Concise Guide, 7th EditionStudent Paper ChecklistUse t

Concise Guide, 7th Edition
Student Paper Checklist
Use this checklist while writing your paper to make sure it is
consistent with seventh edition APA Style. This checklist
corresponds to the writing and formatting guidelines described
in full in the Concise Guide to APA Style (7th ed.).
Refer to the following chapters for specific information:
• paper elements and format in Chapter 1
• writing style and grammar in Chapter 2
• bias-free language in Chapter 3
• punctuation, lists, and italics in Chapter 4
• spelling, capitalization, and abbreviations in Chapter 5
• numbers and statistics in Chapter 6
• tables and figures in Chapter 7
• in-text citations in Chapter 8
• reference list and reference examples in
Chapters 9 and 10
Information and resources are also available on the APA Style
website. If you have questions about specific

assignment guidelines or what to include in your APA Style
paper, please check with your assigning instructor
or institution. If you have questions about formatting your
thesis or dissertation, check your institution’s
guidelines or consult your advisor.
Student Title Page
Format (Section 1.6): Double-space the title
page. Center each element on its own line.
Do not use italics, underlining, or different
font sizes.
Title (Section 1.7): Concise, engaging summary
of the paper and its main topic and/or variables.
Write the title in title case: Capitalize the first
letter of the title, the subtitle, and any major
words of four letters or more (plus linking verbs
“Is,” “Are,” and “Be”). Double-space, center,
and bold the title in the upper half of the title
page (three or four lines down from the top
margin).
Author Name (Section 1.8): Full name of each
author of the paper. The preferred format is
first name, middle initial(s), and last name (e.g.,
Maribel S. Quantez). Center the name two
double-spaced lines after the title (i.e., one
blank line between the title and author name).
Author Affiliation (Section 1.9): Name of the
department of the course to which the paper
is being submitted and name of the college or
university. Use the format: Department, College
(e.g., Department of History, Williams College).

Do not include the school’s location unless part
of its name. Center the affiliation one double-
spaced line after the author name(s).
Course Number and Name (Section 1.6):
Number and name of course to which the paper
is being submitted. Use the format shown
on course materials (e.g., syllabus). Write the
number and name on the same line. Center the
number and name one double-spaced line after
the affiliation.
https://apastyle.apa.org/
Instructor Name (Section 1.6): Name of the
instructor of the course to which the paper is
being submitted. Use the title and name shown
on course materials (e.g., syllabus). Center the
name one double-spaced line after the course
number and name.
Due Date (Section 1.6): Due date of the
assignment. Include the month, day, and year
in the format used in your country (e.g., May 4,
2020, or 4 May 2020). Spell out the month and
write the full year. Center the date one double-
spaced line after the instructor name.
Page Header (Section 1.17): Page number 1.
Flush right in the header (upper right corner).
Paper Format
Page Header (Section 1.17): Page number.
Appears flush right in the header (upper right
corner) of all pages. Insert page numbers using

the automatic page-numbering function of your
word-processing program.
Font and Font Size (Section 1.18): Use the
same font and font size throughout your
paper (exception: figure images require a
sans serif font and can use various font sizes).
Recommended serif and sans serif fonts:
° 11-point Calibri
° 11-point Arial
° 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode
° 12-point Times New Roman
° 11-point Georgia
° 10-point Computer Modern
Line Spacing (Section 1.20): Double-space the
entire paper. Do not add extra lines before or
after headings or between paragraphs.
Margins (Section 1.21): Margins are 1 in. on all
sides (top, bottom, left, and right).
Paragraph Alignment and Indentation
(Sections 1.22–1.23): Left-align the text (do not
use full justification). Indent the first line of each
paragraph 0.5 in. (one tab key).
Paper Length (Section 1.24): Follow the
assignment guidelines. If not instructed

otherwise, use the word-count function of your
word-processing program to determine paper
length, counting every word in the paper—but
do not count words in figure images.
Paper Organization
Introduction (Section 1.11): Repeat the paper
title on the first line of the first page of text,
before the opening paragraph. Center and
bold the title. Do not include an “Introduction”
heading. Start the first line of the text one
double-spaced line after the title. Use Level 2
headings for subsections in the introduction.
Text (Section 1.11): Use headings as needed to
organize the text. Use Level 1 headings for main
sections after the introduction (e.g., Method,
Results, Findings, Discussion).
Page Order (Section 1.16): Start each main
paper section on a new page. Arrange pages in
the following order:
° title page
° abstract (if needed)
° text
° references
° footnotes (if needed)
° tables (if needed)
° figures (if needed)

appendices (if needed)°
Headings (Section 1.26): Start each new
section with a heading. Write all headings in
title case and bold. Also italicize Level 3 and 5
headings. Follow seventh edition guidelines for
the alignment of headings, as described on the
Headings page.
Section Labels (Section 1.27): Bold and center
labels, including “Abstract” and “References.”
Writing Style
Continuity (Sections 2.1–2.3): Check for
continuity in words, concepts, and thematic
development across the paper. Explain
relationships between ideas clearly. Present
ideas in a logical order. Use clear transitions
to smoothly connect sentences, paragraphs,
and ideas.
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format/headings
https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/style-transitions-
guide.pdf
Conciseness (Sections 2.4–2.6): Choose
words and phrases carefully and deliberately.
Eliminate wordiness, redundancy, evasiveness,
circumlocution, overuse of the passive
voice, and clumsy prose. Do not use jargon,
contractions, or colloquialisms. Avoid overusing

both short, simple sentences and long, involved
sentences; instead, use varied sentence lengths.
Avoid both single-sentence paragraphs and
paragraphs longer than one double-spaced
page.
Clarity (Sections 2.7–2.11): Use clear and
precise language. Use a professional tone and
professional language. Do not use jargon,
contractions, colloquialisms, or creative
literary devices. Check for anthropomorphistic
language (i.e., attributing human actions to
inanimate objects or nonhuman animals). Make
logical comparisons using clear word choice
and sentence structure.
Grammar
Verb Tense (Section 2.12): Use verb tenses
consistently in the same and adjacent
paragraphs. Use appropriate verb tenses for
specific paper sections, as described on the
Verb Tense page.
Voice and Mood (Sections 2.13–2.14): Use
the active voice instead of the passive voice as
much as possible. Use the passive voice only
when focusing on the recipient of an action
rather than on who performed the action.
Subject and Verb Agreement (Section 2.15):
Use verbs that agree in number (i.e., singular or
plural) with their subjects.
Pronouns (Sections 2.16–2.21): Use first-
person pronouns to describe your work and
your personal reactions (e.g., “I examined,”

“I agreed with”), including your work with
coauthors (e.g., “We conducted”). Use the
singular “they” when referring to a person who
uses it as their self-identified pronoun or to a
person whose gender is unknown or irrelevant.
Use other pronouns correctly.
Bias-Free Language (Chapter 5)
Eliminate biased language from your writing.
Avoid perpetuating prejudicial beliefs or
demeaning attitudes. Instead, use bias-free
language to describe all people and their
personal characteristics with inclusivity and
respect, including
° age
° disability
° gender
° participation in research
° racial and ethnic identity
° sexual orientation
° socioeconomic status
° intersectionality
For guidelines on writing about people without
bias and examples of bias-free language, see
the Bias-Free Language pages.
Punctuation, Italics, and Lists

Punctuation (Sections 4.1–4.6, 4.8–4.10): Use
punctuation marks correctly (periods, commas,
semicolons, colons, dashes, parentheses,
brackets, slashes), including in reference list
entries. Use varied punctuation marks in your
paper. Avoid having multiple punctuation
marks in the same sentence; instead, split the
sentence into multiple shorter sentences. Use
one space after a period or other punctuation
mark at the end of a sentence. Use a serial
comma before the final element in lists of three
or more items. Use parentheses to set off
in-text citations.
Quotation Marks (Sections 4.7): Use quotation
marks correctly. Place commas and periods
inside closing quotation marks; place other
punctuation marks (e.g., colons, semicolons,
ellipses) outside closing quotation marks. Use
quotation marks around direct quotations.
Italics (Sections 4.15–4.16): Use italics correctly
to draw attention to text. Use italics for the first
use of key terms or phrases accompanied by a
definition. Do not use italics for emphasis.
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https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-
guidelines/grammar/anthropomorphism
guidelines/grammar/anthropomorphism
guidelines/grammar/logical-comparisons
guidelines/grammar/verb-tense

guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice
guidelines/grammar/first-person-pronouns
guidelines/grammar/first-person-pronouns
guidelines/grammar/singular-they
https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/bias-free-
language/age
language/disability
language/gender
language/research-participation
language/racial-ethnic-minorities
language/sexual-orientation
language/socioeconomic-status
language/intersectionality
language/
guidelines/punctuation/space-after-period
guidelines/punctuation/serial-comma
guidelines/punctuation/serial-comma
https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/italics-
quotations/quotation-marks
https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/italics-
quotations/italics

Lists (Sections 4.11–4.14): Ensure items in lists
are parallel. Use commas to separate items
in simple lists. Use semicolons to separate
items when any items in the list already contain
commas.
For more information, including how to create
lettered, numbered, and bulleted lists, see the
Lists pages.
Spelling, Capitalization,
and Abbreviations
Spelling and Hyphenation (Sections 5.1–5.2):
Spelling and hyphenation should match the
Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary or the APA
Dictionary of Psychology. Write words with
prefixes and suffixes without a hyphen.
For more information, including the spelling of
common technology terms, see the Spelling
and Hyphenation pages.
Capitalization (Sections 5.3–5.11): Use title
case and sentence case capitalization correctly.
Capitalize proper nouns, including names of
racial and ethnic groups. Do not capitalize
names of diseases, disorders, therapies,
treatments, theories, concepts, hypotheses,
principles, models, and statistical procedures,
unless personal names appear within these
terms.
For more information, including capitalization

to use for specific paper elements, see the
Capitalization pages.
Abbreviations (Section 5.12–5.18): Use
abbreviations sparingly and usually when
they are familiar to readers, save considerable
space, and appear at least three times in
the paper. Define abbreviations, including
abbreviations for group authors, on first use.
Do not use periods in abbreviations. Use Latin
abbreviations only in parentheses, and use
the full Latin term in the text. Do not define
abbreviations listed as terms in the dictionary
(e.g., AIDS, IQ) and abbreviations for units of
measurement, time, Latin terms, and common
statistical terms and symbols.
For more information, including abbreviations
that do not need to be defined, see the
Abbreviations pages.
Numbers and Statistics
Numbers (Sections 6.1–6.8): Use words to
express numbers zero through nine in the
text. Use numerals to express numbers 10 and
above in the text. In all cases, use numerals in
statistical or mathematical functions, with units
of measurement, and for fractions, decimals,
ratios, percentages and percentiles, times,
dates, ages, scores and points on a scale, sums
of money, and numbers in a series (e.g., Year 1,
Grade 11, Chapter 2, Level 13, Table 4).
For more information and exceptions, see the
Numbers pages.

Statistics (Sections 6.9–6.12): Include enough
information to allow readers to fully understand
any analyses conducted. Space mathematical
copy the same as words, with spaces between
signs. Use statistical terms in narrative text: “the
means were,“ not “the Ms were.” Use statistical
symbols or abbreviations with mathematical
operators: “(M = 6.62),” not “(mean = 6.62).”
Tables and Figures
General Guidelines (Sections 7.1–7.7): Include
tables and/or figures if required for your paper
or assignment. When possible, use a standard,
or canonical, form for a table or figure. Do not
use shading or other decorative flourishes.
In the text, refer to each table or figure by its
number. Explain what to look for in that table
or figure by calling out the table or figure in the
text (e.g., “Table 1 lists…” “As shown in Figure
1…”).
Either embed each table or figure in the
text after it is first mentioned or place it on
a separate page after the reference list. If
embedded, place the table or figure at either
the top or the bottom of the page with an extra
double-spaced line between the table or the
figure and any text.
Tables (Sections 7.8–7.21): Use the tables
feature of your word-processing program to
create tables. Number tables in the order they
are mentioned in the text. Include borders only
at the top and the bottom of the table, beneath

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https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/spelling-
hyphenation/spelling
hyphenation/hyphenation
https://www.merriam-webster.com/
https://dictionary.apa.org/
https://dictionary.apa.org/
hyphenation/
hyphenation/
guidelines/capitalization/title-case
guidelines/capitalization/title-case
guidelines/capitalization/sentence-case
guidelines/capitalization/proper-nouns
https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization
guidelines/abbreviations/definition
guidelines/abbreviations/latin
guidelines/abbreviations/latin
https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/abbreviations
https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/abbreviations
https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers
column headings, and above column spanners.
Do not use vertical borders or borders around

every cell in the table.
All tables include four basic components:
number, title, column headings, and body.
Write the table number above the table title
and body and in bold. Write the table title one
double-spaced line below the table number
and in italic title case. Label all columns. Center
column headings, and capitalize them in
sentence case. Include notes beneath the table
if needed to describe the contents. Start each
type of note (general, specific, and probability)
on its own line, and double-space it.
See sample tables on the APA Style website.
Figures (Sections 7.22–7.32): Use a program
appropriate for creating figures (e.g., Word,
Excel, Photoshop, Inkscape, SPSS). Number
figures in the order they are mentioned in the
text. Within figures, check that images are clear,
lines are smooth and sharp, and font is legible
and simple. Provide units of measurement.
Clearly label or explain axes and other figure
elements.
All figures include three basic components:
number, title, and image. Write the figure
number above the figure title and image and
in bold. Write the figure title one double-
spaced line below the figure number and in
italic title case. Write text in the figure image
in a sans serif font between 8 and 14 points.
Include a figure legend if needed to explain
any symbols in the image. Position the legend
within the borders of the figure, and capitalize

it in title case. Include notes beneath the figure
if needed to describe the contents. Start each
type of note (general, specific, and probability)
on its own line, and double-space it.
See sample figures on the APA Style website.
In-Text Citations (Chapter 8)
Cite only works you read and ideas you
incorporated into your paper.
Include all sources cited in the text in the
reference list (exception: personal
communications are cited in the text only).
Make sure the spelling of author names and the
publication dates in the in-text citations match
those of the corresponding reference
list entries.
Paraphrase sources in your own words
whenever possible.
For guidance on how to paraphrase sources,
see the Paraphrasing pages.
Cite appropriately to avoid plagiarism, but do
not repeat the same citation in every sentence
when the source and topic do not change.
For guidance on appropriate citation, see the
Appropriate Level of Citation page.
Write author–date citations according to
seventh edition guidelines: Include the author
(or title if no author) and year. For paraphrases,

it is optional to include a specific page
number(s), paragraph number(s), or other
location (e.g., section name) if the source work
being paraphrased is long or complex.
° One author: Use the author surname in all in-
text citations.
° Two authors: Use both author surnames in all
in-text citations.
° Three or more authors: Use only the first
author surname and then “et al.” in all
in-text citations.
For more information, including exceptions
to basic in-text citation styles, see the Basic
Principles of Citation pages.
Use either the narrative or the parenthetical
citation format for in-text citations.
° Parenthetical citation: Place the author name
and publication year in parentheses.
° Narrative citation: Incorporate the author
name into the text as part of the sentence and
then follow with the year in parentheses.
For works with two authors,
° use an ampersand (&) in parenthetical in-text
citations: (Guirrez & Castillo, 2020)
° use the word “and” in narrative in-text
citations: Guirrez and Castillo (2020)

For more information, see the Parenthetical and
Narrative Citations page.
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figures/sample-tables
https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/tables-
figures/sample-figures
guidelines/citations/paraphrasing
guidelines/citations/appropriate-citation
guidelines/citations/basic-principles/
guidelines/citations/basic-principles/
guidelines/citations/basic-principles/parenthetical-versus-
narrative
guidelines/citations/basic-principles/parenthetical-versus-
narrative
When citing multiple works in parentheses,
place the citations in alphabetical order. When
multiple parenthetical citations have the same
author(s), order the years chronologically and
separate them with commas (e.g., Coutlee,
2019, 2020). When the authors are different,
separate the parenthetical citations with
semicolons (e.g., Coutlee, 2019, 2020; Ngwane,
2020; Oishi, 2019).

For more examples, see the Citation of Multiple
Works page.
Limit the use of direct quotations. Include the
author (or title if no author), year, and specific
part of the work (page number(s), paragraph
number(s), section name) in the citation.
° Short quotation (less than 40 words): Use
double quotation marks around the quotation.
° Block quotation (40 words or more): Use the
block format: Indent the entire quotation 0.5
in. from the left margin and double-space it.
For more information, see the Quotations page.
References (Chapters 9 and 10)
Start the reference list on a new page after
the text.
Center and bold the section label “References”
at the top of the page.
Double-space the entire reference list, both
within and between entries.
Use a hanging indent for each reference
entry: First line of the reference is flush left,
and subsequent lines are indented by 0.5 in.
Apply the hanging indent using the paragraph-
formatting function of your word-processing
program.
All reference entries should have a
corresponding in-text citation. The beginning

of the reference entry (usually the first
author’s surname) and year should match the
corresponding in-text citation.
List references in alphabetical order according
to seventh edition guidelines.
Create the appropriate reference entry for
the type of work being cited, as described in
Chapter 9 and shown in Chapter 10 and on the
Reference Examples pages.
Do not create reference entries for personal
communications and secondary sources.
For a list of works to include and exclude from a
reference list, see the Works Included page.
Each reference entry includes four elements:
author, date, title, and source.
See exceptions for references with missing
information on the Missing Information page.
Use punctuation to group information and
separate reference elements.
For more information, see the Basic Principles
of References page.
List authors in the same order as the original
source. Use initials for authors’ first and middle
names. Put a comma after the surname and a
period and a space after each initial (e.g. Lewis,
C. S.). Put a comma after each author (even two
authors). Use an ampersand before the last

author.
For more information, including what to do
when a work has more than 20 authors, see the
Reference Elements page.
Capitalize titles in sentence case: Capitalize only
the first word of the title, the subtitle, and any
proper nouns. Format titles according to the
type of work.
° Works that stand alone: Italicize the title
(e.g., authored books, reports, data sets,
dissertations and theses, films, TV series,
albums, podcasts, social media, websites).
° Works that are part of a greater whole: Do
not italicize or use quotation marks around
the title (e.g., periodical articles, edited book
chapters, TV and podcast episodes, songs).
Write the title of the greater whole (e.g., journal
or edited book) in italics in the source element.
For more information, including when to
include bracketed descriptions for titles, see the
References Elements page.
6
guidelines/citations/basic-principles/multiple-works
guidelines/citations/basic-principles/multiple-works
guidelines/citations/quotations/

guidelines/references/examples
guidelines/citations/personal-communications
guidelines/citations/personal-communications
guidelines/citations/secondary-sources
guidelines/references/works-included
guidelines/references/elements-list-entry#author
guidelines/references/elements-list-entry#date
guidelines/references/elements-list-entry#title
guidelines/references/elements-list-entry#source
guidelines/references/missing-information
guidelines/references/basic-principles
guidelines/references/basic-principles
guidelines/references/elements-list-entry#author
guidelines/references/elements-list-entry#title
Do not include database information for
works retrieved from academic research
databases. Do include database information
for works retrieved from databases with
original, proprietary content or works of limited
circulation (e.g., UpToDate).

For more information, see the Database
Information page.
Include a DOI or URL for any work that has one.
If there is no DOI, include a URL if the work
is retrieved online (but not from a database).
Present DOIs and URLs as hyperlinks (beginning
with “http:” or “https:”). Copy and paste DOIs
and URLs directly from your web browser. Do
not write “Retrieved from” or “Accessed from”
before a DOI or URL. Do not add a period after
a DOI or URL.
For more information, see the DOIs and URLs
page.
© 2021
Last updated March 10, 2021
More information on APA Style can be found in the Publication
Manual of the
American Psychological Association (7th ed.) and the Concise
Guide to APA
Style (7th ed.).
CITE THIS HANDOUT:
American Psychological Association. (2021). Concise
Guide, 7th edition student paper checklist.
https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/
concise-guide-formatting-checklist.pdf
We thank Miriam Bowers-Abbott, of Mount Carmel College
of Nursing, for providing the inspiration for this content.

guidelines/references/database-information
guidelines/references/database-information
guidelines/references/dois-urls
https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/concise-guide-
formatting-checklist.pdf
https://apastyle.apa.org/products/concise-guide
https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition
Student Title Page Format: OffStudent Title Page Author Name:
OffStudent Title Page Author Affiliation: OffStudent Title Page
Course Name and Number: OffStudent Title Page Instructor
Name: OffStudent Title Page Due Date: OffStudent Title Page
Page Header: OffPage Format Page Header: OffPage Format
Font and Font Size: OffPage Format Line Spacing: OffPage
Format Margins: OffPage Format Paragraph Alignment and
Indentation: OffPaper Format Paper Length: OffPaper
Organization Introduction: OffPaper Organization Text:
OffPaper Organization Page Order: OffPaper Organization
Headings: OffPaper Organization Section Labels: OffWriting
Style Continuity: OffWriting Style Conciseness: OffWriting
Style Clarity: OffBias-Free Language: OffGrammar Verb Tense:
OffGrammar Voice and Mood: OffGrammar Subject and Verb
Agreement: OffGrammar Pronouns: OffPunctuation:
OffQuotation Marks: OffItalics: OffLists: OffSpelling and
Hyphenation: OffCapitalization: OffAbbreviations:
OffNumbers: OffStatistics: OffTables and Figures General
Guidelines: OffTables: OffFigures: OffIn-Text Citations Cite
Works You Read: OffIn-Text Citations Include All Cited
Sources in Reference List: OffIn-Text Citations Check Spelling:
OffIn-Text Citations Paraphrase Sources: OffIn-Text Citations
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Parenthetical Citation Format: OffIn-Text Citations Two
Authors: OffIn-Text Citations Citing Multiple Works in

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OffReferences Start on New Page After Text: OffReferences
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Capitalization: OffReferences Database Information:
OffReferences DOI or URL: OffStudent Title Page Title: Off
RESPOND TO 2 PEER POSTS, INCLUDE CITATIONS
BMGT DISCUSSIONS
AUSTIN’S POST:
1. Analyze and recommend whether Tacy should be an
employee of Clean or an independent contractor? Explain why.
In deciding if Clean should hire George Tacy as a full time
employee of Clean or sign a contract to have him be an
independent contractor there are multiple variables to weigh.
My personal opinion would be that Clean should hire Tacy as a
full time employee. This move would give Clean more control
over Tacy's work agenda, as well as having the comfort of
knowing Tacy is working 100% to fill his commitment to Clean
and not distracted by other outside offers or contracts. Also if
you sign Tacy as an employee he can not only fulfil his
commitment of recommending/hiring IT employees, but he can
also help with their onboarding process and give these new
employees guidance and help as they begin their new role with
the Clean company. On the other hand as an independent
contractor, Tacy would be able to to recommend Clean to
prospective candidates from an outside position, rather than tr y
to sell these candidates on Clean while also being a full time
employee. This could also work against Clean, because as an

independent contractor, Tacy may not be loyal to Clean and may
either misrepresent Clean's values or not work his hardest on
selling candidates on Clean. Being an independent contractor
may also make compensation and benefits more difficult for
Clean, compared to paying a full time employee of the
company. In my opinion their are more benefits to hiring Mr.
Tacy as a full time employee, rather than a independent
contractor and would recommend to Winne and Ralph that they
hire him full time to join the Clean family.
References:
Saylor.org. (2022). Relationships between Principal and Agent.
Saylor.Org. Retrieved February 25, 2022,
from https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_law-for-
entrepreneurs/s23-relationships-between-principa.html
less
CHRISTINE’S POST:
1. Analyze and recommend whether Tacy should be an
employee of Clean or an independent contractor? Explain why.
ANS:
I would recommend Tacy to be an employee of Clean because
by doing so, she will benefit from the principal/agent
relationship. Once Tacy enters into this relationship, she is
legally bind to act on behalf of her principal and the principal
has the duty to honor any contract she makes with the agent
(Tacy), to deal fairly with the agent and to indemnify the agent
if following the principal's directions gets the agent in trouble.
(Fraser Sheman, 2018). On the other hand, Tacy will be given
three authorities namely, Express authority (In this type of
authority, the principal says what they want the agent to do)
The second one is Implied authority where the agent takes
actions necessary to carry out the principal's express orders.
Lastly, Apparent authority is when the agent deals with a third
party and appears to be acting for the principal. Even if the
agent exceeds his authority, the third party may be able to hold
the principal to the deal. (Fraser Sheman, 2018). Aside from all

this, she has the duty to act in the best interest of the principal
at all times, never doing business for her own personal gain.
Most of the liability under the principal/agent relationship or
contract falls on the principal hence beneficial to the agent.
Although that might not be the case every time as there are also
some disadvantages associated with such a relationship. In most
cases, the principal always acts in their own best interest, the
agent will put in their very best to ensure the business runs
smoothly but at the ed of the day, they do not see the profit. The
other downside of principal/agent relationship is that there is
close monitoring by the principal of the agent is performing her
work hence the agent has less freedom to work peacefully. (
Reference
Fraser Sheman., (June 2018). The Definition of Principal Vs.
Agent. Retrieved from https://work.chron.com/definition-
principal-vs-agent-14381.html.
Wolfram Muller-Freienfels. Agency Law. Retrieved
from https://www.britiannica.com/topic/agency/law.
Liability of Principal and Agent; Termination of Agency.
Retrieved from https://saylordotorg.github.io/text-law-for-
enterpreneurs/s24-liability-of-principal-and-age.html.
AASP DISCUSSIONS
ARMOND’S POST:
In the Reveal podcast episode, "Banking on inequality," Sarah
Gonzalez reviews how Paycheck Protection Program loans were
unequally distributed among local businesses. In her findings,
she noted that only 32% of businesses in predominantly black
neighborhoods received PPP loans, while 61% of businesses in
predominately white areas received them (Gonzalez, 2021).
Furthermore, only 10% of businesses in majority Latino
communities received these loans (Gonzalez, 2021). One cause
cited for the disproportionate allocations was the business
owners' relationships with banks finding that many banks were

serving current clients first even with the knowledge that it
would negatively impact minority-owned businesses (Gonzalez,
2021). Compounding on this is the fact that most minority-
owned businesses are small businesses, and these were the ones
receiving the least help from the program (Gonzalez, 2021).
These findings demonstrate the privilege whites have had and
continue to have in this country even with over a century and a
half of progress. Like in the case of early African American
business ownership after the reconstruction period, minority
business owners today were able to adapt to the unjust struggles
they were faced with through community support. However, an
ability to adapt to such a struggle, particularly during a crisis of
such scale, would never be required of a party genuinely being
treated as equal. This leads to the fact that, as has been shown
through history, African Americans and minorities in America
are left to bear burdens that whites and the systems whites
created placed upon them.
While the current situation has variations on past acts of
discrimination, it does eerily resemble the mentality of
"separate but equal" in that PPP loans were technically made
available equally to all but clearly were far from equal. It's
worth noting that there are distinct differences between the two,
but the similarities are more troubling. For instance, a
difference may be that "separate but equal" was made explicitly
known, while PPP's discriminatory distributions were not
initially known to the public. However, in both cases, those in
power were aware of the effects of their actions; in the case of
PPP, banks were aware that their distribution methods would
negatively afflict minority-owned businesses. So it seems the
mentality of discrimination has changed little while the
techniques have only become more refined.
Source:
Gonzalez, S. G. (2021, May 1). Banking on inequity. Reveal.
Retrieved February 26, 2022,
from https://revealnews.org/podcast/banking-on-inequity/

GLORIA’S POST:
The Podcast that I chose was Witnessing Black History, Brown
v. the Board of Education, and his daughter, Cheryl Brown
Henderson, was being interviewed. Most African Americans in
the United States had become sick and tired of their encounters
with racism and discrimination. Now, it was affecting their
children, and something had to be done. The time period was
during the early 1950s.
Oliver Brown had been raised in Topeka, KS, and lived
there his entire life. He worked as a welder and was studying to
become a pastor. During that time, there were only four
elementary schools that were segregated. When attending
school, his eight-year-old daughter had to walk through a
dangerous rail yard to catch the school bus, and then ride for a
mile to the black school. However, there was a white elementary
school a lot closer to their home. In 1951, Brown went to enroll
his daughter in the white school, but was turned down along
with other black families trying to enroll their children as well.
The Topeka Board of Education denied all of their enrollment
requests (Carriuolo, 2004).
The families, then, decided to challenge the decision in
refusing their children admission to the white school. The
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
(NAACP) provided legal assistance. However, the district court
ruled in favor of the school board referring to the 1896 U.S.
Supreme Court ruling, Plessy v. Ferguson, declaring segregation
legal provided separate but equal facilities existed.
During 1952, the U.S. Supreme Court agreed to hear
arguments concerning segregation in public schools. There were
a total of five different cases under the name Brown v. Board of
Education of Topeka that included Kansas, South Carolina,
Virginia, Delaware, and the District of Columbia (Neal &
Moore, 2004). Many children who lived in South Carolina and
Virginia did not begin school until aged seven or eight years.
Some of the black schools were five or more miles away from

their homes and it was too far a distance to walk at five or six
years of age. At various times, school busses with white
children would pass the black children walking to school and
would throw things at them and call them names from the
windows in the bus.
There were a total of 13 families on the roster of the
NAACP case and Oliver Brown was the tenth plaintiff to sign
on but he turned out to be the main plaintiff in the case. It,
probably, was due to the fact that the other 12 plaintiffs were
all females and he was the only male. It took a lot of courage
for Brown and the other plaintiffs to proceed with their fight
against racial injustice (Russo, 2004).
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, KS, was filed in
1951. The Superintendent of Schools in Topeka, KS, had written
and sent letters to black teachers informing them that if the
Supreme Court ruling favored the blacks, many of them would
lose their jobs. He felt that many white parents would not have
their children being taught by black teachers. The NAACP's
leading attorney, Thurgood Marshall, argued the case before the
U.S. Supreme Court. In 1954, the court, unanimously, ruled that
segregation of public schools on the basis of race was
unconstitutional, and violated the 14th amendment (Carriuolo,
2004). The case was a huge victory in the long battle for civil
rights in America. Also, it struck down "separate but equal," in
the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision.
This relates to racism, discrimination, and denial of rights
under the U.S. Constitution. The NAACP was a Godsend for
most African Americans who did not possess the funds for legal
fees and the strategy that it used in combining the five similar
cases of segregation in schools in other states.
References
Carriuolo, Nancy E. (2004). 50 Years after Brown v. the Board
of Education: An interview with Cheryl Brown
Henderson. Journal of Development Education 27 no3 20-2, 24,
26-7 Spr 2004. 8 pp.
Neal, La Vonne I, & Moore, Alicia L. (2004). Their Cries Went

up together: Brown ET AL v. Board of Education then and
now. Journal of Curriculum & Supervision. Fall 2004, Vol. 20
Issue 1, p5-13.
Russo, Charles J. (2004). Brown v. Board of Education at 50; an
update on school desegregation in the US. Education and the
Law, Vol. 16, Nos. 2-3, June/September 2004
Witness Black History Podcast:
https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p01h9d10/episodes/downloa
ds
FEEDBACK
Overall Feedback
Thank you for your participation. Below you will find a few
comments that will help with improving your posts and raising
your scores in the future:
1. Make sure that you are using course readings first before
consulting outside sources. These readings are required reading
by all students in the course and the weekly discussion
questions offer you the opportunity to display your
comprehension of these readings.
2. Good engagement with your peers, but continue to work on
expanding those posts using the tips provided during Week 1.
3. Be careful of making generalizations that are not supported
by evidence and that are in fact inaccurate. A number of these
generalizations can be found in your posts. For example, you
note in one of your posts that "[b]lack people were poorer than
the whites." This could be true in some places at some times,
but this was not necessarily true at all times, particularly in the
earliest days of settlement when indentured servants, black and
white, worked alongside each other and occupied similar a
social/class status in society.
4. Overall Feedback
5. Continue to work on expanding your peer responses. Also,
work on including multiple sources in your Initial Post. Your
post this week relied heavily on one source and thus seemed
underdeveloped.

Unit 4 Idenitification
Research the Innocence Project. Prepare a detailed history of its
functions, its purpose, those it has helped, the problems they
encounter, why they can't help some people.
This paper should be no less than 4 pages.
6 American Nurse Journal Volume 16, Number 7
MyAmericanNurse.com
THE Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Serv-
ices report that pressure injuries (PIs) affect
millions of patients each year, with incidence
rates ranging from 2.2% to 23.9% in long-term
care organizations. PIs occur as a result of in-
tense or prolonged pressure in combination
with shear and are affected by excessive heat
and moisture, poor nutrition and blood circu-
lation, chronic illness, and soft-tissue condi-
tions (for example, an abrasion or sprain).
For 3 years, PI prevalence increased at a
Texas long-term continuing care retirement com-
munity that provides independent living, assisted
living, memory care, and skilled nursing. The or-
ganization faced several challenges, including
the lack of a nurse educator and inconsistent
continuing education for nursing staff.
To address these challenges, a PI quality
improvement team, consisting of the director
of nurses, an assistant director of nurses, an

RN, a licensed practical nurse (LPN) and a
certified nurse assistant (CNA), was created to
develop an evidence-based practice (EBP)
project of educational interventions and
strategies for consistent PI prevention. The
project was part of the author’s doctor of
nursing practice (DNP) program.
First steps
The QI team started the project by using the
PICOT (Patient, population, problem; Inter-
vention; Comparison, control; Outcome, ob-
jective; Timeframe) mnemonic to develop
this question:
P: In LPNs caring for older adult residents in
nursing homes,
I: how will the implementation of a formal PI
prevention program
Pressure injury
prevention in
long-term care
Follow the
evidence to
improve
outcomes.
By Melissa De Los Santos, DNP, RN
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

1. Describe strategies for preventing pressure injuries (PIs) in
long-term care (LTC).
2. Discuss how to implement a project designed to prevent PIs
in LTC.
The author and planners of this CNE activity have disclosed no
relevant financial relationships
with any commercial companies pertaining to this activity. See
the last page of the article to
learn how to earn CNE credit.
Expiration: 7/1/24
CNE
1.6 contact
hours
MyAmericanNurse.com
July 2021 American Nurse Journal 7
C: compared to no formal program
O: affect PI incidence
T: over a 5-month period?
A systematic literature search was then
completed across three databases (PubMed,
CINAHL, and Cochrane Library). The search
initially yielded more than 65,000 articles, but
applying subject headings when possible and
reviewing journal titles and abstracts nar-

rowed the results to 51 articles. The inclusion
criteria for those articles consisted of partici-
pants 18 years of age and older, articles pub-
lished within 10 years, and those written or
translated in English. Exclusion criteria includ-
ed treatment options such as redistribution de-
vices, wound care products, non-English items,
and articles published before 2008. Applying
these criteria and removing duplicate articles
reduced the number to 20 studies: four Level
I studies, four Level IV studies, two Level V
studies, seven Level VI studies, and three Lev-
el VII studies from around the world. (See Hi-
erarchy of evidence.)
On the basis of a study analysis, the team
found a body of evidence indicating that for-
mal PI programs with consistent PI preven-
tion education, interdisciplinary techniques,
standardized PI risk assessments, increased
communication, consistent documentation,
and ongoing monitoring can help decrease PI
incidence.
Building the project
Building the formal PI program required de-
termining the stakeholders and establishing a
timeline.
Stakeholders
Project stakeholders were the facility residents
and their families, CNAs, staff RNs and LPNs,
nursing administrators, and the organization’s
leaders. The EBP project included all residents
who were at risk for PIs, and all received pre-

vention strategies.
Timeline
Preliminary discussions began in the fall of 2018
and concluded in the spring of 2019, when the
project received approval by the university, the
DNP program, and the long-term care organiza-
tion (the project didn’t require institutional re-
view board approval). By the end of 2019, QI
team meetings were planned and support and
resources were finalized.
A timeline with evidence-based interventions
and outcomes organized, captured, and docu-
mented three project implementation phases:
educational intervention, implementation, and
sustainment and dissemination. Health informa-
tion collected as part of the project was de-
identified.
I used a logic model as the framework for
my project. (See Logic model in action.)
Launching the project
The EBP project launched on July 1, 2019, with
self-paced online PI education, risk assess-
ments (weekly and Braden Scale assessments),
interdisciplinary teamwork strategies, PI pre-
vention strategy communication, and docu-
mentation using PI identification communica-
tion tools and repositioning charts to increase
reporting and encourage ongoing monitoring.
I led four staff development sessions on all
shifts to introduce the EBP project to nursing

staff. Participants completed a pretest (to
gauge current PI knowledge) before the on-
line education program and a post-test after.
Phase 1: Educational intervention
Phase one consisted of implementing three
online, self-paced PI education modules from
an outside vendor and developing the quality
improvement team. The team’s responsibilities
included increasing PI prevention communica-
tion, promoting an effective multidisciplinary
team, discussing goals in staff meetings, mon-
itoring progress, assisting with accurate docu-
mentation of PI prevention strategies, and pro-
moting sustainability.
The 20-week nursing staff educational pro-
gram focused on consistent use of PI risk assess-
ment methods, effective interdisciplinary strate-
gies, increased communication, and accurate
documentation of PI prevention strategies. Inte-
grated checklists served as reminders to consis-
Hierarchy of evidence
Different types of studies provide different levels of evidence.
• Level I—Systematic review or meta-analysis of all relevant
random-
ized controlled trials (RCTs)
• Level II—Well-designed RCTs
• Level III—Well-designed controlled trials without
randomization
• Level IV—Well-designed case control and cohort studies

• Level V—Systematic reviews of descriptive and qualitative
studies
• Level VI—Single descriptive or qualitative study
• Level VII—Opinions of authorities, reports of expert
committees
Source Mazurek Melnyk B, Fineout-Overholt E. Evidence-based
Practice in Nursing & Health-
care: A Guide to Best Practice. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2018.
MyAmericanNurse.com
tently implement the change based on current
protocols. For example, RNs completed monthly
comprehensive skin assessments; LPNs complet-
ed quarterly and as-needed Braden Scale assess-
ments; RNs and LPNs completed weekly skin as-
sessments; and CNAs, restorative aids, and
medication aids completed daily skin assess-
ments during routine care.
Flyers posted in the breakroom, next to the
time clock, and behind both nurses’ stations
outlined the importance of implementing and
documenting PI prevention. (See Promoting
PI prevention.)
Phase 2: Implementation
Phase two focused on PI prevention strategies,
consistent use of the Braden Scale, and weekly
skin assessments. Two project implementation

forms (a PI identification communication tool
and a repositioning chart) previously used
within the organization were resurrected for
this project. Daily skin checks were document-
ed on the PI identification communication
tool, and PI prevention strategies, such as turn-
ing residents on a schedule, were documented
on repositioning charts.
Phase 3: Sustainment
Phase three consisted of sustaining the pre-
vention strategies, conducting team meetings,
developing a skin algorithm, and incorporat-
ing project implementation forms into the
electronic health record.
Analyzing outcomes
Outcome analysis included educational inter-
Logic model in action
A logic model is a graphic tool for planning, describing,
managing, communicating, and evaluating a program or
intervention. It
consists of two main sections: process (inputs, activities, and
outputs) and outcomes (short-, medium-, and long-term goals).
Fre-
quently, assumptions and contextual or external factors also are
included.
The author used the body of evidence and recommendations in
the literature to create the model for the project described in the
article. The process section helped guide implementation, and
project outcomes were planned, outlined, and appraised
through-
out. External factors included the time it would take to complete

training, and underlying assumptions included awareness of pre-
vention strategies that will decrease PI risk.
CNAs = certified nursing assistants, ID = identification, LPNs =
licensed practical nurse, MAs = medication aids, PI = pressure
injury, PIP = pressure injury prevention, RAs = restorative aids
Learn more about logic models at
cdc.gov/dhdsp/docs/logic_model.pdf.
• Staff members
(RNs, LPNs,
CNAs, MAs,
RAs)
• PIP online edu-
cation on Braden
Scale, PI ID
Communica-
tion Tool, and
Repositioning
Chart
• Access to resi-
dent electronic
charts and
meeting rooms
Inputs
• By month 5,
there will be
a reduction
of PI rates
and costs
associated

with treat-
ment in resi-
dents
Outcomes
• Conduct training
sessions for accurate
implementation and
documentation of
Braden Scale
Activities
• Inservices or work-
shops for staff lead-
ing to better docu-
mentation and
increased reporting
of skin alterations
and PIs will occur
• PIP education will be
completed during
the first month of
implementation and
available online for
reinforcement for
future use
Outputs
• By the first
month after
training,
there will be

an increase of
knowledge of
PI risk factors
as evidenced
by consistent
use of Braden
Scale, PI ID
Communica-
tion Tool, and
Repositioning
Chart
• By month 3, there
will be an increased
proportion of staff
implementing
strategies to de-
crease the risk of
PIs as evidenced
by consistent use
of Braden Scale,
PI ID Communica-
tion Tool, and
Repositioning
Chart and de-
creased incidence
of PIs in residents
Long-term goalShort-term goal Medium-term goal
• Time to complete
training
• Paid or unpaid train-
ing

• Other protocols cur-
rently being imple-
mented
External factors
• Improve health
outcomes by
eliminating PIs
Impact
• Awareness of PIP strategies will decrease risk of PIs.
• Consistent and accurate use of PIP risk assessments will
decrease risk of PIs.
• Increased understanding of PIP will decrease costs and
improve health
outcomes.
• Empowering staff will influence behaviors to improve health
outcomes.
Assumptions
MyAmericanNurse.com
vention, PI prevention strategies, PI rates, and
cost savings.
Educational intervention
The educational intervention yielded a 57% nurs-
ing staff completion rate. Knowledge change

was calculated by analyzing staff pretest and
post-test scores. In the pretest, 61.5% of nursing
staff scored 80 on the PI assessments and 42%
scored 100. In the post-test, 13% of staff scored
80 and 87% scored 100 (a more than 50% in-
crease in 100 scores).
PI prevention strategies
In two-thirds of cases where CNAs had docu-
mented abnormal skin concerns on the PI
identification communication tool, RNs and
LPNs responded by completing multiple Braden
Scale assessments, even though there was no
formal protocol requiring them to do so. The
results confirmed the value of the tool.
Results also indicated the benefits of im-
plementing multicomponent PI prevention
initiatives, such as turning, repositioning, and
mobilizing frequently, along with other inter-
ventions (such as completing the Braden
Scale, skin assessments, special mattresses,
topical products, heel protectors, pillows, nu-
tritional assessments and interventions, hy-
dration, PI reporting, and communication).
Analysis of Braden Scale score averages and
repositioning frequency percentages showed
that patients with a high-risk Braden Scale
score (between 10 and 12) had a 71% reposi-
tioning average; moderate risk (13 to 14) had
a 59% repositioning average; at risk (15 to 18)
had a 66% repositioning average. Inconsistent
documentation affected the results, but repo-
sitioning averages were at or above 59% con-
sistently.

PI rates
For 3 years, PI incidence rates at the organiza-
tion had been rising steadly, from 0.67% in
2016 to 2.3% in 2017 and 5.3% in 2018. The
national average was 7.2% to 7.3%. The EBP
project achieved anticipated decreased PI
rates. Between July and December 2019, four
Stage II PIs were reported during the interven-
tion (4% PI incidence rate in 2019), resulting
in a 25% decrease in PI rates. Based on analy-
sis, more consistent use of the PI identifiction
communication tool with appropriate follow-
up may have prevented more PIs.
Cost savings
According to the Agency for Healthcare Re-
search and Quality, PIs in the United States
cost between $9.1 and $11.6 billion per year.
Costs associated with legal action resulting
from facility-acquired PIs add to the econom-
ic burden. Based on the evidence, the EBP
Promoting PI prevention
As part of the quality improvement team’s efforts to educate
nursing staff
about pressure injury (PI) prevention, they created a flyer to
post through-
out the organization. The flyer promoted staff empowerment
through edu-
cation and encouraged the use of a repositioning/skin inspection
chart and
a PI identification communication tool. At the end of each shift,
completed
charts and tools are submitted to the assistant director of

nursing, who
promptly reviews them to identify any new skin issues.
Repositioning/skin inspection chart
When developing the care plan, consider comorbid conditions,
such as
frailty and dementia.
• Change the patient’s position at least every 2 hours.
• Reposition patients sitting in chairs every hour.
• Inspect skin during activities of daily living.
• Document the patient’s position and skin inspection every
shift.
(View a repositioning chart at
myamericannurse.com/?p=258423.)
PI identification communication tool
• Complete on all residents daily during routine care every shift.
• If the skin inspection reveals an area of concern, note it on the
tool below.
PI identification communication tool
Date:
Check all that apply:
Resident’s name:
n No skin problem
noted
Reporter’s name:
n Bruise n Skin
tear
n Reddened area

Place an “X” on the area of the body where you see a concern.
Reporter’s signature
______________________________________________
Nurse’s signature (if reporter is not a nurse)
__________________________
MyAmericanNurse.com
project was expected to reduce PI prevalence
by at least 62%. This long-term care organiza-
tion’s financial policies prohibited the discov-
ery of direct costs, but because PI prevalence
decreased by 25% between July and Decem-
ber of 2019, it’s safe to assume some savings

occurred. In addition, it’s reasonable to con-
clude that decreased PI prevalence rates are
viewed as desirable by potential residents,
which could increase revenue from patient
recruitment.
Sustaining the intervention
To support sustainability and continued use of
evidence for data-driven changes, the QI team
developed a skin integrity algorithm. (See
Skin integrity algorithm.) The team also rec-
ommended to nursing leadership that the or-
ganization continue to use Braden Scale and
weekly skin assessments. The EBP project
prompted a culture change within the organi-
zation, enhancing PI awareness and contin-
ued use of the implementation forms by nurs-
ing staff after the EBP project ended.
Closing the gap
This EBP project used evidence to close the
gap between knowledge and action. Contin-
ued efforts include integrating implementation
forms and the skin integrity algorithm into
electronic formats for permanent use. Other
recommendations are incorporating increased
EBP into long-term care facilities for better
outcomes and to increase the quality of care
for all residents. AN
Access references at myamericannurse.com/?p=258423.
Melissa De Los Santos is a professor in the vocational nursing

program at Austin Community College, Eastview Campus in
Austin, Texas.
Skin integrity algorithm
To ensure the pressure injury (PI) prevention evidence-based
practice was sustained, the quality improvement team developed
a skin
integrity algorithm.
Weekly skin assessment
Abnormal findingNo abnormal finding
Continue Braden Scale assessments per protocol Nurse follow -
up assessment and complete a Braden Scale assessment
Braden Scale risk scores*
Mild-risk scores (15 to 18)
Encourage mobilization, turning, and repositioning; document
on
repositioning chart every shift.
Assist with peri-care and ADLs as needed.
Maintain hydration and nutrition.
Assist with mobilization, turning, and repositioning; document
on
Assist with peri-care and ADLs every shift.
Implement consultations with physician, wound team, and
dietician as needed.
Assist with mobilization, turning, and repositioning; document
on
Assist with peri-care and ADLs every shift.

Consult with physician, wound team, and dietician for
additional
interventions.
Inspect, report, and document skin concerns on PI identification
communication tool every shift.
Assist with hydration and nutrition every shift.
Assist with hydration, nutrition, and offer supplements every
shift.
Moderate-risk scores (13 to 14)
High-risk scores (12 or below)
ADLs = activities of daily living, PI = pressure injury
*For this project, the Braden Scale Score for very high risk (9
or below) was incorporated into the high-risk score.
MyAmericanNurse.com
Please mark the correct answer
online.
1. Harold*, your 88-year-old patient,
enjoys sitting in his chair for the en-
tire morning. How often should you
reposition him?

a. Every 30 minutes
b. Every 45 minutes
c. Every 60 minutes
d. Every 90 minutes
2. You should document your inspec-
tion of Harold’s skin every
a. hour.
b. shift.
c. day.
d. week.
3. Joan, a 78-year-old resident in a
long-term care (LTC) facility, has a
Braden Scale score of 16. You know
that all of the following actions are
appropriate except:
a. assisting with mobilization, turn-
ing, and repositioning.
b. assisting with peri-care every
shift.
c. assisting with activities of daily
living every shift.
d. requesting a consultation with the

wound care team and dietician.
4. Which of the following statements
about PICOT is incorrect?
a. P = patient, population, problem
b. I = intervention
c. C = contrast, contractual
d. O = outcome, objective
5. You’re asked to spearhead a team
to reduce PIs in the LTC setting where
you work. The team is analyzing the
results of a literature search, and
some team members aren’t familiar
with the levels of evidence used to
guide the analysis. You explain that al-
though the precise levels can vary,
Level I typically includes
a. case control and cohort studies.
b. systematic review or meta-analy-
sis of all relevant randomized
controlled trials.
c. opinions of authorities and re-
ports of expert committees.
d. a single descriptive or qualitative
study.
6. Level VII typically includes

a. case control and cohort studies.
b. systematic review or meta-analy-
sis of all relevant randomized
controlled trials.
c. opinions of authorities and re-
ports of expert committees.
d. a single descriptive or qualitative
study.
7. Which of the following statements
about logic models is correct?
a. It’s a graphic tool for planning,
describing, managing, communi-
cating, and evaluating a program
or intervention.
b. It’s a written tool for planning,
describing, managing, communi-
cating, and researching a pro-
gram or intervention.
c. It includes outcomes in the form
of long-term goals.
d. The process section includes
medium-term goals.
8. You’re assembling a team for a
project to reduce PIs in your LTC set-
ting. Whom would you include on the
team?

______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
9. What would you anticipate the
team would identify as activities that
would help reduce PIs?
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
10. What would be reasonable short-,
medium-, and long-term goals for this
project?
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
*Names are fictitious.
POST-TEST • Pressure injury prevention in long-term care
Earn contact hour credit online at
myamericannurse.com/pressure-injury-prevention
Provider accreditation
The American Nurses Association is accredited as a provider

of nursing continuing professional development by the
American Nurses Credentialing Center’s Commission on
Accreditation.
Contact hours: 1.6
ANA is approved by the California Board of Registered Nurs-
ing, Provider Number CEP17219.
Post-test passing score is 80%.
Expiration: 7/1/24
CNE: 1.6 contact hours
CNE

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