Author: Dr. Sathyanarayana B Principal and Medical Superintendent Muniyal Institute of Ayurveda Medical Sciences Manipal

1. COLLECTION OF RAW MATERIALS
Dr. Sathyanarayana B
Principal, Muniyal Institute of Ayurveda Medical Sciences, Manipal

2.  Standardization of drug means confirmation of its
identity and determination of its quality and purity.
 Phytotherapeutic agents or phytomedicines are –
standardized herbal preparations consisting of complex
mixtures of one or more plants which are used in most
countries for the management of various diseases.

3. Dr Sathyanarayana B 3
 Ayurveda depends on natural substances for the preparation of
medicine.
 The natural substances show a great variation depending upon
various factors.
 In Ayurvedic pharmaceutics raw materials are derived from basically
three Sources:
 1. Herbal
 2. Mineral
 3. Animal

4. Problems Faced in Herbal Drug Standardization
 Herbal drugs are usually mixtures of many constituents
 The active principles are, in most cases unknown
 Selected analytical methods or reference compounds may
not be available commercially
 Plant materials are chemically and naturally variable

5. Continued…
 The methods of harvesting, drying, storage, transportation, and
processing have an effect(e.g. mode of extraction, polarity of the
extracting solvent, instability of constituents etc.)

6. Factors Influencing Phytochemical Profile Of
Medicinal Plants:
 Genetic variants leading to the variability in the chemical
composition.
 Geographical and nutritional factors-altitude, soil
composition, microbial load, climate, temperature etc.
 Seasonal changes(rainfall, drought, water stress etc.)
 Seasonal variations: alkaloid composition of Adhatoda vasica
is low in Feb and March and highest in Aug/september

7. Collection of herbal raw drugs

8. Rules and regulations for the collection
of medicinal plants
1.Collection according to the place of growth
 Quality of a plant varies according to the place where it grows.
 The observations and the inferences drawn by the ancient scientists,
regarding the plant material, appear very rational on the background of
recently accumulated knowledge about the variation in the phytochemical
contents of plants, which is known to occur depending on place and time of
collection.
Dr Sathyanarayana B 8

9. Rules and regulations for the collection of
medicinal plants
 Eg: the root of Rauwolfia serpentina, yielded different quantities of
the alkaloid reserpine, when collected from the different places at
the same time.
 The root of the plant collected from Kumani forest yielded 1.6%
alkaloid, and that from Kanchollari forest 1.4%; while the specimen
from the local markets of Lucknow gave 0.8%, 1.2% yield was
obtained from the roots collected from the "medicinal plants
cultivation area".
Dr Sathyanarayana B 9

10. Qualities of the ideal Land/soil, to collect raw
drugs (Su.Su.36/3):
1. The land should not have big pits, rocks or anthills.
2. The surface should not be uneven.
3. The plants which grow near burial ground, temples, slaughterer
house should not be collected for medicinal purposes.
4. Land should not be rocky, sandy and soil should not be salty or
alkaline.
5. Soil should neither be too marshy nor too dry.
6. The soil should be unctuous, soft, fertile and black, red or white in
color.
7. The land surface should be even and covered by grass and big trees.
Dr Sathyanarayana B 10

11. Qualities of the ideal Land/soil, to collect raw
drugs (Su.Su.36/3):
 While collecting the plants, one should consider the characters of
soil, environment, predominance of Mahabhuta, relation with
Dosha etc.
 If the plant is to be collected for inducing Vamana, it is ideal if it
is grown in the land predominant with Vayaveeya and Agneya
properties.
Dr Sathyanarayana B 11

12. Qualities of the ideal Land/soil, to collect raw
drugs (Su.Su.36/3):
 If the plant is to be collected for Virechana, it is better to select the
plant grown in the soil rich with Apya and Parthiva Mahabhutas.
 For Samshamana(palliative) purpose plant has to be collected from
the place predominantly having Akasheeya properties.
Dr Sathyanarayana B 12

13. Collection according to the maturity of the plant:
 The same plant at the same place may yield different amount of
alkaloids in different stages of development according to the maturity
of plant and plant part.
 Hence, Ayurvedic classics clearly mention whether, the tender plant is
to be collected or fully matured.
 In the case of clove, it is mentioned to collect Pushpa Kalika i.e,
flower bud. This is a proved fact that blown clove contains less
amount of volatile oil and therapeutically it is not good as the flower
bud.
Dr Sathyanarayana B 13

14. Collection according to the maturity of the
plant:
 In a survey, Mr. Choudhary reported, variation in the ratio of
hyoscine/hyosciamine depending on the maturity of the plant,
Datura stramonium from which it is obtained.
 In the immature plant the ratio is 80:20 while in mature plant
it is almost reverse to the extent of 30:70.
Dr Sathyanarayana B 14

15. Collection according to the specific
part of the plant:
 In order to have full therapeutic efficacy of a drug, Ayurvedic
scholars with keen observations and immense empirical
knowledge have specified different parts to collect and
preserve them.
Dr Sathyanarayana B 15

16. Collection according to the specific part of the plant:
S.No. Officinal Part Example
1. Sarabhaga(Heartwood) Asana(Pterocarpus marsupium), Khadira(Acacia catechu),
Candana(Santalum alba) etc.
2. Tvak(bark) Ashvattha(Ficus bengalensis), Nimba(Azadirahta indica),
Tvak(Cinnamomun zeylanica) etc.
3. Phala(fruit) Amalaki(Emblica officinalis), Draksha(Vitis vinifera),
Hareetaki(Terminalia chebula) etc.
4. Patra(Leaf) Talisa(Abies webiana), Tamala (Cinnamomum tamala),
Markandika(Cassia angustifolia) etc.
5. Pushpa(Flower) Dhataki(Woodfordia fruticosa), Madhuka (Madhuca indica),
Kamala (Nelumbo nucifera) etc.
6. Pushpa Kalika(Flower bud) Lavanga(Syzygium aromaticum).
Dr Sathyanarayana B 16

17. Collection according to the specific part of the plant:
7. Kshira(Latex) Snuhi(Euphorbi nerifolia), Arka(Calatropis
procera) etc.
8. Kanda(Stem) Guduci(Tinospora cordifolia) etc.
9. Niryasa(Gummy
resin)
Hingu(Ferula narthex), Guggulu(Commiphora
mukul), etc.
10. Kanda(tuber/rhizo
me)
Varahi Kanda (Diascorea bulbifera),
Haridra(Curcuma longa) etc.
11. Mula(Root) Ashvagandha(Withania somnifera),
Punarnava(Boerhavia diffusa) etc.
12. Pancanga(Whole
plant)
Bhrngaraja(Eclipta alba),
Apamarga(Achyranthus aspera), etc.
Dr Sathyanarayana B 17

18. Collection of drugs as per their Veerya
(Potency):
 Acarya Sushruta insists on collecting plants according to their Virya,
because Virya is the responsible factor for drug action.
 An Usna Virya drug should be collected in UsnaKala and Agneya
Mahabhuta Pradhana Bhumi like Vindhya Pradesha.
 Sita Virya drug should be collected in Sita Kala and Soumya Bhumi like
Himalayas.
Dr Sathyanarayana B 18

19. Collection of plants as per the season:
 Potency of plant/plant part varies according to the season.
 Hence, Ayurvedic texts have given clear guideline regarding the
specific season ideal for the collection of particular plant part.
Dr Sathyanarayana B 19

20. Collection of plants as per the season
S.No. Officinal part Season for collection
1. Branches Varsha and Vasanta
2. Leaves Varsha and Vasanta
3. Roots Shishira and Grishma
4. Stem bark Sharad
5. Tubers/Rhizomes Sharad
6. Latex Sharad
7. Heartwood Hemanta
8. Flowers According to the flowering season of the specific
plant
9. Fruits According to the fruiting season of the specific
plant
10. Whole plant Sharad
Dr Sathyanarayana B
20

21. Example for the seasonal variation of
drug components:
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
% of
alkaloids
Summer Rainy Winter Spring
Season
Seasonal Variation of Reserpine
alkaloids
Total Alkaloids
Reserpine
Dr Sathyanarayana B 21
In addition to this specific Nakshatra(Pushya, Shvini etc) for collection, specific
direction (north or east), for collection, specific time (morning), specific
method are also discussed in Ayurvedic texts.

23. Scientific evidences

24. Seasonal and Geographical Variations in Cellular Characters and Chemical
Contents in Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. – An Ayurvedic Medicinal Plant
Jayanthy A., Prakash Kumar U. and A. B. Remashree
 The present study deals with the major variations observed in anatomical, physicochemical
and phytochemical characters in D. gangeticum due to change in season and region.
 Phytochemical changes due to various seasons and different regions were studied by
performing HPTLC densitometric quantification of lupeol in methanol extract of roots.
 Microscopic variation observed in the quantity of cell inclusions, number of fibers and wall
thickness of lignified cells. Physicochemical parameters also showed variation.

25.  The percentage of lupeol was very low in young plants then increase
with growth and maximum percentage of lupeol was observed in the
flowering stage.
 In the case of geographical variation the quantity of lupeol was high in
the roots collected from high altitude area and lowest in the ones
collected from the plains.
 The study showed that as the seasonal variation is associated with the
vegetative and reproductive stages of the plant, it has direct influence
with the variation in chemical constituents of the plants.
 The region where the plants grow has also influence in the chemical
constituents of the plants.

26. Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol. 33 (2), 193-199, Mar. - Apr. 2011
 The results showed that total saponin contents in Brahmi were the highest in rainy
season while the weight yield of Brahmi was the highest in summer. Ages of Brahmi
(1-4 months) slightly affected total saponin content.
 High level of total saponins (1.91±0.48% w/w) was detected at the shoot of Brahmi.
 These findings indicate that the saponin quantity is affected by seasons and the
distribution of the saponins is different in each part of the plant.

27. Effect of Agro climatic factors on secondary metabolite
production in plants
Sr. No. Parameters Plant specie Effect on secondary metabolites
1. Altitude Chrysanthemum
cinerarifolium
At higher altitudes(1900-2700m) gives best yield of flowers and
pyrethrines(Trease et al, 1992)
Cinchona succiruba At lower altitude plant grows well but produces no alkaloid(Trease et al, 1992)
Gentiana lutea Bitter constituents increase with altitude(Trease et al, 1992)
2. Temperature Nicotiana rustica The mean optimum temperature for nicotine production is 280C(Trease et al.)
3. Diurnal variation
and type of
radiation
Bryophyllum pinnatum A dark adapted plant contains more polyphenols in leaves(Yogeswaran)
Datura stramonium Long exposure to intense sunlight results in sharp increase in Hyoscine content at
the time of flowering
4. Fertilizers Dioscorea spp. Apart from application of N,P and K, application of , Ca, Mg increases productivity
as well as diosgenin content(Mishra 1992)
Cymbopogon winterianus The Geraniol and Citronellol content of Citronella Java oil is highly affected by NPK
application(Mishra 1992)
Catharanthus roseus Spraying foliar nutrients like Fe, Cu, Zn and B either individually or in combination
at pre-flowering stage increases the total alkaloid content of leaves, stem and
roots(Mishra 1992)
5. Soil Atropa belladonna Linn Soil pH 6 and higher causes better accumulation of alkaloids in leaves

28. Ontogenetic variations in some
secondary metabolites in plants
Sr. No. Plant species Ontogenetic variation
1. Artemissia annua Artemisinin content is maximum at the 16 week harvest (early flowering stage)
and declines in harvested later(Farooqi et al.)
2. Salvia officinalis Oil obtained in flowering stage greatly differs in composition than at vegetative
stage
3. Alpinia galanga Maximum amount of cineole is found in oil at 42 months after planting
4. Digitalis purpurea Glycoside content varies with age. Purpurea glycoside A is formed terminally and
its content increase upto 50% of total glycosides
5. Ammi visnaga Khellin and Visnagin contents are maximum in unripe fruit
6. Mentha piperata Menthone:Menthol ratio is minimum at the end of flowering
7. Ipomoea violacea Lysergic acid amide:chanoclavine ratio increases as the seed matures

29. COLLECTION AND PROCESSING OF CRUDE DRUGS
Modern Pharmaceutical view

30. Collection And Processing of Crude Drugs
 After collection of the crude drugs, they are required to be processed prior to
marketing.
 The reasons for preparation of drugs are to stabilize them in transport and
storage and to ensure the absence of foreign organic matter and substitutes.
 Market preparation of crude drugs also takes care of pharmaceuticals
elegance.

31. Collection And Processing of Crude Drugs
 While preparing drug for commerce, several methods are adopted to
meet the standard pharmacopoeia requirements.
 Generally, these methods include proper methods of collection,
harvesting, drying and garbling.

32. Collection And Processing of Crude Drugs
 Sometimes, coating and bleaching are also necessary for converting
the drug into suitable form for the market.
 While doing so, it could be observed that neither the action of the
drug is lowered down nor it is changed, due to additives used in the
process.

33. COLLECTION
 Irrespective of the type of crude drug and area of collection, there cannot
be two opinions that the drugs are collected suitably when they contain
maximum concentration of active constituents.
 The advantage of existing environmental conditions is also taken into
consideration while collecting the crude drugs.
 The drugs which constitute leaf and flowering tops of plants are collected
just before they reach their flowering stage(maturity); e.g., senna,
digitalis, vinca, belladonna, etc, while the leaves of aloe are collected
when they are sufficiently thick.

34.  Flowers need to be collected just before pollination or many a times,
before their full expansion. e.g. saffron, clove buds, chamomile, arnica,
etc,
 They are collected in dry weather and preferably during morning hours.
 Barks are generally collected in spring or early summer when cambium
is active, as it is easy to detach them form the stem.
 Sometimes, they are collected in autumn (wild cherry) or in rainy
season (cinnamon).

35.  Three different methods for collecting barks are
 (i) felling,
 (ii) uprooting and
 (iii) coppicing.
 In felling method, the tree is cut at base and bark is peeled out.
 In uprooting technique, the roots are dug out and bark is stripped off from roots and
branches.
 In coppicing method, the plant is allowed to grow for a definite period and then it is
cut off at specific distance from soil.

36.  The stumps which remain in ground are allowed to send shoots, which
develop further independently yielding aerial parts.
 These new parts are cut off and bark is collected from shoots.
 As compared to other methods of collection of bark, this technique is
more economical and less time-consuming.
 It is, therefore, the method of choice for collecting barks commercially.
 Cascara and Cinnamon are collected by this method.

37.  The fruits are collected depending upon the part of the fruits used.
 They are collected either ripe of half ripe, but fully grown.
 For example, cardamom fruits are collected just before their
dehiscence; bael and tamarind, after their, full maturity, while
caraway, fennel and coriander are collected, when they are fully
ripe.

38.  The roots are collected in spring, before the vegetative process stops.
 Usually, the roots are sliced transversely or longitudinally to facilitate
drying.
 Rhizomes are collected, when they store ample of reserve food material
and also contain maximum content of chemical constituents.

39.  The unorganized drugs such as resins, gums, latices are collected, as soon
as, they ooze out of the plant.
 Acacia gum is collected 2-3 weeks after making incisions on the bark of
the tree and when it is sufficiently hard.
 Opium and papaya latices are collected after coagulation of latex.

40. HARVESTING
 Harvesting is an important operation in cultivation technology, as it reflects upon
economic aspects of the crude drugs.
 An important point which needs attention over here is the type of drug to be
harvested and the pharmacopoeial standards which it needs to achieve.
 Harvesting can be done efficiently in every respect by the skilled workers.
 Selectivity is of advantage in that the drugs other than genuine, but similar in
appearance can be rejected at the site of collection.
 It is, however, a laborious job and may not be economical.

41.  In certain cases, it cannot be replaced by any mechanical means, e.g.
digitalis, tea, vinca and senna leaves
 The underground drugs like roots, rhizomes, tubers, etc. are harvested by
mechanical devices, such as diggers or lifters.
 The tubers or roots are thoroughly washed in water to get rid of earthy-
matter.
 Drugs which constitute all aerial parts are harvested by binders for economic
reasons.

42.  Many a times, flowers, seeds and small fruits are harvested by a special device
known as seed stripper.
 The technique of beating plant with bamboos is used in case of cloves.
 Peppermint and spearmint are harvested by normal method with mowers, whereas
fennel, coriander and caraway plants are uprooted and dried.
 After drying, either they are thrashed or beaten and the fruits are separated by
winnowing.
 Sometimes, reaping machines are also used for their harvesting.

43. Seed stripper

44. Reaping machine

45. Reaper and binder