[email protected]) to ask for clarification.
Otherwise, you should complete this exam without help from
anyone, and without collaborating.
You should upload your answers to Canvas as a pdf:
• You could write your answers by hand, and then scan your
answers to pdf.
• Alternatively, you could type your answers. For help with this,
please refer to the document “How
to Type Your Answers to the PHIL 110 Final”, on Canvas.
151. mailto:[email protected]
Question One (5 points)
Which of the following three inferences are valid? (There is no
need to explain your answers.)
(a) Premise: If Jon forgot to turn the oven on, then the dinner
has been ruined.
Premise: The dinner has been ruined.
Conclusion: Jon forgot to turn the oven on. NOT VALID
(b) Premise: When he retired, Jon moved from Vancouver to
Jamaica.
Conclusion: Jon likes sunny weather. NOT VALID
(c) Premise: Jon is either in Vancouver or in Jamaica.
152. Premise: Jon is not in Vancouver.
Conclusion: Jon is in Jamaica. VALID
Question Two (5 points)
Consider the following argument:
If moral laws are made by people, then moral relativism is true.
But moral relativism is
not true. Therefore, moral laws are not made by people. Moral
laws are either made by
people, or by God. Therefore, moral laws are made by God.
(a) What is the conclusion of this argument?
MORAL LAWS ARE MADE BY GOD.
153. (b) Identify two premises of this argument.
FOR FULL MARKS, STATE ANY OF TWO OF THE
FOLLOWING:
• IF MORAL LAWS ARE MADE BY PEOPLE, THEN MORAL
RELATIVISM IS TRUE.
• MORAL RELATIVISM IS NOT TRUE.
• MORAL LAWS ARE EITHER MADE BY PEOPLE, OR BY
GOD.
(c) Identify two inference rules that are used in the argument.
MT, DS
Question Three (5 points)
Briefly explain the distinction between strict and loose
154. generalizations, giving examples. What is a
counterexample? Can a loose universal generalization be refuted
by a single counterexample?
When you assert a strict universal generalization, you say that
something is true in every single case
without exception. When you assert a loose universal
generalization, you say that something is normally
true, or usually true, or typically true, or true in most cases.
For example:
STRICT: Every single triangle without exception has three
sides.
LOOSE: Dogs typically have four legs.
A strict universal generalization can be refuted a single example
155. – a “counterexample”. For example, if
someone says that every bird can fly, and intends this as a strict
generalization, you can refute them by
showing them a single penguin.
A loose universal generalization cannot be refuted by just one
counterexample.
Question Four (9 points)
Consider the following argument:
Premise One: It’s not true that Ashni and Ben were both
Premise Two: Ashni was cooking. A
Premise Three: If Ashni was cooking and Ben wasn’t, then the
156. Conclusion: The meal was delicious. D
Symbolize the argument, using the following abbreviations:
A: Ashni was cooking.
B: Ben was cooking.
D: The meal was delicious.
Is the argument valid? Justify your answer in detail.
The argument is valid. You can justify this either by giving a
proof or by using a truth table. I’ll do it both
ways:
157. 2. A Prem
6. D 3, 5, MP
T T T F T F F T
T T F F T F F T
T F T T F T T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F F T F T
F T F F F T F T
F F T T F T F T
F F F T F T F T
158. Question Five (2 points)
Krishna has been asked to prove the following statement:
For any natural number n, (n2 + 3n + 10) is even.
Krishna responds by using a computer to check that there are no
counterexamples to the statement
below 1,000,000,000.
Has Krishna proved the statement? Briefly explain your answer.
No, Krishna has not proved the statement. Krishna has shown
that there are no counterexamples to the
statement below one billion, but he has not shown that there are
no counterexamples above one billion.
159. Question Six (9 points)
Exactly one of these two inferences is valid. Give a natural
deduction proof of the valid inference.
(1) Premise: ∀ x(Ax → Bx)
Premise: ∃ x Ax
Conclusion: ∃ x Bx
(2) Premise: ∀ x(Ax → Bx)
Premise: ∃ x Bx
Conclusion: ∃ x Ax
160. (1) is valid:
1. ∀ x(Ax → Bx) Premise
2. ∃ x Ax Premise
3. Ai 2, EI
4. (Ai → Bi) 1, UI
5. Bi 3, 4 MP
6. ∃ x Bx 5, EG
Question Seven (2 points)
Consider the following mathematical proof:
Claim There do not exist whole numbers a and b such that (
161. �
�
)
3
= 2.
Proof Suppose for contradiction that there do exist whole
numbers a and b,
where (
�
�
)
3
= 2.
Then by “cancelling down” the fraction, we can find numbers c
and d which are not both
162. even, where (
�
�
)
3
= 2.
Then c 3 = 2d 3, so c 3 is even. Now we know that the cube of
an odd number must always
be odd. So c is even. So for some number k, c = 2k.
Now since c 3 = 2d 3 and c = 2k, we have (2k)3 = 2d 3. Thus 8k
3 = 2d 3, and so 4k 3 = d 3.
This implies that d 3 is even, and so d is even.
But now we’ve shown that both c and d are even – which
contradicts our initial
statement that c and d are not both even. Thus we have arrived
at a contradiction and the
163. proof is complete.
Identify one inference rule that is used in this proof.
The RA rule is used – note the giveaway phrase “suppose for
contradiction”.
Question Eight (5 points)
Using the following symbols, symbolize the statements listed
below.
Universe of Discourse: the people at a party
a Ashni
b Ben
c Chiara
164. Lxy x loves y.
Sx x is a singer.
(1) Ashni loves Ben, but Ben doesn’t love her back.
(2) Ben loves Chiara and nobody else.
(Lbc & ∀ x(Lbx → x = c)
(3) There are at least two people who love Ben.
∃ x ∃ y((Lxb & Lyb) & x ≠ y)
(4) Everyone who Ashni loves, Ben loves too.
∀ x(Lax → Lbx)
165. (5) Ashni loves someone, and that person loves everyone who
loves Ben.
∃ x(Lax & ∀ y(Lyb → Lxy))
Question Nine (6 points)
In each part of this question, there are two statements. You
should choose one statement to be the
premise, and the other to be the conclusion, in such a way that
the resulting argument is valid. (You do
not need to explain your answers). I use the same symbols as in
Question Eight.
(a) ((Sa → Sb) & (Sb → Sc)) PREMISE
(Sa → Sc) CONCLUSION
166. (b) ∃
∃ x (Sx & Lxc) PREMISE
(c) ∃ x ∀ y Lxy PREMISE
∀ y ∃ x Lxy CONCLUSION
Question Ten (10 points)
“Every statement is either true or false.” Do you agree or
disagree? Explain your answer.
SEE LECTURE 14 FOR MY ANSWER.
Question One (3 points)
Which of the following three inferences are valid? (There is no
167. need to explain your answers.)
(a) Premise: Liu Yang spends two hours every day playing the
violin.
Conclusion: Liu Yang wants to be a good violinist.
(b) Premise: If Liu Yang is in class, she is on campus.
Premise: Liu Yang is on campus.
Conclusion: Liu Yang is in class.
(c) Premise: If Liu Yang is in class, she is on campus.
Premise: Liu Yang is in class.
Conclusion: Liu Yang is on campus.
Question Two (2 points)
168. Consider the following argument:
If God is both omnipotent and loving, then His creatures never
suffer. But it just isn’t true
that God’s creatures never suffer (just look around!) so it is not
true that God is both
omnipotent and loving. But we know for sure that God is
loving. That is certain.
Therefore, God is not omnipotent. The conventional wisdom is
wrong on this point.
Identify two inference rules that are used in the argument.
Question Three (2 points)
Juan has shown that a certain inference is valid, using a truth
table. Ella is trying to show that the
inference is valid by giving a natural deduction proof. Do you
169. think it’s possible for Ella to find a proof of
the inference? Briefly explain your answer.
Question Four (2 points)
Zeynep is asked to prove the following statement:
The sum of the internal angles in a pentagon is 540°.
Zeynep responds by carefully drawing a number of pentagons,
and measuring their internal angles. She
confirms that, in each case, the sum of the angles is 540°.
Has Zeynep proved the statement? Briefly explain your answer.
Question Five (10 points)
170. Consider the following argument:
Premise One: Either Ashni or Ben attended the party.
Premise Two: If Ashni attended the party, it was a great
success.
Premise Three: Ben didn’t attend the party, if it wasn’t a great
success.
Conclusion: The party was a great success.
Symbolize the argument, using the following abbreviations:
A: Ashni attended the party.
B: Ben attended the party.
S: The party was a great success.
171. Is the argument valid? Justify your answer in detail.
Question Six (7 points)
Exactly one of these two inferences is valid. Give a natural
deduction proof of the valid inference.
(1) Premise: ∀
Premise: ∃
Conclusion: ∃ x Bx
(2) Premise: ∀
Premise: ∃ x Bx
Conclusion: ∃
Question Seven (2 points)
172. Identify an inference rule that is used in the mathematical proof
written in this box:
Theorem For any whole numbers x and y, x2 – 4y ≠ 2.
Proof Suppose for contradiction that it is false that for any
whole numbers x
and y, x2 – 4y ≠ 2.
Then there exist whole numbers x and y, where x2 – 4y = 2.
Let’s say that a and b are whole numbers, where a2 – 4b = 2
Then a2 = 2 + 4b, so a2 = 2(1 + 2b).
So a2 is even.
So a is even.
So for some whole number c, a = 2c.
Thus, (2c)2 – 4b =2, and so 4c2 – 4b = 2.
173. So 2c2 – 2b = 1, and so 2(c2 – b) = 1.
Now clearly 2(c2 – b) is even, so 1 is even.
But this is absurd: 1 is not an even number! Thus the proof is
complete.
Question Eight (5 points)
Using the following symbols, symbolize the statements listed
below.
Universe of Discourse: the people at a certain party
b Ben
c Chiara
Axy x admires y.
174. Mx x is a mathematician.
(1) Ben doesn’t admire Chiara, even though Chiara admires
Ben.
(2) Ben and Chiara admire each other.
(3) Every mathematician admires Chiara.
(4) There are at least two mathematicians who admire Ben.
(5) There’s a mathematician who admires everyone.
Question Nine (2 points)
For this question, we will use the same symbols as in Question
Eight. We will continue to assume that the
universe of discourse is the class of people at a certain party.
Here are three statements. Choose two of them to be premises,
and one of them to be the conclusion, in
175. such a way that the resulting argument is valid:
(1) ∀ x(Mx → ∃ y Ayx)
(3) ∀
There is no need to explain your answer.
Question Ten (10 points)
“Every statement is either true or false”.
Do you agree or disagree? Explain your answer.