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1. World Civilizations and Cultures
HS 201
Lecture 025
Module C – India and the World: Ancient and Medieval Periods
V.N. Prabhakar, IIT Gandhinagar
A Veritable Melting Pot?
Invasions and Mobility
Persians, Indo-Greeks, Bactrians and Central Asians

2. Background
• During the period of Persian ruler Cyrus (c. 558-530 BCE), his
eastern campaigns included Gandhara (Herodotus 1: 153,177)
• Other Greek sources mention his death in the war with the
Indians; however his territory extended up to the Erythrean
Sea (Arabian sea)
• Darius (c. 522-486 BCE), through his inscriptions mention his
territory extended into Sindh region; Behistun inscription (c.
520-518 BCE) lists 23 provinces, including Gandhara,
Sogdiana, and Bactria; but not the Sindh region
• However, his other two inscriptions, one at Persepolis (c. 518-
515 BCE) and another at Naksh-i-Rustam (c. 515 BCE)
mention Hi(n)du or northern Panjab as part of his domain
• Herodotus (III, 94) mentions that India was the 20th Satrap of
Darius, and it contributed 360 talents of gold dust
• Xerxes (c. 486-465 BCE) claims to have obtained the services
of an Indian contingent in his war against the Greeks, known
as Gandharians and Indians

3. Background
• Persian hold on the western borders of India continued up to c.
330 BCE, until the times of Darius III, who also tired to obtain
an Indian contingent to fight against Alexander’s invasion
• Alexander defeated Darius III in c. 330 BCE, captured and
destroyed his capital Persepolis; advanced further eastward,
established several cities as rear posts after his name;
including Kandahar, Charikar, Begram, Koratas and Nicaea
• Alexander entered India in 327 BCE; records of Ambhi, the
king of Taxila sending him tributes to spare him due to his
hostility with Porus (Paurava)
• Famous truce with Porus and the retreat starting in 326 BCE;
divided the conquered territory in India between Ambhi (region
west of Jhelum); Porus (region between Beas and Jhelum);
Abhisara (Kashmir)
• Retreated through Indus river and captured many small
kingdoms on the route

4. Outcomes of Alexander’s invasion
• Unification of Indian territories under strong rules;
ultimately paved way for the Magadhan empire
• Invasion paved way for an extensive communication
network with the west
• Alexander divided his territory between four of his
generals:
• Cassander (Macedonia)
• Ptolemy (Egypt)
• Antigonus (Asia Minor, Thrace, southern Greece)
• Seleucus (Asian region)
• Greeks are referred to as Yavanas, which might have
been borrowed from the Persian, Yauna
• The cities founded by Alexander in northwestern part of
India was settled by the Greeks left over from the
expedition, soldiers and generals
• Influences in areas of coinage, architecture

7. Indo-Greeks
• Important cities founded by Alexander and settled:
• Alexandria sub-Caucasum (modern Charikar or
Opian near Kabul)
• Alexandria among the Arachosians (Kandahar)
• Bucephala and Nicaea (on the banks of Jhelum, and
near to the city of the same name)
• Alexandria (at the confluence of Chenab and Indus
rivers)
• Sogdian Alexandria (in northern Sindh)
• The Greek elements at Alexandrian sub-Caucasum
was most conspicuous even after the region came
under Mauryan occupation
Bactrian Greeks
• Parthia (Khurasan and adjoining region southeast of
Caspian Sea)
• Bactria (around Balk, ancient Bahlika, northern
Afghanistan beyond Hindukush) were two prominent
regions under Selecucus

8. Bactrian Greeks and Indo-Greeks
• Around 250 BCE, these regions revolted against Seleucid
successor, Antiochus II Theos (c. 261-246 BCE)
• During the reign of Antiochus III (c. 223-187 BCE), he
acknowledged the independence of these territories
• Prominent Bactrian rulers were Diodotus I and II,
Euthydemus, Demetrius, Eucratides, Agathocles and
Heliocles; during the time of Euthydemus, a truce was
agreed between Antiochus for Bactrian independence
• Indo-Greeks
• More than thirty Indo-Greek kings are known from coins
alone after Demetrius and Eucratides; otherwise
unknown from other sources
• Important Indo-Greek rulers are Menander, Antialcides
(finds mention in an inscription from Besnagar),
Apollodotus, Agathocleia, Strato I
• The rising powers of Sakas and Parthians gradually led
to the decline of Indo-Greek power during the later part
of first century BCE; Kushanas also arriving at the
scene at that time

9. Coin of Apollodotus, in Greek, King Apollodotus and elephant on
obverse; nandipada taurine symbol on hump of bull on reverse
Coin of Menandar, in Greek, King Menander, the
Saviour; Reverse: Athena with thunderbolt
Coin of Demetrius I, in Greek, King Demetrius, the
Saviour; Reverse: Heracles
Coin of Euthydemus I, in Greek, King Euthydemus, the
Saviour; Reverse: Seated Heracles

10. Sakas (Scythians) and Pahlavas (Parthians)
• The Greek and Roman sources indicate the Indo-Scythian
territory comprising of lower Sindh, region between lower
Sindh and Saurashtra, and including the whole of
Saurashtra
• Parthians, along with Yueh-Chi tribe were also pushing the
Scythians towards the western parts of India
• Sakas or the Scythians were living in Iranian Sakasthan
under the Parthians
• They have an admixture of Sakan, Parthian and Iranian
elements
• Important Saka rulers are
• Maues (Moa, Moga): 20 BCE – 22 CE
• Azes I: 5 BCE – 30 CE
• Azilises: 28 – 40 CE
• Azes II: 35 – 79 CE
• Another important ruler who was under the Parthians initially
and later became independent is Gondopheres
Coin of Azes, in Greek Of the Great, King of Kings,
Azoy; on Reverse Standing Athena, kharoshthi legend

11. Coin of Maues, in Greek Of the Great, King of Kings,
Maues; on Reverse seated Nike, kharoshthi legend
Coin of Azes II, in Greek Of the Great, King of Kings,
Azoy; on Reverse Standing Zeus, kharoshthi legend
Coin of Gondopheres, in Greek The King of Kings,
Gondopheres; on Reverse Standing Siva, kharoshthi
legend of the great king, the king of kings, the savior,
devoted to the god, Gondophares

12. Kushanas (branch of Yueh-chi of Central Asia)
• Branch of the Yeh-chi tribe, originally from Chinese
Turkestan
• Defeated in 165 BCE by another neighouring tribe Hiung-nu,
they migrated westwards, divided into two branches, one
went southwards and occupied parts of Tibet, known as
Little Yueh-chi
• The Great Yueh-chi travelled westwards, defeated the Sakas
and occupied their territory along the banks of Syr Darya or
Jaxartes (of Greeks) in Uzbekistan
• Again repulsed from this region, Yueh-chi people further
migrated westwards and southwards, and occupied the
valley of Oxus or Amu Darya, region known as Bactria
• The Yueh-chi’s transformed from nomadic way of life to and
established kingdoms, consisting of five principalities, one of
them being Kuei-shang or Kushana
• Soon, the Kushana defeated the other four principalities,
occupied regions of Kabul, Ngan-si (region of Parthians),
and other adjoining regions in the east and became
undisputed kings

13. Kushanas (branch of Yueh-chi of Central Asia)
• Early Kushana rulers are Kujula Kadphises, Vima Taktu and
Vima Kadphises; the geneology known from the Rabatak
inscription of Kanishka, the prominent ruler of Kushanas
• Written in Greek script, this inscription gives a detailed
account of Kanishka and his forefathers
Rabatak inscription of Kanishka, 1st century CE

14. Kushanas (branch of Yueh-chi of Central Asia)
• The first Kushana ruler Kujula was a subordinate of Indo-
Greeks, Hermaeus, of the Eucratides family and even issued
coins on their style and depicting Heracles, the Greek deity
• His grandson, Vima Kadphises, changes the style of
depiction and adopts Hindu deities, and proclaim themselves
as King of Kings, King of the World
• He extended his conquests and occupied regions of Panjab
• Kanishka followed Vima, and his rule extended to major
parts of norther, central and western India; he was the
contemporary of the Western Kshatrapas and Satavahanas
• He ruled over modern regions of Afghanistan, Taxila,
Bahawalpur, Sindh, Panjab, Malwa, Saurashtra
• Purushapura (modern Peshwar) was his capital
• A great patron of learning, famous Buddhist philosophers
like Asvagosha, Parsva and Vasumitra along with Nagarjuna
and the physician Charaka were present in his court
• The fourth Buddhist council saw the emergence of
Mahayanism
Coin of Kujula Kadphises, on the style of Hermaeus, an
Indo-Greek king, on the reverse the legend reads,
Kujula Kadphises, ruler of the Kushans, steadfast in law
Coin of Vima Kadphises, on the reverse, depiction of
Siva with trident, the legend reads, Maharajasa
Rajatirajas Sarvaloka Isvarasa Mahisvarasa Vima
Kathphisasa Tradara

15. Kushanas (branch of Yueh-chi of Central Asia)
• The coins of Kushana depict a variety of gods and
goddesses indicating the cosmopolitan nature of his
kingdom and different principalities with domination of
various cultural groups
• The deities of Greek, Sumerian, Persian, Elamite and Indian
region are depicted
• Oesho (Siva), Sakaymo Boddo (Sakyamuni Buddha), wind
god Oado (Persian Vado, Indian Vata), fire god Athsho
(Persian Atash), moon god Mao, sun god Miiro, or Miuro or
Mioro (Persian Mithra, Mihr; Indian Mitra, Mihira), Elamite or
Sumerian mother goddess Nana, Nanaia or Nana-Shao, war
god Orlagno (Persian Bahram), fire go Pharro (Persian
Fa’rr), Greek sun god Helios (along with moon goddess
Selene)
• Kushanas also founded several cities, including those in
Kashmir: Kanishkapura (modern Kanispor); Jushkapura
(modern Zukur, north of Srinagar) and Huvishkapura
(modern Ushkur)
Coin of Kanisha, in Greek, King of Kings, Kanishka the
Kushan; on Reverse standing Buddha is depicted
Coin of Kanisha, in Greek, King of Kings, Kanishka the
Kushan; on Reverse standing Ordokho an east Iranian
fertility goddes is depicted

16. Contributions of the Kushanas
• In the areas of religion, literature, art and architecture
• Mahayana form of Buddhism along with the emergence of
physical form of Buddha
• Emergence of Gandhara school of art, a distinct artistic
tradition with a combination of Indian faith and philosophy
represented by predominantly Greek art
• Emergence of Mathura school of art, a more Indianised
school of art, in contrast to Gandhara school of art
• In the literary field, works of Asvagosha (Buddhacharita on
life of Buddha; Saundarananda, on the conversion of Nanda,
Buddha’s half-brother) and Nagarjuna (Mulamadhyamaka
karika) are prominent
• Development of Saivism and allied cults of Kartikeya;
Vasudeva Krishna
• An important role in the trade activities with east and west,
actively participating in the Silk Trade route
• Also contributed extensively for the spread of Buddhism in
Chinese Turkestan and China
Gandhara Art
Mathura Art

17. Contributions of the Kushanas
Sculpture of Kanishka, inscription in Brahmi
characters reads Maharaja Rajadhiraja Devaputra
Kanishka
Sculpture of seated Vima Kadphises,
inscription in Brahmi characters reads
Maharaja Rajadhiraja Devaputra
Kushanputro Shahi
Saka Satrap Castana

18. Mes Aynak, at its peak from 5th – 7th c. CE

19. Six burial mounds datable to first c. CE
Over 20,000 artefacts, made of gold, silver
and ivory

20. Coin of Vima Kadphises, on the reverse, depiction of Siva with
trident, the legend reads, Maharajasa Rajatirajas Sarvaloka
Isvarasa Mahisvarasa Vima Kathphisasa Tradara
Coin of Skandagupta, on the obverse, depiction of
Skandagupta standing; on reverse, seated Lakshmi,
with the legend ‘Kramadityah’
Coin of Chandragupta, on the obverse, depiction of
Chandragupta on a horse; on reverse, seated Lakshmi
with legend ‘Ajitavikramah’
Coin of Samudragupta, on the obverse, depiction of
Samudragupta standing; on reverse, seated Lakshmi
with legend ‘Parakramah’

21. Series of water reservoirs, Sringaverapura, U.P.
1st c. BCE to 2nd c. CE

22. Kushana period city, Sanghol, Punjab

23. For further details on Gandhara School of Art
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TzJkSbOHn5U

24. The Western Kshatrapas
• Actually a branch of the Saka rulers occupying parts of
Sindh, central India, Gujarat, parts of Maharashtra,
Rajasthan during the 1st – 4th c. CE
• Two prominent families are known from the literary
records, inscriptions and coins: Kshaharata and Castana
(or the Kshatrapa) families
• Prominent rulers of Kshaharata family are: Abhiraka,
Bhumaka and Nahapana; the last ruler defeated and killed
by Gautamiputra Satakarni, the most powerful ruler of
Satavahana dynasty
• Prominent of the Castana family is Rudradaman of 2nd c.
CE, who had regular conflicts with the Satavahanas
• After Rudradaman, the Kshatrapa dynasty lost its
importance and prominence, but ruled a small territory,
until completely wipe out by Chandragupta II of Gupta
dynasty

25. The Huns
• Reference of Huns as early as 2nd c. BCE; their conflict with
Yueh-Chi tribe is also recorded by Chinese chronicles
• Due to their constant conflicts with other tribes, Hunas also
migrated west, divided into two branches, one dispersing
towards River Volga and other to Oxus region
• Became much powerful during the 5th c. CE in the Oxus valley;
Greek accounts refer them as white Huns
• Advanced towards India, but checked by Skandagupta of Gupta
dynasty somewhere around 460 CE
• However, their advance towards went unchecked, defeated the
Persians, and occupied a vast territory, ruled from their capital
at Balkh
• Toramana and Mihirakula are the prominent Hun rulers, who
held considerable regions of India including parts of Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Kashmir, Punjab
• The invasions of Huns into north India visibly shook the larger
empires like Guptas and ultimately their decline

26. Invading Forces (mostly
through the
northwestern part of
India)
Contribution and Impact
Greeks New style of architecture, induced the introduction of pillar edicts by
Asoka, building styles, may be rock-cut architecture also
Indo-Greeks and
Bactrians
New style of coinage, closely following the Alexander type of depiction of
rulers; planned cities, like in the case of Taxila and other Indo-Greek
cities in Afghanistan; new style of administration
Kushanas Continuation of coinage following the Indo-Greek pattern, introduction of
deities on the coins; sophisticated architecture, new building styles;
Gandhara school of art, depiction of Buddha, new set of literary works
Indo-Scythians and
Parthians
Persian influence on dress styles, cuisine, probably Persian wheel;
artillery, combative style in warfare
Huns Effected the ultimate downfall of the leading dynasties of north India

27. Further Readings
1. Majumdar, R.C. (ed.). 1970. The History and Culture of the Indian People; The Classical Age.
Bharatiya Vidya Bhawan, Bombay. pp. 34-35.
2. Majumdar, R.C. (ed.). 1968. The History and Culture of the Indian People; The Age of Imperial
Unity. Bharatiya Vidya Bhawan, Bombay. pp. 39-51; 101-118; 120-134; 136-153.
3. Sims-Williams, N. 2004. The Bactrian Inscription of Rabatak: A New Reading . Bulletin of the Asia
Institute , 2004, New Series, Vol. 18 (2004), pp. 53-68 Published by: Bulletin of the Asia Institute.