IRJET- Temporal Changes of Coastal Cliffs : A Case Study from VarkalaIRJET Journal
This document discusses temporal changes to coastal cliffs in Varkala, India through a case study. It analyzes satellite imagery from 2003 and 2019 and compares it to a 1966 topographical map to estimate changes to the Varkala Beach shoreline over decades. Coastal erosion may impact landscape quality. The study area contains unique red laterite cliffs that are an important tourist feature but also geologically significant. Factors like unauthorized construction, vehicle traffic, and rainfall are cited as causing landslides. QGIS is used to delineate cliff erosion hazards to inform coastal management and development planning.
International Seminar on Global Metropolitan Delta’s 2017.
Land subsidence as a bottomless pit: The reaction and economic capacity of affected land users to land subsidence in Indonesia.
Engineering geology is a branch of applied geology that deals with the application of geological knowledge and principles to civil engineering projects. It provides essential information for safe, stable, and economical design and construction of structures like buildings, dams, roads, and tunnels. Engineering geological studies are conducted during planning, design, construction, and post-construction phases of projects. The studies help understand site conditions, availability of construction materials, and how to mitigate geological hazards. Knowledge of geology is crucial for heavy construction projects and excavation works to plan realistically and design sound foundations.
BEARING CAPACITY OF STRIP FOOTING RESTING ON DUNE SANDS STABILIZED BY GROUTIN...IAEME Publication
Extensive dune sand deposits cover specific areas of Iraq. Dune sands are often an environment hazard during strong winds and sand storms particularly in the summer months. A little research has taken place to study the characteristics and the behavior of dune sands. An extensive laboratory testing program was carried out to study the geo technical properties and the behavior of dune sands. The tests include moisture content, classification, compaction, relative density, direct shear, chemical tests. Also, loading tests were carried out on footing model of strip shape (3.2 × 33) cm rested on natural dune sand.
VALIDATION OF DERIVED GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL ZONES (GWPZ) USING GEO-INFORMATIC...IAEME Publication
This document describes a study that used geo-informatics techniques to validate derived groundwater potential zones (GWPZ) with actual bore well yield data in parts of the Upper Cauvery basin in Karnataka, India. Thematic layers like lithology, geomorphology, soil, lineaments, and others were generated from satellite imagery and other sources. These layers were analyzed and weighted to develop a composite GWPZ map. About 140 bore well yield data points were collected and compared to the GWPZ map. The results highlighted the capability of geo-informatics tools in validating GWPZ maps.
Development of Inundation Map for Hypothetical Asa Dam Break using HEC-RAS an...Oyeniyi Samuel
This document describes the development of an inundation map for a hypothetical dam break scenario of the Asa Dam in Ilorin, Nigeria using HEC-RAS and ArcGIS modeling. Hydraulic modeling was conducted for a 100-year flood event to simulate water surface elevations along the 12 km river channel. The results showed that several important areas like industrial zones, residential areas, and places of worship would be inundated based on the water surface elevations exceeding local ground elevations. Floodplain boundaries were extracted from HEC-RAS and an inundation map was generated in ArcGIS to identify areas vulnerable to flooding from a potential dam failure.
This document provides information about MTA (Mineral Research & Exploration General Directorate), including:
1. It describes the organizational structure of MTA and provides its mission to conduct geological surveys and research to identify natural resources in Turkey and contribute to the country's prosperity.
2. It discusses some of the theoretical course topics covered during the internship, including ophiolites, industrial minerals, geographic information systems, and small mammals.
3. It outlines some of the departments and their responsibilities within MTA, such as the feasibility study department and marine research office.
The document summarizes a fieldwork study conducted in Bo. Baluyan, Malalag, Davao del Sur, Philippines. The study involved surveying and mapping the geological structures of the area, which are characterized by thrusted sedimentary rocks and andesite intrusions. Samples of rock formations like sandstone and andesite were collected during the study. The data gathered provides insights into the geohazards and economic potential of the area. Key findings include the identification of thrust faults and implications for infrastructure and land use due to the area's elevated topography and mass movement risks.
IRJET- Temporal Changes of Coastal Cliffs : A Case Study from VarkalaIRJET Journal
This document discusses temporal changes to coastal cliffs in Varkala, India through a case study. It analyzes satellite imagery from 2003 and 2019 and compares it to a 1966 topographical map to estimate changes to the Varkala Beach shoreline over decades. Coastal erosion may impact landscape quality. The study area contains unique red laterite cliffs that are an important tourist feature but also geologically significant. Factors like unauthorized construction, vehicle traffic, and rainfall are cited as causing landslides. QGIS is used to delineate cliff erosion hazards to inform coastal management and development planning.
International Seminar on Global Metropolitan Delta’s 2017.
Land subsidence as a bottomless pit: The reaction and economic capacity of affected land users to land subsidence in Indonesia.
Engineering geology is a branch of applied geology that deals with the application of geological knowledge and principles to civil engineering projects. It provides essential information for safe, stable, and economical design and construction of structures like buildings, dams, roads, and tunnels. Engineering geological studies are conducted during planning, design, construction, and post-construction phases of projects. The studies help understand site conditions, availability of construction materials, and how to mitigate geological hazards. Knowledge of geology is crucial for heavy construction projects and excavation works to plan realistically and design sound foundations.
BEARING CAPACITY OF STRIP FOOTING RESTING ON DUNE SANDS STABILIZED BY GROUTIN...IAEME Publication
Extensive dune sand deposits cover specific areas of Iraq. Dune sands are often an environment hazard during strong winds and sand storms particularly in the summer months. A little research has taken place to study the characteristics and the behavior of dune sands. An extensive laboratory testing program was carried out to study the geo technical properties and the behavior of dune sands. The tests include moisture content, classification, compaction, relative density, direct shear, chemical tests. Also, loading tests were carried out on footing model of strip shape (3.2 × 33) cm rested on natural dune sand.
VALIDATION OF DERIVED GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL ZONES (GWPZ) USING GEO-INFORMATIC...IAEME Publication
This document describes a study that used geo-informatics techniques to validate derived groundwater potential zones (GWPZ) with actual bore well yield data in parts of the Upper Cauvery basin in Karnataka, India. Thematic layers like lithology, geomorphology, soil, lineaments, and others were generated from satellite imagery and other sources. These layers were analyzed and weighted to develop a composite GWPZ map. About 140 bore well yield data points were collected and compared to the GWPZ map. The results highlighted the capability of geo-informatics tools in validating GWPZ maps.
Development of Inundation Map for Hypothetical Asa Dam Break using HEC-RAS an...Oyeniyi Samuel
This document describes the development of an inundation map for a hypothetical dam break scenario of the Asa Dam in Ilorin, Nigeria using HEC-RAS and ArcGIS modeling. Hydraulic modeling was conducted for a 100-year flood event to simulate water surface elevations along the 12 km river channel. The results showed that several important areas like industrial zones, residential areas, and places of worship would be inundated based on the water surface elevations exceeding local ground elevations. Floodplain boundaries were extracted from HEC-RAS and an inundation map was generated in ArcGIS to identify areas vulnerable to flooding from a potential dam failure.
This document provides information about MTA (Mineral Research & Exploration General Directorate), including:
1. It describes the organizational structure of MTA and provides its mission to conduct geological surveys and research to identify natural resources in Turkey and contribute to the country's prosperity.
2. It discusses some of the theoretical course topics covered during the internship, including ophiolites, industrial minerals, geographic information systems, and small mammals.
3. It outlines some of the departments and their responsibilities within MTA, such as the feasibility study department and marine research office.
The document summarizes a fieldwork study conducted in Bo. Baluyan, Malalag, Davao del Sur, Philippines. The study involved surveying and mapping the geological structures of the area, which are characterized by thrusted sedimentary rocks and andesite intrusions. Samples of rock formations like sandstone and andesite were collected during the study. The data gathered provides insights into the geohazards and economic potential of the area. Key findings include the identification of thrust faults and implications for infrastructure and land use due to the area's elevated topography and mass movement risks.
The document summarizes a study that investigated the geotechnical properties of limestone samples from the Pila Spi formation and sandstone samples from the Injana formation in Shaqlawa area, north Iraq. Eighteen limestone samples and 19 sandstone samples were collected from the northeast and southwest limbs of a syncline. The P-wave and S-wave velocities of dry and saturated samples were measured. Relationships between P-wave and S-wave velocities were used to calculate Poisson's ratio, material index, and effective angle of internal friction. The properties varied between the limbs and formations and were influenced by water saturation.
CHARACTERIZATION OF LEACHATE FROM MUNCIPAL LANDFILL AND ITS EFFECT ON SURROUN...Dr. Naveen BP
Percolating water passing through waste becomes contaminated and will have dissolved soluble organic and inorganic compounds as well as suspended particles. Also the pore fluid of the waste is often released and mixes with this water. The entire contaminated fluid is called leachate. There are many factors that affect leachate production like annual precipitation, runoff, infiltration, evaporation, transpiration, and freezing, mean ambient temperature, waste composition, waste density, initial moisture content, and depth of the waste fill. The production of leachate reduces when a landfill is closed. The decomposition of waste in presence of water can be separated into two different phases of degradation viz., initial aerobic and subsequent anaerobic. Generally, the leachate undergoes natural chemical changes over time that reduces its toxicity. Some of the soluble contaminants enrich the water table, or the saturated zone. Some of remaining molecules naturally adsorbed to the clay liner particles. The paper discusses the characteristics of leachate generated from municipal solid waste landfill and its effect on surrounding water bodies near Mavallipura landfill area in Bangalore. Two samples of water from the nearby pond and well were collected from downstream of Mavallipura landfill site. Physico-chemical characterization of leachate has shown that the leachate contains high concentrations of organic and inorganic constituents beyond the permissible limits. While the heavy metals concentration was in traces as the waste is dumped in the landfill is mainly domestic in nature. The pH of the leachate is marginally alkaline as the pH is 7.4. The results also showed that the highest metal concentration that exists in the leachate was Iron which is about of 11.16 ppm. BOD5 and COD of the leachate are 1500 mg/l and 10400 mg/l, respectively. The leachate characteristics indicate favorable growth of algae in natural water contaminated with leachate with the alkaline condition and with the presence of magnesium as nutrient, which has been confirmed in the nearby surface pond. Knowledge of leachate quality will be useful in planning and providing remedial measures to protect surface and ground water quality in the area.
Designing and construction of piles under various field conditions Dr. Naveen BP
1) The document discusses the design and construction of piles under various field conditions at two sites in Bangalore.
2) At the first residential site, pile foundations were used due to a high water table and surrounding buildings. The safe load capacity of the piles was analyzed using different analytical methods and compared to load test results.
3) At the second commercial site with excavations, laterally loaded piles were installed to protect excavation sides. Closed form and numerical analyses using PLAXIS were used to design the sheet piles and compared.
Correlation between cbr and index propertys of soilRAJESH JAIN
This document discusses correlations between the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and index properties of soil. It examines several existing correlations between CBR and properties like liquid limit, plastic limit, and maximum dry density. The authors analyze data from previous studies to compare predicted CBR values from two correlations to experimentally measured CBR values. They find that one correlation works better for clayey soils but overestimates CBR for highly plastic clays, while the other correlation predicts lower CBR values than measured across soil types. The authors conclude that the correlations show some agreement with tests for low plasticity clays but need improvement to reliably predict CBR from simple soil properties.
Stabilization of soft soil with granulated blast furnace slag and fly asheSAT Publishing House
This document summarizes a study that evaluated the potential to stabilize soft soil using granulated blast furnace slag (GBS) and fly ash. Soft soil samples were collected and mixed with different combinations of GBS ranging from 3-9% and fly ash ranging from 3-12%. Compaction and CBR tests were performed to evaluate the mixtures. Results showed that optimum moisture content increased and maximum dry density decreased with higher fly ash-GBS content. Both soaked and unsoaked CBR values initially increased with fly ash-GBS content up to 3% fly ash and 6% GBS, then decreased, indicating this combination provided the best stabilization. The study concluded that soft soil can be effectively stabilized using fly ash-
INFLUENCE OF LEACHATE MIGRATION ON GROUND WATER QUALITY Dr. Naveen BP
In this paper, the concept of leachate pollution index, a tool for quantifying the leachate pollution potential and water quality index for surrounding water bodies of Mavallipura landfill site in Bangalore has been applied. It has been found that the leachate generated from the Mavallipura landfill site has high contamination potential to the surrounding water bodies. The results revealed that quality of ground water resources in Mavallipura landfill is deteriorating largely, as a result of the poor practice of solid waste management. Hence, an effective remedial plan needs to be prepared for the sustainable water quality maintenance of the area.
Numerical simulation of laterally loaded pileDr. Naveen BP
This document presents a finite element model simulation of a lateral load test on a 1m diameter bored pile embedded in residual soils. The pile and soil were modeled in PLAXIS 2D, with the soil represented by a Mohr-Coulomb model and the pile as a beam element. The model results showed good agreement with load-displacement curves from the field test. However, the field test was unable to apply loads high enough to reach design code displacement limits due to limitations of test equipment for large piles in residual soils. The numerical model can simulate larger displacements to evaluate pile behavior under higher loads.
Geotechnical Properties of Sabkha Soil in the southern part of Al-Khobar city...IJERA Editor
The geotechnical properties of sabkha soil covering most parts of the southern portion of Al-Khobar area –Saudia Arabia were determined. These soil have very low strength, low bearing capacity and high compressibility. The expected settlement is always above the recommended tolerable limits. The chemical analysis of both soil and water from sabkha flat shows a very high concentration of salts. These high concentrations of salts give rise to a very corrosive environment and therefore it is recommended to protect concrete and reinforcement by using sulphate resisting cement, pozzolanic materials, use of corrosion inhibitors and by applying suitable water proofing membranes . The properties determined during this study has a significant impact on both technical and economical values of each project and therefore, the outcome of the study is much important for planners and developers .
Geophysical Investigations of a Pavement Failure Along Akure-Ijare Road, Sout...iosrjce
Geophysical investigations were carried out along two failed segments of Akure-Ijare road, named
locality 1 and locality 2, with the aim of establishing the cause(s) of the incessant pavement failure along the
road. The geophysical investigations involved the Very Low Frequency Electromagnetic (VLF-EM) and
Electrical Resistivity Methods. The VLF-EM measurements were taken at intervals of 10 m along traverses
parallel to road pavements. Two techniques were adopted for the electrical resistivity method namely: the
vertical electrical sounding (VES) and a combination of horizontal profiling and sounding using dipole-dipole
configuration with inter stations separation (a) of 5 m and an expansion factor (n) that varies from 1 to 5. The
Schlumberger configuration was used for the VES with AB/2 varying from 1 to 65 m. Nine (9) and twelve (12)
VES were carried out at localities 1 and 2 respectively. The VLF-EM method revealed that the road pavement is
founded on a weakly conductive material devoid of major geological structure. The Vertical electrical sounding
curves range from A, H to KH. The geoelectric sections generally identified three to four geologic sequences
that comprise topsoil, weathered layer, partly weathered/fracture basement and fresh basement. At locality 1,
the topsoil/subsoil on which the road is founded are of low resistivity generally less than 100 Ω-m composed of
clayey materials, while the road pavement along locality 2 is within the resistive topsoil or directly on bedrock.
The bedrock along this locality is generally shallow (< 2 m) with an uneven interface. Therefore, from the
results of the investigation the causes of road failure in the studied roadway are heterogeneity and clayey nature
of the topsoil/sub-grade material, lack of proper drainage at the road embankment and poor construction
material.
Geophysical Investigations of a Pavement Failure Along Akure-Ijare Road, Sout...iosrjce
Geophysical investigations using VLF-EM and electrical resistivity methods were conducted along two failed segments of the Akure-Ijare road in Nigeria to determine the cause of failures. At the first locality, both the topsoil and subsoil were clayey and the bedrock topography was uneven, with basement depressions and geological features like fractures present. This locality failed due to incompetent clayey soils and weak geological zones. At the second locality, the topsoil was heterogeneous with clay and the bedrock was shallow, yet it still failed likely due to poor drainage and construction materials. In summary, the road failures were caused by clayey and heterogeneous soils, uneven bedrock topology, lack of drainage, and substandard construction
Geotechnical investigation of road failure along ilorin ajase –ipo road kwar...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study examining factors contributing to road failure along the Ilorin-Ajase-Ipo road in Kwara State, Nigeria. Soil samples were collected from five locations along the road that had experienced failure and were tested for engineering properties. The results showed that the foundation materials were predominantly sandy soils with high percentages of sand. Principal component analysis indicated that sandy soils contributed most to the variability in the study area. The overall results suggested that poor foundation materials containing high sand content and poor engineering construction affected the rate of failure along the road.
Stratigraphic influence on geotechnical properties of subgrade soils along th...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study of the stratigraphic influence on geotechnical properties of subgrade soils along the Irrua-Auchi road in Nigeria. Laboratory and field tests were conducted to analyze the engineering properties of soils derived from different geologic formations underlying the road: the Ameki Formation, Imo Shale, and Ajali Sandstone. Results showed the soils had similar geotechnical properties but pavement deflections, indicating stability, varied with geology, with the most stable segment underlain by Ajali soils and the least stable by Imo shale soils. Stratification of underlying geologic units thus influenced the pavement performance.
Impact of erosion on street roads a case study of sijuwade area akure ondo st...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the impact of erosion on street roads in Sijuwade Area, Akure, Nigeria. A reconnaissance survey was conducted to identify 13 streets for analysis. Factors causing erosion included natural causes like topography and rainfall as well as human causes such as poor construction, waste disposal, and lack of maintenance. Effects of erosion included non-motorable roads due to gullies, slope instability, flooding during rain, pollution of water bodies, and damage to road infrastructure. The level of erosion impact on each street was evaluated based on accessibility. Unpaved roads were more susceptible to erosion. Erosion poses a significant challenge for street infrastructure and transportation in the area.
Combined Geophysical And Geotechnical Techniques For Assessment Of Foundation...IRJESJOURNAL
Abstract: This study was carried out to assess the subsurface conditions around the school of technology complex in Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, using integrated geophysical and geotechnical techniques. The site lies within the Sedimentary terrain of southwestern Nigeria. Allied Ohmega Resistivity meter was used for data collection of 1-D and 2-D resistivitymeasurement while WinResist software and Dipro software were used for the processing respectively.The results of the vertical electrical sounding indicate that the depth to basement values ranges between 27.6 and 39.5m. The 2D resistivitysurvey has provided valuable information on the lateral and vertical variation of the layer competent for erecting foundation of engineering structures. The CPT probed an average depth of 4.8m and has identified material of very high shear strength associated with dense sand materials. The correlation of the three techniques used revealed similar soil layering consisting of topsoilsandy clay, coarse sand and sand.A mechanically stable coarse sand material was discovered as weathered layer which indicates high load bearing capacity suitable for foundation in the area and can support massive structures.
Quantification of Earth Material for Sustainable Road Works in Southeast Nige...ssuser793b4e
This paper examines the use of earth materials in sustainable road
construction in South East, Nigeria. The study aims to determine factors
associated with the use of earth materials, identify limiting factors, and
examine strategies to improve their use. The study population comprised 60
engineers and craftsmen using local materials. The results show limitations in
the use of earth materials in sustainable road works. The study recommends
contracting firms to develop better storage facilities for earth materials to
prevent damage and wastage. It also suggests incorporating earth materials
into construction education curriculums to sensitize students to their potential
benefits. The government should adopt a policy of adapting earth materials
that require minimal capital and foreign exchange and utilizing available raw
materials and skills in small-scale operations. The study's findings highlight
the importance of sustainable road construction in Nigeria's socio-economic
growth.
Impacts of Flooding on Road Transport Infrastructure In Enugu Metropolitan Ci...IJERA Editor
An assessment of the impact of flooding on the road transport infrastructure in Enugu Metropolis was carried out using survey research method. Thirty impact indicators were rated by the respondents against six impact dimensions of population, vulnerability of activities, frequency, intensity, extent and risk. Three null hypotheses were postulated and tested. One sample t-test was used for testing hypothesis one which stated that damages to the road transport infrastructure resulting from flooding are not significant to warrant mitigation.Since the p-value =0.000(p<0.05),>< 0.05), indicating high impact of flooding on the socio-economic activities in Enugu urban.Furthermore a statistically significant impact was equally recorded in hypothesis three since thecalculated p–value (0.000)was less than 0.05, (p < 0.05). The implication was that damages to road transport infrastructure due to flooding have significant impact on the environmental sustainability of the study area. The model generated hadGoodness of Fit Index (GFI) = 0.974; Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) = 0.951; Comparative Fit Index (CFI)= 0.949 and Incremental Fit Index (IFI) = 0.950; while the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.059. The paper therefore recommendedproper infrastructural design and planning, good governance, population control and appropriate weather monitoring as some measures that could be adopted to mitigate the impact of flooding on the road transport infrastructure in Enugu Urban.
Causes of cracks and deterioration of pavement on highways in jordan from con...Alexander Decker
This document discusses a study on the causes of cracks and deterioration of pavements on highways in Jordan from contractors' perspectives. A literature review identified 51 potential causes of road deterioration. A questionnaire was distributed to 150 contractors to rate each cause on a scale of 1 to 5. 38 responses were received. The causes were analyzed individually and grouped. The highest individually ranked cause was "defects caused during construction due to poor construction quality" with a rating of 4.15. Causes were also grouped into 11 categories with the highest rated group being "Effect of Cracks and Structural Failure" at 3.96. The study aims to identify key causes of highway deterioration in Jordan to help minimize risks and costs associated with road maintenance and
A Study of Disaster Management & Geotechnical Investigation of Landslides: A ...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes several research papers on landslide disaster management and geotechnical investigations of landslides. It discusses the causes of landslides including heavy rainfall, changes to drainage patterns from development, and construction activities disturbing slopes. Methods used to study landslides are described, such as analyzing soil properties, slope stability, and factors of safety. The use of remote sensing, GIS mapping of landslide-prone areas, and statistical modeling approaches are also summarized. Recommendations are made for landslide prevention, including slope treatment and ground improvement techniques. The document provides an overview of research on landslide hazards and susceptibility assessments.
This document summarizes a study on the influence of subsurface materials on pavement performance along the Yebu-Agaro road in Ethiopia. Soil samples were taken from severely damaged and undamaged sections of the road and tested in the lab. The tests found that the subgrade soil had liquid limits ranging from 33-60.5%, plasticity indexes from 20.3-30.1%, and soaked CBR values between 8-13%, which is below the minimum specified value of 15%. This indicates the subgrade soil is a poor material for the pavement structure. Analysis showed the soil types were also poor according to AASHTO and USCS classifications. It was concluded that failures along the road were influenced by the sub
Evaluation of Flexible Pavement Failures-A Case Study on Izki RoadIJAEMSJORNAL
Pavement is a multi-layer system that distributes the vehicular loads over a larger area. It helps to make them durable and able to withstand traffic and the environment. Pavement consists of three basic layers the first layer is Sub grade (Gravel) which is the foundation layer, the second layer is sub base (layer Assistant foundation) and the top layer is base (a layer of pavement) which consists of Bituminous Carpet + Bituminous Macadam. Cracking of pavement is a defect that appears in the top layer of the road. Pavement can be under compression and tension at the same time, but in different directions. While a tire compresses a pavement downward, it forms a deflection basin which causes the pavement to go into tension in both horizontal directions. If the pavement is not strong enough, the asphalt is stretched too far, which separates and a crack forms in the wheel track. A crack may also form between the wheel tracks. The maintenance of roads means protecting, restoration and strengthening of all elements of the road to maintain sustainability of the road. Road maintenance also includes additional work that is necessary in order to raise the level of performance and reach the best level of safety and comfort for the road users. Roads are high-cost investments and need constant maintenance so that these investments continue to perform as required. Therefore, care must be taken to maintain the roads in optimum maintenance and in a scientific manner. The aim of this Study is to identify the most common types of cracks and defects which occur in Izki road and suggest suitable option for maintenance. The objectives are to identify different types of cracks & defects, to find out the different reasons that cause defects and cracks in Izki road and to suggest suitable maintenance methods. A 2km length of the road was selected for the study. Survey was carried out and the reasons for cracking and other failures in pavement were studied. Finally, the required maintenance solution for each type of failures was identified and the best maintenance option was selected.
The document summarizes a study that investigated the geotechnical properties of limestone samples from the Pila Spi formation and sandstone samples from the Injana formation in Shaqlawa area, north Iraq. Eighteen limestone samples and 19 sandstone samples were collected from the northeast and southwest limbs of a syncline. The P-wave and S-wave velocities of dry and saturated samples were measured. Relationships between P-wave and S-wave velocities were used to calculate Poisson's ratio, material index, and effective angle of internal friction. The properties varied between the limbs and formations and were influenced by water saturation.
CHARACTERIZATION OF LEACHATE FROM MUNCIPAL LANDFILL AND ITS EFFECT ON SURROUN...Dr. Naveen BP
Percolating water passing through waste becomes contaminated and will have dissolved soluble organic and inorganic compounds as well as suspended particles. Also the pore fluid of the waste is often released and mixes with this water. The entire contaminated fluid is called leachate. There are many factors that affect leachate production like annual precipitation, runoff, infiltration, evaporation, transpiration, and freezing, mean ambient temperature, waste composition, waste density, initial moisture content, and depth of the waste fill. The production of leachate reduces when a landfill is closed. The decomposition of waste in presence of water can be separated into two different phases of degradation viz., initial aerobic and subsequent anaerobic. Generally, the leachate undergoes natural chemical changes over time that reduces its toxicity. Some of the soluble contaminants enrich the water table, or the saturated zone. Some of remaining molecules naturally adsorbed to the clay liner particles. The paper discusses the characteristics of leachate generated from municipal solid waste landfill and its effect on surrounding water bodies near Mavallipura landfill area in Bangalore. Two samples of water from the nearby pond and well were collected from downstream of Mavallipura landfill site. Physico-chemical characterization of leachate has shown that the leachate contains high concentrations of organic and inorganic constituents beyond the permissible limits. While the heavy metals concentration was in traces as the waste is dumped in the landfill is mainly domestic in nature. The pH of the leachate is marginally alkaline as the pH is 7.4. The results also showed that the highest metal concentration that exists in the leachate was Iron which is about of 11.16 ppm. BOD5 and COD of the leachate are 1500 mg/l and 10400 mg/l, respectively. The leachate characteristics indicate favorable growth of algae in natural water contaminated with leachate with the alkaline condition and with the presence of magnesium as nutrient, which has been confirmed in the nearby surface pond. Knowledge of leachate quality will be useful in planning and providing remedial measures to protect surface and ground water quality in the area.
Designing and construction of piles under various field conditions Dr. Naveen BP
1) The document discusses the design and construction of piles under various field conditions at two sites in Bangalore.
2) At the first residential site, pile foundations were used due to a high water table and surrounding buildings. The safe load capacity of the piles was analyzed using different analytical methods and compared to load test results.
3) At the second commercial site with excavations, laterally loaded piles were installed to protect excavation sides. Closed form and numerical analyses using PLAXIS were used to design the sheet piles and compared.
Correlation between cbr and index propertys of soilRAJESH JAIN
This document discusses correlations between the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and index properties of soil. It examines several existing correlations between CBR and properties like liquid limit, plastic limit, and maximum dry density. The authors analyze data from previous studies to compare predicted CBR values from two correlations to experimentally measured CBR values. They find that one correlation works better for clayey soils but overestimates CBR for highly plastic clays, while the other correlation predicts lower CBR values than measured across soil types. The authors conclude that the correlations show some agreement with tests for low plasticity clays but need improvement to reliably predict CBR from simple soil properties.
Stabilization of soft soil with granulated blast furnace slag and fly asheSAT Publishing House
This document summarizes a study that evaluated the potential to stabilize soft soil using granulated blast furnace slag (GBS) and fly ash. Soft soil samples were collected and mixed with different combinations of GBS ranging from 3-9% and fly ash ranging from 3-12%. Compaction and CBR tests were performed to evaluate the mixtures. Results showed that optimum moisture content increased and maximum dry density decreased with higher fly ash-GBS content. Both soaked and unsoaked CBR values initially increased with fly ash-GBS content up to 3% fly ash and 6% GBS, then decreased, indicating this combination provided the best stabilization. The study concluded that soft soil can be effectively stabilized using fly ash-
INFLUENCE OF LEACHATE MIGRATION ON GROUND WATER QUALITY Dr. Naveen BP
In this paper, the concept of leachate pollution index, a tool for quantifying the leachate pollution potential and water quality index for surrounding water bodies of Mavallipura landfill site in Bangalore has been applied. It has been found that the leachate generated from the Mavallipura landfill site has high contamination potential to the surrounding water bodies. The results revealed that quality of ground water resources in Mavallipura landfill is deteriorating largely, as a result of the poor practice of solid waste management. Hence, an effective remedial plan needs to be prepared for the sustainable water quality maintenance of the area.
Numerical simulation of laterally loaded pileDr. Naveen BP
This document presents a finite element model simulation of a lateral load test on a 1m diameter bored pile embedded in residual soils. The pile and soil were modeled in PLAXIS 2D, with the soil represented by a Mohr-Coulomb model and the pile as a beam element. The model results showed good agreement with load-displacement curves from the field test. However, the field test was unable to apply loads high enough to reach design code displacement limits due to limitations of test equipment for large piles in residual soils. The numerical model can simulate larger displacements to evaluate pile behavior under higher loads.
Geotechnical Properties of Sabkha Soil in the southern part of Al-Khobar city...IJERA Editor
The geotechnical properties of sabkha soil covering most parts of the southern portion of Al-Khobar area –Saudia Arabia were determined. These soil have very low strength, low bearing capacity and high compressibility. The expected settlement is always above the recommended tolerable limits. The chemical analysis of both soil and water from sabkha flat shows a very high concentration of salts. These high concentrations of salts give rise to a very corrosive environment and therefore it is recommended to protect concrete and reinforcement by using sulphate resisting cement, pozzolanic materials, use of corrosion inhibitors and by applying suitable water proofing membranes . The properties determined during this study has a significant impact on both technical and economical values of each project and therefore, the outcome of the study is much important for planners and developers .
Geophysical Investigations of a Pavement Failure Along Akure-Ijare Road, Sout...iosrjce
Geophysical investigations were carried out along two failed segments of Akure-Ijare road, named
locality 1 and locality 2, with the aim of establishing the cause(s) of the incessant pavement failure along the
road. The geophysical investigations involved the Very Low Frequency Electromagnetic (VLF-EM) and
Electrical Resistivity Methods. The VLF-EM measurements were taken at intervals of 10 m along traverses
parallel to road pavements. Two techniques were adopted for the electrical resistivity method namely: the
vertical electrical sounding (VES) and a combination of horizontal profiling and sounding using dipole-dipole
configuration with inter stations separation (a) of 5 m and an expansion factor (n) that varies from 1 to 5. The
Schlumberger configuration was used for the VES with AB/2 varying from 1 to 65 m. Nine (9) and twelve (12)
VES were carried out at localities 1 and 2 respectively. The VLF-EM method revealed that the road pavement is
founded on a weakly conductive material devoid of major geological structure. The Vertical electrical sounding
curves range from A, H to KH. The geoelectric sections generally identified three to four geologic sequences
that comprise topsoil, weathered layer, partly weathered/fracture basement and fresh basement. At locality 1,
the topsoil/subsoil on which the road is founded are of low resistivity generally less than 100 Ω-m composed of
clayey materials, while the road pavement along locality 2 is within the resistive topsoil or directly on bedrock.
The bedrock along this locality is generally shallow (< 2 m) with an uneven interface. Therefore, from the
results of the investigation the causes of road failure in the studied roadway are heterogeneity and clayey nature
of the topsoil/sub-grade material, lack of proper drainage at the road embankment and poor construction
material.
Geophysical Investigations of a Pavement Failure Along Akure-Ijare Road, Sout...iosrjce
Geophysical investigations using VLF-EM and electrical resistivity methods were conducted along two failed segments of the Akure-Ijare road in Nigeria to determine the cause of failures. At the first locality, both the topsoil and subsoil were clayey and the bedrock topography was uneven, with basement depressions and geological features like fractures present. This locality failed due to incompetent clayey soils and weak geological zones. At the second locality, the topsoil was heterogeneous with clay and the bedrock was shallow, yet it still failed likely due to poor drainage and construction materials. In summary, the road failures were caused by clayey and heterogeneous soils, uneven bedrock topology, lack of drainage, and substandard construction
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This document summarizes a study examining factors contributing to road failure along the Ilorin-Ajase-Ipo road in Kwara State, Nigeria. Soil samples were collected from five locations along the road that had experienced failure and were tested for engineering properties. The results showed that the foundation materials were predominantly sandy soils with high percentages of sand. Principal component analysis indicated that sandy soils contributed most to the variability in the study area. The overall results suggested that poor foundation materials containing high sand content and poor engineering construction affected the rate of failure along the road.
Stratigraphic influence on geotechnical properties of subgrade soils along th...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study of the stratigraphic influence on geotechnical properties of subgrade soils along the Irrua-Auchi road in Nigeria. Laboratory and field tests were conducted to analyze the engineering properties of soils derived from different geologic formations underlying the road: the Ameki Formation, Imo Shale, and Ajali Sandstone. Results showed the soils had similar geotechnical properties but pavement deflections, indicating stability, varied with geology, with the most stable segment underlain by Ajali soils and the least stable by Imo shale soils. Stratification of underlying geologic units thus influenced the pavement performance.
Impact of erosion on street roads a case study of sijuwade area akure ondo st...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the impact of erosion on street roads in Sijuwade Area, Akure, Nigeria. A reconnaissance survey was conducted to identify 13 streets for analysis. Factors causing erosion included natural causes like topography and rainfall as well as human causes such as poor construction, waste disposal, and lack of maintenance. Effects of erosion included non-motorable roads due to gullies, slope instability, flooding during rain, pollution of water bodies, and damage to road infrastructure. The level of erosion impact on each street was evaluated based on accessibility. Unpaved roads were more susceptible to erosion. Erosion poses a significant challenge for street infrastructure and transportation in the area.
Combined Geophysical And Geotechnical Techniques For Assessment Of Foundation...IRJESJOURNAL
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Quantification of Earth Material for Sustainable Road Works in Southeast Nige...ssuser793b4e
This paper examines the use of earth materials in sustainable road
construction in South East, Nigeria. The study aims to determine factors
associated with the use of earth materials, identify limiting factors, and
examine strategies to improve their use. The study population comprised 60
engineers and craftsmen using local materials. The results show limitations in
the use of earth materials in sustainable road works. The study recommends
contracting firms to develop better storage facilities for earth materials to
prevent damage and wastage. It also suggests incorporating earth materials
into construction education curriculums to sensitize students to their potential
benefits. The government should adopt a policy of adapting earth materials
that require minimal capital and foreign exchange and utilizing available raw
materials and skills in small-scale operations. The study's findings highlight
the importance of sustainable road construction in Nigeria's socio-economic
growth.
Impacts of Flooding on Road Transport Infrastructure In Enugu Metropolitan Ci...IJERA Editor
An assessment of the impact of flooding on the road transport infrastructure in Enugu Metropolis was carried out using survey research method. Thirty impact indicators were rated by the respondents against six impact dimensions of population, vulnerability of activities, frequency, intensity, extent and risk. Three null hypotheses were postulated and tested. One sample t-test was used for testing hypothesis one which stated that damages to the road transport infrastructure resulting from flooding are not significant to warrant mitigation.Since the p-value =0.000(p<0.05),>< 0.05), indicating high impact of flooding on the socio-economic activities in Enugu urban.Furthermore a statistically significant impact was equally recorded in hypothesis three since thecalculated p–value (0.000)was less than 0.05, (p < 0.05). The implication was that damages to road transport infrastructure due to flooding have significant impact on the environmental sustainability of the study area. The model generated hadGoodness of Fit Index (GFI) = 0.974; Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) = 0.951; Comparative Fit Index (CFI)= 0.949 and Incremental Fit Index (IFI) = 0.950; while the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.059. The paper therefore recommendedproper infrastructural design and planning, good governance, population control and appropriate weather monitoring as some measures that could be adopted to mitigate the impact of flooding on the road transport infrastructure in Enugu Urban.
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This document discusses a study on the causes of cracks and deterioration of pavements on highways in Jordan from contractors' perspectives. A literature review identified 51 potential causes of road deterioration. A questionnaire was distributed to 150 contractors to rate each cause on a scale of 1 to 5. 38 responses were received. The causes were analyzed individually and grouped. The highest individually ranked cause was "defects caused during construction due to poor construction quality" with a rating of 4.15. Causes were also grouped into 11 categories with the highest rated group being "Effect of Cracks and Structural Failure" at 3.96. The study aims to identify key causes of highway deterioration in Jordan to help minimize risks and costs associated with road maintenance and
A Study of Disaster Management & Geotechnical Investigation of Landslides: A ...IRJET Journal
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This document summarizes a study on the influence of subsurface materials on pavement performance along the Yebu-Agaro road in Ethiopia. Soil samples were taken from severely damaged and undamaged sections of the road and tested in the lab. The tests found that the subgrade soil had liquid limits ranging from 33-60.5%, plasticity indexes from 20.3-30.1%, and soaked CBR values between 8-13%, which is below the minimum specified value of 15%. This indicates the subgrade soil is a poor material for the pavement structure. Analysis showed the soil types were also poor according to AASHTO and USCS classifications. It was concluded that failures along the road were influenced by the sub
Evaluation of Flexible Pavement Failures-A Case Study on Izki RoadIJAEMSJORNAL
Pavement is a multi-layer system that distributes the vehicular loads over a larger area. It helps to make them durable and able to withstand traffic and the environment. Pavement consists of three basic layers the first layer is Sub grade (Gravel) which is the foundation layer, the second layer is sub base (layer Assistant foundation) and the top layer is base (a layer of pavement) which consists of Bituminous Carpet + Bituminous Macadam. Cracking of pavement is a defect that appears in the top layer of the road. Pavement can be under compression and tension at the same time, but in different directions. While a tire compresses a pavement downward, it forms a deflection basin which causes the pavement to go into tension in both horizontal directions. If the pavement is not strong enough, the asphalt is stretched too far, which separates and a crack forms in the wheel track. A crack may also form between the wheel tracks. The maintenance of roads means protecting, restoration and strengthening of all elements of the road to maintain sustainability of the road. Road maintenance also includes additional work that is necessary in order to raise the level of performance and reach the best level of safety and comfort for the road users. Roads are high-cost investments and need constant maintenance so that these investments continue to perform as required. Therefore, care must be taken to maintain the roads in optimum maintenance and in a scientific manner. The aim of this Study is to identify the most common types of cracks and defects which occur in Izki road and suggest suitable option for maintenance. The objectives are to identify different types of cracks & defects, to find out the different reasons that cause defects and cracks in Izki road and to suggest suitable maintenance methods. A 2km length of the road was selected for the study. Survey was carried out and the reasons for cracking and other failures in pavement were studied. Finally, the required maintenance solution for each type of failures was identified and the best maintenance option was selected.
Engineering geophysical investigation around ungwan doka, shika area within t...Alexander Decker
The document summarizes an engineering geophysical investigation conducted around Ungwan Doka, Shika area in northwestern Nigeria. Vertical electrical soundings using Schlumberger configuration were performed at 18 locations. The resistivity data revealed 2-4 subsurface layers: a topsoil layer, a weathered basement layer, a partly weathered/fractured basement layer, and a fresh basement layer. Resistivity values and layer thicknesses varied across layers and locations. The study characterized the subsurface and evaluated its competence, structural variations, groundwater potential, and safety of the hydrogeologic system to inform engineering design.
Safety is the primary and most important reason for monitoring the deformations of engineering structures. It could also help in improving our knowledge of the mechanical behaviour of engineering structures. Engineering structures are subject to deformation due to factors such as changes of ground water level, traffic load changes, tidal and tectonic phenomena. The Ikpoba River Bridge in Benin City whose traffic load has increased was monitored using GPS technology. The bridge was investigated as a result of carrying more load than usual due to the expansion of the road and dredging activities that had taken place in the river in 2008. One reference station and six monitoring points were involved in the monitoring of the bridge. The regularity of the survey was thirty days, and six observation epochs were used. Each monitoring point was occupied for about thirty minutes during the observation. The observation data were processed with compass software. The processed coordinates were adjusted with least squares adjustment technique. The standard deviation of unit weight for the weighted observations (σo) was computed for each observation epoch and was less than 1cm. The observation epochs were compared consecutively by finding the difference between successive observation results. The maximum differences in coordinates of the successive epochs were all less than 1mm. It was seen from the results that the bridge
was stable and did not undergo any displacement/movement within the period of study. It is recommended that the results of the six monitored points on the bridge should be further analyzed using other appropriate model of adjustment technique.
Investigating the Causes of Erosion in Kaltungo Local Government Area, Gombe ...IRJET Journal
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Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research | Vol.5, Iss.2 A...Bilingual Publishing Group
Petrology and Geochemical Features of Crystalline Rocks in Ora-Ekiti, Southwestern Nigeria
Application of 2-D and 3-D Geo-electrical Resistivity Tomography and Geotechnical soil Evaluation for Engineering site Investigation: A Case Study of Okerenkoko Primary School, Warri-Southwest, Delta State, Nigeria
Correlation of Ground Penetrating Radar Data with Geotechnical Prospect Profiles: Reduto Case Study, Belém-PA, Brazil
Radio Direction Finding Method to Mitigate Tsunami Risk in Sierra Leone
Toxicity of Radon-222 in Groundwater across Keana in Nasarawa, Nigeria
Editorial for Advances in Geological and Geotechnical Engineering Research: Vol. 5 Issue 2 (2023)
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS USING GeoStudio AND PLAXIS 2D SOFTWARE: A COMPARATIV...IRJET Journal
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SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS USING GeoStudio AND PLAXIS 2D SOFTWARE: A COMPARATIV...IRJET Journal
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Comparative analysis of the soil geotechnical
1. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol.4, No.16, 2014
Comparative Analysis of the Soil Geotechnical Characteristics of
the Failed and Unfailed Sections of the Onitsha-Enugu
Expressway, Southeastern Nigeria.
Onuoha, D. C. ; Onwuka, S. U. and Okoye, C. O.
NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT DEPARTMENT NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY, P.M.B. 5025,
AWKA, NIGERIA.
Tel: 08037603720; E-mail: chidave2k3@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This work compared the soil geotechnical characteristics of the failed sections of the road and that of the un-failed
sections of the road to establish whether they are significantly different or related. To achieve this, soil
samples from both failed and un-failed sections of the road were analyzed. The data so generated, were tested
using Correlation Coefficient for relationship and Students T-test for difference. It was found that there exist
insignificant relationship between the failed and the un-failed sections of the road, there is significant difference
between the two variables and there is wide discrepancies between the geotechnical characteristics of the failed
sections and the standard of soil geotechnical characteristics set by the Federal Ministry of Works for highway
sub-grades. It was therefore concluded that the road failure was due to poor geotechnical characteristics of the
soil. The work recommended that the variation in the geotechnical characteristics of the soils along the roadway
should be accommodated during reconstruction. Sequel to this, knowledge of soil geotechnical characteristics
and underlying geology of an area becomes indispensable before any construction, reconstruction or
rehabilitation project commences.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Aigbedion (2007), defined Road Failure as a discontinuity in a road network resulting in cracks, potholes,
bulges and depressions. A road pavement is supposed to be a continuous stretch of asphalt lay for a smooth ride
or drive. Visible cracks, potholes, bulges and depressions may punctuate such smooth ride. The punctuation in
smooth ride is generally regarded as road failure. According to the Federal Ministry of Works and Housing
(FMW&H 1992), failed roads are characterized by potholes, polishing / pavement surface wash, block and
longitudinal cracks, drainage collapse, depressions / sinking of roadway, over flooding of the carriageway,
gullies and trenches, rutting and raveling all of which are evident along the Onitsha -Enugu expressway under
study confirming it’s failure.
Several thousands of lives and properties worth several million dollars are lost as a result of frequent motor
accidents, caused by failed highway pavements in Nigeria. Several factors are responsible for road failures,
which include geological, geomorphological geotechnical, road usage, construction practices, and maintenance
factors. Field observations and laboratory experiments carried out by Adegoke–Anthony and Agada (1980),
Mesida (1981), and Ajayi (1987) showed that road failures can arise from inadequate knowledge of the
geotechnical characteristics and behavior of residual soils on which the roads are built and non-recognition of the
influence of geology and geomorphology during the design and construction phases. Thus the treatment of
troublesome materials like clays are not been considered by the construction engineers which may be
problematic. This was also supported by the works of Gidigasu (1983), Graham and Shields (1984), Akpokodje
(1986), Alexander and Maxwell (1996), Jegede (1997), Gupta and Gupta (2003) and Ajani (2006).
Momoh et al (2008) and Adiat et al (2009) in their study of failed highway pavements using geophysical
methods, found that some geological factors influence road failure such as the near surface geologic sequence,
existence of geological structures like fractures and faults, presence of laterites, existence of ancient stream
channels, and shear zones. The collapse of concealed subsurface geological structures and other zones of
weakness controlled by regional fractures and joint systems along with silica leaching which has led to rock
deficiency are known to contribute to failures of highways and rail tracks (Nelson and Haigh, 1990). The
geomorphological factors are related to topography and surface/subsurface drainage system.
Other factors considered by some researchers and scholars include: Faulty Design and Poor Road Construction
as in the works of Paul and Radnor (1976), Abynayaka (1977), World Bank (1991), UNESCO (1991), FMWH
(1995), Jain and Kumar (1998); Poor Maintenance according to John and Gordon (1976), Oglesby and Garry
(1978), TRRL (1991); and Traffic Effects and Human Impacts on the Roads according to AASHTO (1976),
ANSMWH (1998), FMWH (1995) and Ibrahim (2011).
According to the work of Onuoha and Onwuka (2014), the present condition of most of the roads in the
Precambrian basement complex of south western Nigeria and the sedimentary terrain of the southeast and the
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entire Niger-Delta region has stimulated the interest of various stakeholders in the usage and maintenance of our
road ways. Rehabilitating these roadways has become a financial burden on the Federal, State, and Local
Governments. The Enugu-Onitsha Expressway is a typical example of Nigerian roads whose failure bugs the
mind of regular users. Almost every section of the road has failed, resulting to;
• Loss of lives and properties, human injuries etc. through accidents,
• retardation of the rate of economic growth and development in affected areas,
• environmental pollution and degradation,
• impedance of human movement and the flow of economic activities and
• numerous cases of armed robbery attacks along affected areas.
In the light of the foregoing therefore, some questions constantly come to mind: what exactly is the cause of this
problem? Again, since not all sections of the road failed, or at least failed equally, does soil characteristics
(geotechnical properties) play any role in the durability of the roads. Considering the cost of constructing and
maintaining this road, the answers to these questions have become a necessity particularly now that the impacts
are multiplying. It thus becomes necessary to compare the geotechnical characteristics of the soils of the failed
sections of the road and that of the un-failed sections of the road in order to determine whether or not the
geotechnical characteristics of the soil is a factor of the road failure.
1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this work is to establish the relationship between the geotechnical characteristics of the failed
sections and that of the unfailed sections of the Onitsha-Enugu Expressway.
To achieve the above aim, the following objectives will be pursued:
1. to determine the geotechnical characteristics of the soils of the failed
and the unfailed sections along the highway pavement under study,
2. to compare the geotechnical characteristics of the soils of the failed
sections and that of the unfailed sections of the road, and
3. to draw conclusions from the result of the analysis and proffer
solutions to handle the situation on the site and in similar situations to help mitigate the problem of road
failure.
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1.3 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
1. H0: There is no significance relationship between the soil geotechnical characteristics of the failed
sections of the road and the un-failed sections.
2. H0: There is no significant difference between the soil geotechnical characteristics of the failed sections
and the un-failed sections of the road.
1.4 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA
The Onitsha-Enugu Expressway under study is situated within longitude 6o45lE to 7o30lE and latitude 6o00lN to
6o30lN. For clarity of the location, see Fig.1 (the Map of Nigeria showing the study area) and Fig. 2 (Extract
Modified by Author from Map of Old Anambra State Showing the Road Under Study).
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Fig. 1.1: Map of Nigeria Showing the Study Area. (Source: Modified from web extract
http://www.ngex.com/nigeria/places/states/enugu.htm).
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Study Area
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Geology
The Onitsha/Enugu Expressway is sitting on Anambra basin of the Southeastern Nigeria it cuts across the
following geologic formations:
Ameki Formation (Nanka Sand, Umunya Shale and other units), Imo Shale, Nsukka Formation, Ajalli
Sandstone, Mamu Formation and Nkporo/Enugu Shale (which underlies Mamu Formation and is gradationally
seen immediately after the New market Flyover in Enugu).
2.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The study adopted experimental method of research which was mainly concerned with the laboratory analysis of
the soil samples collected from various locations in the site. For the purpose of studying both the failed and un-failed
sections of the road as well as recognizing the various geologic formations cut across by the roadway
under study, eight samples were collected and analyzed, four from the failed sections and four from the un-failed
sections of the road. Samples were collected from Bridgehead in Onitsha, Omoba Guest Hall, Umunya near
Odumodu Junction, Awkuzu, Awka, Umumba Ndiuno, Ngwo and Enugu after New Market Flyover. These
samples were analyzed for the following parameters: Particle Size Distribution, California Bearing Ratio (CBR),
Atterberg’s Limit (Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index) and Compaction.
2.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The results of the laboratory analyses of the eight samples collected from eight stations selected along the
roadway under study (four from the failed sections and four from the un-failed sections) are presented in Table
1 and discussed in line with the Standard of the Federal Ministry of Works shown in Table 2.
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Particle Size Distribution: The particle/grain size distribution of a soil is an important determinant of its
geotechnical characteristics. In construction, clay materials are seen as troublesome. This is because, clay though
porous is less permeable and to determine the percentage clay present in the natural soil of an area to know
whether it will serve as a good sub-grade or not. This particle size distribution analysis becomes necessary.
From Table 1, it is obtained that samples studied at Station 1 (around Bridgehead Onitsha) has a higher amount
of clay with a lower amount of sand-size particles. The clay here is over 54% while the sand is 45.9%. At Station
2 (Omagba Guest Hall near Borromew roundabout) the sand size particles are 49.9% while the clay particles has
50.1%. The result of the analysis of Station 3 (Umunya near Odumodu Junction) has it that sand is 31.7% while
clay is 68.3%, but in the case of Station 4 (around Awkuzu/Nteje area) sand is 61.9% while clay is 38.1%. A
different was recorded at Station 5 (Unizik Junction, Awka), where sand became lower 42.1% while the clay
went up to 57.9%. Another station with a high clay content is Station 7(After Zion Housing Estate near New
Market Flyover, Enugu) having clay of 52.3%. Considering the specification limits for Sub-grade material in
Table 2, it is obvious that only samples from Stations 6 and 7 fell within the limit of the specification, followed
by sample from Station 4. For grading test, good materials are materials having ≤35% passing for sieve 75 um or
200 sieve. Although other parameters are considered before the verdict can be given of which material is good
and which is bad. It should be noted that the more the clay, the more troublesome the material is. This is in line
with the works of Okagbue and Uma (1988), Jegede (1997), and Akpan (2005) among others.
Atterbergs Limit: From the result of the laboratory analyses, Station 1 has a high liquid limit of 85.5% with a
plasticity limit of 18.3% thus a high plasticity index of 67.2 which is greater than the standard limit of plasticity
index of 55. At Station 2 the liquid limit is less than the standard limit of liquid limit (which is 80%) and with a
moderate plasticity limit. From Table 2, it is clear that a soil with PI >35 is described as highly plastic this is in
line with the work of Sowers and Sowers (1970). Such a soil usually has the ability to retain appreciable amount
of total moisture in the diffuse double layer, especially by means of absorption. This fact was buttressed by the
higher Optimum Moisture Content recorded in samples from stations1,3,5 and 8 (Table 1). High plasticity
materials are usually susceptible to high compressibility (Seed and Woodward, 1964; Sowers and Sowers, 1970;
Coduto, 1999). An increase in plasticity of material also decreases its permeability and hydraulic conductivity
(Sowers and Sowers, 1970) which may be a factor of water logging and flooding both of which results in road
failure as evident in the failure around Station 5 (near UNIZIK Junction Awka where flooding led to the failure
of the road and the drainage system leading to the loss of lives recorded along that area sometime in August
2012.
It is noted that Stations 1 and 3 have liquid limits greater than that of the set standard by Federal Ministry of
Works while station 2,4,5,6, 7 and 8 have liquid limits lower than the set liquid standard. But due to the plastic
limit of the samples collected at the various stations, station 1, 3, 5 and 8 exceeded the standard limits of
plasticity index set by the Federal Ministry of Works as can be seen in Table 2. It is crystal clear that all the
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materials with geotechnical characteristics greater than the set standard are troublesome, seeing that they are all
clay materials (weathered shale) showing the different formations t6hat are clay which underlie these stations
along the roadway (Ameki formation, Umunya Shale Unit, Imo Shale and Enugu Shale, that is, Stations 1,3,5
and 8 respectively). This` agrees with the woks of Gidigasu (1983), Graham and Shields (1984), Akpokodje
(1986), Alexander and Maxwell (1996) and Jegede (1997) which stipulates that clay materials are troublesome
materials in construction and must be treated with caution.
Thus one can conclude based on the atterberg limit test that stations 1, 3, 5 and 8 have bad Sub-grade materials
while station 2, 4, 6 and 7 are underlain by good Sub-grade materials although other geotechnical parameters
must be put into consideration before a final conclusion can be drawn as to the quality of the sub-grade. It can
thus be inferred that the failure of the road at stations 1, 3 and 5 is as a result of the soil geotechnical
characteristics of these sections of the road.
Compaction: Results of the compaction test showed higher Maximum Dry Density (MDD) for samples from
stations 2,4,6 and 7. of 1.85, 2.03, 1.94 and 2.13 mg/m3 respectively with Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)
ranging from 10.1 to 17.2. Stations 1,3,5 and 8 showed lower MDD of 1.74, 1.55, 1.50 and 1.61 mg/m3
respectively with OMC ranging from 17.2 to 18.2 thus higher (see Table 1). This implies that in construction, the
soils of stations 2,4,6 and 7 will be more suitable for Sub-grades and easily compactible than those of stations
1,3,5 and 8. The MDD of Station 3, 5, and 8 (1.55, 1.50 and 1.61 mg/m3 respectively) which is on the Umunya
Shale, Imo Shale and Enugu Shale respectively also agreed with the work of Okogbue and Aghamelu (2010)
which states that Shales from Southeastern Nigeria has MDD ranging from 1.50 to 1.68 mg/m3 the high clay
content of these samples must be responsible for their lower MDD and CBR as evident in Table 1. It should be
noted that the density of the soil mass affects the strength of the soil. Generally, the strength of a soil increases as
its dry density increases. Also the potential for the soil to take on water at later times is decreased by higher
densities. This is due to the decreased presence of air space in the soil mass. The in-place moisture content of a
soil is often used, along with the soil classification, to determine the suitability of the material as a Sub-grade.
Generally, as the moisture content of a soil increases its strength decreases and the potential for deformation and
instability increases. There is no doubt then why these sections of the road consistently fail with time unlike
other sections. This further implies that the geotechnical factors of these sections of the road might not have been
considered during the construction. In addition, this further confirms the assertion by the respondents that part of
the reasons for the failure of the road is incompetence of the contractors
CBR: Results of the laboratory CBR tests showed that Stations1,3,5 and 8 showed lower soaked and unsoaked
CBR values of 11.0% & 5.5%, 8.0% & 6.0%, 16.0% & 12.5% and 10.5% & 7.5% respectively. While Stations
2,4,6 and 7 showed higher soaked and unsoaked CBR values of 26.0% & 24.0%, 30.0% & 24.0%, 20.0% &
13.0% and 43.0% & 36.0% respectively. The reduction in CBR of Stations 1,3,5 and 8 suggests that moisture
influx would be detrimental to the Sub-grades of pavements constructed on them. The higher clay content of the
samples might also be responsible for reduction in CBR, which was a geotechnical signal for cautions when used
as pavement materials. Thus the materials at Stations 2, 4, 6 and 7 will make better sub-grades all other
parameters being equal. This again strengthens the conclusions made earlier from the compaction test.
Therefore, in conclusion of the discussions on Tables 1 and 2, it is evident that the failure of the road at Stations
1, 3 and 5 is from their soil geotechnical characteristics as shown by the results of their PI and grading test, all of
which are not in conformity with the standard set by the FMW.
2.2 TEST OF HYPOTHESES
Hypothesis 1
H0: There is no significant relationship between the soil geotechnical characteristics of the failed sections of the
road and the un-failed sections.
H1: There is significant relationship between the soil geotechnical characteristics of the failed sections of the
road and the un-failed sections.
Level of significance: 5% (0.05)
Statistical tool: Correlation Coefficient.
This is a statistical tool that shows strength and nature of relationship between two variables. In this case, it was
used to show if there exist significant relationship between failed and un-failed section of the road.
Decision Rule: The test is said to be significant if the value is greater than 0.5, else, insignificant. The result is as
follows;
The data of the laboratory analyses of the failed and un-failed sections of the road was feed into the computer
with the aid of the SPSS and Minitab as in Table 3 and the correlation determined.
Correlations: failed section, un-failed section
Pearson correlation of failed section and un-failed section = 0.384
P-Value = 0.322 thus we accept H0 that is there is no significant relationship between the geotechnical
characteristics of the failed sections and that of the unfailed sections.
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Hypothesis 2
H0: There is no significant difference between the soil geotechnical characteristics of the failed sections and the
un-failed sections of the road.
H1: There is significant difference between the soil geotechnical characteristics of the failed sections and the un-failed
132
sections of the road.
Level of significance: 5% (0.05)
Statistical tool: Student T- test;
Decision Rule: The test is said to be significant if the value is greater than 0.05, else, insignificant that is reject
H0 if p-value is less than 0.05, otherwise accept H0. The result is as follows;
Two-Sample T-Test and CI: failed, unfailed
Two-sample T for failed vs unfailed
N Mean StDev SE Mean
failed 35 33.5 25.4 4.3
unfailed 35 27.4 19.1 3.2
Difference = mu (failed) - mu (unfailed)
Estimate for difference: 6.08
95% CI for difference: (-4.64, 16.81)
T-Test of difference = 0 (vs not =): T-Value = 1.13 P-Value = 0.0262 DF = 68
Both use Pooled StDev = 22.4872
The p-value of the test is less than 0.05 which implies there exist enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis
and conclude that there exists significant difference between the variables.
3.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
3.1 CONCLUSION
The correlation between the variables is 0.384 which is less than 0.5. This implies insignificant relationship
between the failed and un-failed sections of the road. Also the p-value for the T-test is less than 0.05 which
means there is significant difference between the geotechnical characteristics of the failed sections and that of
the un-failed sections. It thus becomes crystal clear that the failure of the road is greatly dependent on the
geotechnical characteristics of the soil on which the road was built, since the failed sections differ from the set
standards by the Federal Ministry of Works for geotechnical characteristics of subgrades as can be confirmed
from Table 1..
3.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Sequel to the above findings and conclusion, the following recommendations were made:
· The geotechnical characteristics of the soils along the roadway vary from point to point and should be
treated as such. Zones of high clay content to be treated with caution during reconstruction activities to
avoid premature failure.
· All the failed sections with very troublesome clays to be excavated and replaced with good materials
before casting the asphalt during reconstruction activities.
· Knowledge of soil geotechnical characteristics and the underlying geology of an area is also very
essential and should be ensured before any construction project commence as the stability of the
foundation layers particularly depends on this.
· Ready data of the geological and geotechnical status of all major highways should be established to aid
proper planning of road reconstruction and rehabilitation projects.
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