Cognosy

1. Cardioactive glycosides
1. White squill
2.3.3.1 European Squill
Synonyms Sea, onion, Bulbus Scillae; Meerzweibel, White Squill, Squill bulb; Scila.
Biological Source European squill is the fleshy inner bulb scales of the white variety of Urginea maritima (L.) Baker
(Scilla maritima L.) belonging to family Liliaceae.
Geographical Source It is found to be indigenous to those countries located near the Mediterranean region, such as:
France, Malta, Italy, Greece, Spain, Algeria and Morocco.
Preparation Normally the white squillyields fully grown and healthybulbs that have a height ranging between 18-20 cm
and a diameter varying between 12-15 cm. These bulbs are grown in partially submerged condition in sandy soil in the
mediterranean coastalregion.The bulbsare usually collectedin late Augustsoonafterthe flowering season.The rootsandthe
thin external scaly layers are removed and discarded.While the centralfleshly bulbs are collected separately.These bulbsare
then cut into transverse slices and subsequently dried either in sun rays or by artificial heating devices.
Description
Colour : White; Whitish yellow;
Taste : Bitter and gummy;
Size : Length = 3.5-5 cm; Width = 5-8 mm; Thickness = 2-5 mm;
Shape : Available as strips with tapering both ends.
Chemical Constituents Squill has the following glycosides, namely:
Glucoscillaren A = Scillarenin + Rhamnose + Glucose + Glucose;
Scillaren A = Scillarenin + Rhamnose + Glucose;
Proscillaridin A = Scillarenin + Rhamnose.
Scillaridin A; Scilliglaucoside; Scillipheoside; Glucoscillipheoside; Scillicyanoside.The structures ofthese glycosidesare
as shown below:
In addition to the above cardiac glycosides, the drug also comprises of flavonoids, calcium oxalate, xanthoscillide,
sinistrin (an inulin like carbohydrate) and an irritation causing volatilecomponent.
The following flowchart evidemtly illustrates the various steps involved in the acidic and
enzymatic hydrolysis of Scillaren A as shown below.

2. Stoll was first to separate thetwoglycosides fromsquil bulbs and named themas ScillarenAand ScillarenB.Theyhave
the following characteristic features.
Chemical Test Scillaren A on interaction with acetic anhydride and H2SO4, it gives rise to a red colour which changes
gradually first to blue and finally to bluish green colour.
Characteristics of Scillaren A and Scillaren B
Uses
1. It is a potent cardiotonic without having any cumulative effect (unlike Digitalis).
2. It is mostly employed in small doses as an effective expectorant specially in chronic bronchitis.
3. It causes emesis in relatively higher doses.
4. The squill glycosides usually produce copious diuresis.
5. By virtue of the fact that the squill glycosides possess high therapeutic indexand rapid elimination they invariably
maintain compensation in such patients where a prolonged treatment is required.

3. 2. Strophanthus hispidus
ChemicalConstituents and Uses of Strophanthus
Source and Distribution of Strophanthus:
Strophanthus are the dried ripe seeds of Strophanthus kombe or Strophanthus
hispidus, belonging to the family Apocyanaceae. They are also known as semino strophanthi and
arrow poison. Strophanthus is a climber and the extract of the seeds of this plant is used by the
tribals as arrow poison.
Strophanthus gratus (Photo credit: dinesh_valke)
It is indigenous to the regions near the Shire river, Nyanza and Tanganyika lakes of Eastern
tropical Africa. The seeds are bitter in taste and have unpleasant odour. They are silky in touch
due to the presence of trichomes.
Chemical constituents of Strophanthus:
The drug contains a mixture of glycosides called K-strophanthin, which constitutes K-
strophanthoside (strophoside), K-strophanthoside B cymarin and cymarol. Except cymarol, all
other glycosides yield strophanthidin on hydrolysis. K-strophanthoside is the primary glycoside
and on hydrolysis it gives aglycone strophanthidin and 3 sugars cymarose, a and B glucose.

4. Chemical Structure of Strophanthidin, also known as k-Strophanthidin (3β,5β,14β-Trihydroxy-
19-oxocard-20(22)-enolide). (Photo credit: Wikipedia)
The drug also contains other constituents like resin, mucilage, trigonelline, choline and fixed oil.
Medicinal Uses and Health Benefits of Strophanthus:
It is used as a cardiotonic. It is mainly a source of K-strophanthin. The drug is given parenterally
due to its poor absorption by oral route.
Anthraquinone glycosides
Aloe
Biological origin: Aloebarbadensis
Family;Liliacea
Part Used:driedexudates
Chemical
constituents:
Uses:

5. Rhubarb
Biological origin:
Rheum rhabarbarum) is a species of plant in the family Polygonaceae. It is a
herbaceous perennial growing from short, thick rhizomes. It produces large poisonous leaves that are
somewhat triangular, with long fleshy edible stalks and small flowers grouped in large compound leafy
greenish-white to rose-red inflorescences.
Uses: Rhubarb contains anthraquinones including rhein, and emodin and their glycosides (e.g.
glucorhein), which impart cathartic and laxative properties. It is hence useful as a cathartic in case of
constipation.
Chemical composition:
Emodin Rhein
Cochineal
The cochineal (Dactylopius coccus) is a scale insect in the suborder Sternorrhyncha, from which the
natural dye carmine is derived. A primarily sessile parasite native to tropical and subtropical South
America as well as Mexico and Arizona, this insect lives on cacti in the genus Opuntia, feeding on plant
moisture and nutrients. These insects are found on the pads of prickly pear cacti, then are brushed off
and dried.
The insect produces carminic acid that deters predation by other insects. Carminic acid, typically 17-
24% of dried insects' weight, can be extracted from the body and eggs, then mixed with aluminium or
calcium salts to make carmine dye, also known as cochineal.

6. Extraction and isolation of plant steroids: The powdered leaves (1.0 kg) of S. roxburghii were
soaked in 3 liter of ethanol and then 2 liter ethanol for 7 days. The whole mixture was then filtered
through filter paper and the filtrate was then evaporated under reduced pressure at (40-50)o C
using a Rotary Evaporator to provide 130 gm of a gummy concentrate of the crude extract. A
portion of the ethanol extract (10.5 gm) was dissolved in 90% ethanol. It was partitioned with n-
hexane, then with chloroform (CHCl3 ) and finally with ethylacetate (EA). All the extracts were
filtered through a cotton plug followed by Whatman filter paper number 1 and then concentrated
by using a rotary vacuum evaporator to provide n-hexane (2.5 gm), then with chloroform (CHCl3 )
(2.0 gm) and finally with ethylacetate (1.0 gm) extractives. Chromatographic separation The
column was packed with fine TLC grade silica gel (Kiesel gel 60H) was used as the packing
material. A column having 40 cm length and 3 cm in diameter was packed with the silica gel (70
gm) up to a height of 23 cm under reduced pressure. The column was washed with n-hexane to
facilitate compact packing. The sample was prepared by adsorbing 3.5 gm of n-hexane soluble
extract onto silica gel (Kiesel gel 60H, mesh 70-230), allowed to dry and subsequently applied on
top of the adsorbent layer. The column was then eluted with n-hexane followed by mixtures of n-
hexane and dichloromethane and then dichloromethane and methanol (Stahl, 1969). The polarity
was gradually increased by adding increasing proportions of dichloromethane and methanol. A
total of 30 fractions were collected each in 100 ml beakers
OR
Isolation of Crude Sapogenin
Sapogenins are found in plant tissues in a combined, glycosidal form called saponins. The method
developed involves extraction of saponins with hot 85 to 95 per cent ethanol or isopropanol,
removal of fat-soluble material from the filtered, concentrated aqueous alcoholic solution with
benzene, extraction of the saponins from the aqueous phase with butanol, and acid hydrolysis to
form sapogenins, followed by treatment with hot methanol-potassium hydroxide to remove
phenolic and other acidic sub- stances. We have obtained more consistent results with fresh plant
material than with dehydrated tissue, and hence recommend fresh material for the evalu- ation of
the sapogenin content of unknown samples. The procedure used is illustrated by a typical
experiment with a 10 kilo batch of fresh Aguve leaves. The fibrous sample is coarsely chopped
with a meat cleaver or machete. It is ground several times through a Ball and Jewell’ grinder
provided with a 1 inch screen. The ground material is placed at once in a 50 gallon, steam-jacketed
kettle equipped with an air stirrer and having an exit valve at the bottom. Ethanol or isopropanol
(85 to 95 per cent) is run in with stirring until the ground plant material is covered by
approximately an inch of solvent, forming a mixture which can be easily stirred. The alcohol is
then refluxed for 45 minutes with constant stirring. The suspension is cooled and filtered through a
canvas filter. A second charge of solvent is added and the process repeated. After the second
extraction, the residual meal is allowed to dry in air overnight and is then reground to pass
through- a l/16 inch screen. The finely ground material is then extracted a third time. All the
alcohol extracts are combined and concentrated at atmos- pheric pressure to 2 to 4 liters in a 10
gallon steam-jacketed still.
Oxide Volatile oils
Biological origin: Chenopodium album
Part used:leaves,youngshootandseeds
Family:Amaranthaceae

7. Chemical constituents:
Medicinal uses; Chenopodium album has some medicinal properties
like anthelmintic,antiphlogistic, antirheumatic, contraceptive, laxative, odontalgic etc.
Ester volatile oils
Rosmarinus officinalis, commonly known as rosemary, is a woody, perennial herb with
fragrant, evergreen, needle-like leaves and white, pink, purple, or blue flowers, native to the
Mediterranean region.
It is a member of the mint family Lamiaceae, which includes many other herbs.
Unique compounds and oils include rosmarinic acid and essential oils such as cineol,
camphene, borneol, bornyl acetate, and α-pinene, providing anti-inflammation, anti-
fungal, antibacterial, and antiseptic properties. And research provides ample evidence
that rosemary not only improves memory, but helps fight cancer.
Rosemary contains a number of phytochemicals, including rosmarinic acid, camphor, caffeic
acid, ursolic acid, betulinic acid, carnosic acid and carnosol
Miscellaneous volatile oils
Allium
Garlic (scientific name Allium sativum) is a species in the onion genus, Allium, liliaceae
Garlic is reported to be a wonderful medicinal plant owing to its preventive characteristics in cardiovascular
diseases, regulating blood pressure, lowering blood sugar and cholesterol levels, effective against bacterial,

8. viral, fungal and parasitic infections, enhancing the immune system and having antitumoral and antioxidant
features. Garlic exerts these effects thanks to more than 200 chemicals. It contains sulfur compounds
(allicin, alliin and agoene), volatile oils, enzymes (allinase, peroxidase and miracynase), carbohydrates
(sucrose and glucose), minerals (selenium), amino acids such as cysteine, glutamine, isoleucine and
methionine which help to protect cells from the harms of free radicals, bioflavonoids such as quercetin and
cyanidin, allistatin I and allistatin II, and vitamins C, E and A which help to protect us from oxidation agents
and free radicals, and other vitamins such as niacin, B1 and B2 and beta-carotene.
Anethum
Dill (Anethum graveolens) is an annual herb in the celery family Apiaceae. It is the only species in the
genus Anethum. Dill is widely grown in Eurasia where its leaves and seeds are used as a herb or
spice for flavouring food.
The composition of the steam distilled essential oil of dill herb (Anethum graveolens L.)
was investigated by GC and GC/MS. Thirty six components were identified of which α-
phellandrene (56.5%), dill ether (20.8%), limonene (10.9%) and p-cymene (3.8%)
were the major constituents and amounted to 92% of the oil.
The Ayurvedic uses of dill seeds are carminative, stomachic and diuretic.