Climate Change: Vulnerability and Impact Assessment

Climate Change: Vulnerability and Impact Assessment / Cassava and Vegetable Value Chains Page 1 of 39
CLIMATE CHANGE:
VULNERABILITY AND IMPACT ASSESSMENT
CASSAVA AND VEGETABLE VALUE CHAINS
February 2014

Prepared by: Yim Soksophors
Climate smart agriculture advisor
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation is a non-profit, international development organisation established in the Netherlands in 1965. SNV aims to alleviate poverty by enabling increased income and employment opportunities and increasing access to basic services. The organisation currently works in 38 countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. SNV provides capacity development services to local organisations in three sectors; Agriculture, Renewable Energy, and Water, Sanitation & Hygiene. SNV started its operation in Cambodia in 2005 and currently works in those sectors which have been prioritised and aligned with the Royal Government of Cambodia’s Development Plan.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................ 5
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE IN CAMBODIA ....................................................................... 7
1.2 RATIONALE OF SELECTING THE CASSAVA AND VEGETABLE VALUE CHAINS ....................... 7
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE ASSESSMENT ....................................................................................... 9
1.4 METHODOLOGY AND TOOLS APPLIED IN THE ASSESSMENT ............................................... 9
2. FINDINGS: CASSAVA VALUE CHAIN ...................................................................................... 10
2.1 SUMMARY OF STUDIED SITE .............................................................................................. 10
2.2 CASSAVA PHENOLOGY ....................................................................................................... 11
2.3 TIMELINE OF MAJOR CLIMATE EVENTS ............................................................................. 12
2.4 CLIMATE EVENTS IN ANNUAL CALENDAR .......................................................................... 13
2.5 CASSAVA PLANTING CALENDAR ........................................................................................ 13
2.6 VULNERABILITY MAPPING ................................................................................................. 15
2.6 CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIO MAPPING ............................................................................ 15
2.7 LOCAL SOLUTIONS ............................................................................................................. 18
2.8 LIVELIHOOD PROFILING ..................................................................................................... 19
2.9 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS .................................................................................................... 20
2.10 CLIMATE CHANGE LEARNING NEEDS ............................................................................... 20
3. FINDINGS: VEGETABLE VALUE CHAIN .................................................................................. 22
3.1 SUMMARY OF STUDIED SITE .............................................................................................. 22
3.2 VEGETABLE PHENOLOGY ................................................................................................... 24
3.3 TIMELINE OF MAJOR CLIMATE EVENTS ............................................................................. 25
3.4 VEGETABLE PLANTING CALENDAR ..................................................................................... 26
3.5 GENDER AGGREGATION OF LABOUR ................................................................................. 26
3.6 VULNERABILITY MAPPING ................................................................................................. 27
3.7 CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIO MAPPING ............................................................................ 28
3.8 LOCAL SOLUTIONS EXERCISE ............................................................................................. 30
3.9 LIVELIHOOD PROFILING ..................................................................................................... 31
3.10 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS .................................................................................................. 32

4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................................... 33
4.1 CONCLUSIONS FOR CASSAVA VALUE CHAIN IN KAMPONG CHAM ................................... 33
4.2 CONCLUSIONS FOR VEGETABLE VALUE CHAIN IN SVAY RIENG ......................................... 33
4.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CASSAVA VALUE CHAIN IN KAMPONG CHAM ........................ 34
4.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR VEGETABLE VALUE CHAIN IN SVAY RIENG ............................. 34
ANNEXES .................................................................................................................................. 35
ANNEX 1: RESOURCE MAPS ..................................................................................................... 35
ANNEX 2: PHOTOS TAKEN DURING THE CASSAVA VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT STUDY ...... 35
ANNEX 3: PHOTOS TAKEN DURING THE VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT STUDY ...................... 37
ANNEX 4: LIST OF THE KEY INFORMANTS ATTENDING THE FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (CASSAVA) ................................................................................................................................ 38
ANNEX 5: LIST OF THE KEY INFORMANTS ATTENDING THE FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (VEGETABLES) .......................................................................................................................... 38
ANNEX 6: LIST OF VILLAGE CHIEFS AND COMMUNE COUNCILLORS / OTHER STAKEHOLDERS INTERVIEWED DURING THE ASSESSMENT ON VEGETABLE ..................................................... 39

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CARDI Cambodian Agriculture Research and Development Institute
CIAT International Center for Tropical Agriculture
FGD Focus Group Discussion
IBC Inclusive Business Models to Promote Sustainable Smallholder Cassava Production
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
MFI Micro Finance Institution
MOE Ministry of Environment
MRC Mekong River Commission
NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action to climate change
NCCC National Committee for Climate Change
PDA Provincial Department of Agriculture
PDoWRAM Provincial Department of Water Resources and Meteorology
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
SNV Netherlands Development Organization
UN United Nations
USD United States Dollar

1. INTRODUCTION
Climate change adversely affects agricultural productivity and stability. The long term changes in the patterns of temperature and precipitation, that are part of climate change, are expected to shift production seasons, pest and disease patterns, and alter the set of feasible crops, affecting production, prices, incomes and ultimately livelihoods.
Most vulnerable are developing countries, and especially the smallholder farmers who have limited access to and reserves of assets and resources; plus limited knowledge to cope with traditional risks, let alone the additional pressures and challenges caused by climate change.
To achieve food security and agricultural development goals, agriculture must transform. Agriculture must adapt to climate change while contributing to mitigating it too (ie. by lowering greenhouse gas emissions and increasing carbon sinks). It must have more productive and efficient systems, to reduce variability and increase stability of output; and become more resilient to risks, shocks and climate vulnerability, while not depleting the natural resources base. This requires a change to the ways land, water, soil nutrients and genetic resources are managed and used, as well as policy and investment conditions for sustainable agriculture.
In line with the Cambodian climate change strategic plan (2014-2023), SNV Netherlands Development Organisation designed a pilot programme on climate smart agriculture (CSA), with the aim to promote adaptation and mitigation measures against the changing climate for selected value chains at the farmer’s level.
Climate smart agriculture (CSA) is an approach that aims to sustainably increase agricultural productivity and incomes, adapt and build resilience to climate change while reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas emissions (where possible). But there is no single practice or technical solution that can be universally applied to adapt to or mitigate climate change. CSA requires site-specific assessments to identify suitable agricultural production technologies and practices that are shaped by specific country contexts and capacities and the particular social, economic, and environmental situation where they will be applied. These practices should prioritise the strengthening of livelihoods, especially those of smallholder farmers, by improving access to services, knowledge, resources (including genetic resources), financial products and markets.
As the first step in the CSA approach, a climate change impact and vulnerability assessment is carried out. This assessment is a participatory process, which brings smallholder farmers and local authorities together for discussions and, through various Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) exercises, assess the impact of climate change on their production systems. This process compares historical and present experiences at the local level as perceived by the communities, and highlights where the community and their production systems are most vulnerable to changing weather patterns.
In addition to the local level analysis, to identify expected future climate change patterns there is a review of available climate change scenarios for that area, involving experiences explained by the communities. The final step in this process is a validation workshop to present and review the vulnerability and impact assessment with the smallholder farmers and local authorities. This workshop serves to verify the results of the study, as well as to inform the community and local authorities about the impacts and their vulnerabilities to climate change.
This study is then used to identify and prioritise aspects of production systems that should be addressed to increase resilience and reduce community and production system vulnerability. Adaptation strategies are then designed for these priority aspects. The adaptation strategy is developed in a full participatory manner, involving smallholder farmers, local extension agents and crop production experts, to ensure all activities are in agreement, meet the needs of smallholder farmers, and are technically sound.

1.1 AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE IN CAMBODIA
Cambodia is likely to be strongly affected by changes in the climate. There is an increased risk of more intense, more frequent and longer-lasting heat waves in a warmer future climate. A related aspect of temperature extremes is that there is likely to be a decrease in the daily (diurnal) temperature range in most regions. It is also likely that a warmer future climate would have fewer frost days. Growing season length is related to number of frost days, and has been projected to increase as the climate warms.
Along with the risk of drought, there is an increased chance of intense precipitation and flooding due to the greater water-holding capacity of a warmer atmosphere. This has already been observed, and is projected to continue because in a warmer world, precipitation tends to be concentrated into more intense events, with longer periods of little precipitation in between. Therefore, intense and heavy downpours would be interspersed with longer relatively dry periods.
Another aspect of these projected changes is that wet extremes are projected to become more severe in many areas where mean precipitation is expected to increase, and dry extremes are projected to become more severe in areas where mean precipitation is projected to decrease (UN-sponsored Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 4th Assessment Report, 2007).
Frequent natural disasters, particularly flooding and drought, have hit Cambodia over the last decade. The temperature has climbed steadily from one decade to the next. The MRC calculated that the average temperature in Cambodia increased by 0.8°C from 1960 to 2005; the rate of increase per decade was about 0.20 to 0.23°C in the dry season and 0.13 to 0.16°C in the wet season (MRC 2010).
Based on these estimates, it is projected that the mean temperature will have risen by 0.3 to 0.6°C by 2025, 0.7 to 2.7°C by 2060 and 1.4 to 4.3°C by 2090. The expected warming will be more severe from December to June. Under the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emission scenarios A1B, A2 and B1, it is expected that Cambodia’s annual average rainfall will have increased by 31% by the 2090s (MRC 2010).
The Royal Government of Cambodia has developed national strategic frameworks and policies to work on the climate change issues. The National Adaptation Programme of Action to Climate Change (NAPA) was created by the Ministry of Environment (MOE, 2006). The objectives of the NAPA project are:
(1) To understand the main characteristics of climate hazards in Cambodia (flooding, drought, windstorms, high tides, salt water intrusion and malaria);
(2) To understand coping mechanisms for climate hazards and climate change at the grassroots level;
(3) To understand existing programmes and institutional arrangements for addressing climate hazards and climate change;
(4) To identify and prioritise adaptation activities to climate hazards and climate change.
In addition, the government has also set up a climate change coordination body, the National Committee for Climate Change (NCCC). Its function is to coordinate climate change activities with different stakeholders, donors, development partners, etc.
1.2 RATIONALE OF SELECTING THE CASSAVA AND VEGETABLE VALUE CHAINS
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is a popular crop planted in upland areas, especially provinces neighbouring Vietnam and Thailand such as Kampong Cham, Kratié, Pailin, Banteay Meanchey, etc. The cultivated land for cassava production has increased from year to year and the main export markets are China, Vietnam, Thailand, etc.
Cambodian farmers mostly export fresh cassava, while there are very limited processing plants inside the country. Fresh cassava is mainly exported to Vietnam and dry cassava chips are exported to both Thailand and Vietnam: cassava farmers along the Cambodia-Thai border make the dry chips. The price of cassava fluctuates depending on market demand in the neighbouring countries.
Kampong Cham province is located on the central lowlands of the Mekong River. It borders the provinces of Kampong Chhnang to the west, Kampong Thom and Kratié to the north, and Prey Veng and Kandal to the south, with Tbong Khmum district to the east bordering Vietnam. The assessment was conducted in Andong Pok village, in Tboung Khmum district’s Sralab commune.
According to the deputy village chief, Andoung Pok village consists of 150 families, equal to 701 people (354 women, approximately 50%). The number of total households in the studied village was 118. About 93% of the total families in the studied village are farmer families. About 80% of the total families

in the studied village are cassava farmers. The farmers have planted cassava over the last 15-20 years within small plots of land. A few farmers in the studied village started planting cassava in 1993, and the number of cassava farmers significantly increased since 2000. Each family has 1 ha of land on average; the maximum is 2 ha and the minimum is 0.3 ha per family. A very few families have land of about 6 ha for planting cassava.
Note that rice is produced as a staple food for family consumption, but cassava is produced as cash crop to make income. However, farmers do not produce enough food for their family consumption. According to the baseline report (SNV, 2013), 13.51% of the total families in the Inclusive Business Models to Promote Sustainable Smallholder Cassava Production (IBC) project target areas confronted rice shortages for 1-3 months per year from the end of September to November. Therefore, families need to buy additional food from local markets. One income source to buy additional food is from the selling of cassava. The cassava is normally sold to cassava collectors / middlemen or processors in the district.
The farmers have many years of experience in cassava production, although technical knowledge of cassava production is still limited. Farmers follow traditional practices which are not adapted to climate change impact, especially drought, insects, pests, etc. From 2013, SNV partnered with CIAT and the Provincial Department of Agriculture of Kampong Cham have been implementing a project called ‘Inclusive Business Models to Promote Sustainable Smallholder Cassava Production’ (IBC) in 24 villages across four communes in Tboung Khmum district. The selected studied village is one of the targeted villages.
Vegetables are also a very important crop for family consumption and incomes, though only a small number of farmers can grow vegetables for selling in the dry season. The main constraint is a shortage of water in the dry season. Some farmers use ponds to harvest rainwater, but this is not enough to water crops throughout the year. The water in the pond is normally dry in January, just at the end of the wet season. The majority of farmers only plant vegetables in the wet season, mainly for family consumption. But vegetable production in Cambodia is not enough for local consumption. About 60% of the total products are imported from nearby countries; imports from Vietnam are approximately 200 tonnes per day.
Cambodian farmers do grow various kinds of vegetables in proximity to water sources, mainly along rivers, creeks, lakes and open wells for easy access to irrigation water. The major vegetable crops in Cambodia are: cabbage, Chinese cabbage, mustard greens, wing beans, Chinese kale, tomatoes, eggplant, onion, leaf lettuce, yard long beans, cow peas, papaya, cucumber, wax gourds, pumpkin, chilli, etc.
With climate variation and change, drought and flooding strongly affect vegetable production. At the same time, farmers have very limited technical capacity and skills in coping with these phenomena. Currently, there are some NGOs promoting agricultural extension, but CSA is not included. Government officials from the district agricultural office have limited knowledge about CSA. Commune councils have not integrated CSA activities into Commune Development Plans / Commune Investment Programmes, and the commune funds granted from the central government only cover infrastructure rehabilitation and construction.
Svay Rieng is the poorest province on the Mekong floodplain. The area is particularly vulnerable to unpredictable weather conditions. Extreme droughts in the dry season and extreme flooding in the wet season are endemic. A lack of irrigation in the dry season is a constraint for farmers to grow vegetables. Svay Chrum is one among six districts of Svay Rieng province. The district divides into 16 communes. The climate change vulnerability and impact assessment was conducted in Basak commune, the former target area of the SNV pilot project ‘Promote vegetable production through water storage and supply systems enhancement’. The commune consists of five villages; the previous SNV project targeted three villages in Basak commune.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE ASSESSMENT
The specific objectives of this assessment are:
 To assess community perceptions on climate change effects in cassava production and vegetable production;
 To see the scenario mapping and awareness of the community on climate change;
 To assess the potential adaptation measures taken by farmers at the local level on cassava production and vegetable production;
 To recommend the potential interventions to address the effects.
1.4 METHODOLOGY AND TOOLS APPLIED IN THE ASSESSMENT
The assessment team conducted two Focus Group Discussion meetings (FGDs). One FGD was organised with 10 cassava farmers (five women) in Kampong Cham; and another FGD was organised with 16 vegetable farmers (eight women) in Svay Rieng. Seven Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools were used to collect information such as crop phenology, timeline of major climate events, vegetable planting calendar, gender aggregation in vegetable production stages, vulnerability mapping, climate change scenario mapping, livelihood profiling, and stakeholder analysis.
Direct observation was also conducted at the cassava farms and vegetable gardens in order to understand production practices and pests that affected cassava and vegetables in the studied communities. A government official from the Provincial Department of Agriculture of Kampong Cham, Mr. You Tainghy, also participated in and acted as an observer during the FGD.
The assessment team met the Chief of the Administrative Office of the Provincial Department of Water Resources and Meteorology of Svay Rieng province to collect the rainfall and temperature data. Three staff of CFAP also participated in the whole process of the assessment process. They helped to make appointments with the vegetable farmers, village chief and commune councillors and actively participated in the whole assessment process.
Table 1.1: Summary of PRA tools used in the assessment S.N. Tool used Purpose Process
1
Crop Phenology
Find out the critical stages of the crop growth, harvesting and post-harvest handling
Group discussion on year calendar
2
Timeline
Find out the history of crop production in the village and major shifts in terms of cultivation practices and marketing, also mark the years where major climatic factors occurred and their effects on production system
Group discussion
3
Comparative Seasonal Calendar of the crop
Prepare the annual work calendar on comparative basis (now and 10-15 years ago). Map out the comparative observation of weather factors in terms of intensity, time shift and others
Group discussion on year calendar
4
Vulnerability Mapping
Identify the vulnerability of the producers to climatic factors and map out their intensity
Spider web
5
Social Map
Map out the locations of the orchard and vulnerable points to climatic factors
Generic sketch of the area on paper by participants
6
Livelihood Profiling
Know the overall livelihoods of the community
Discussion on financial, human, natural and social capitals including mobility map
7
Stakeholder analysis
Know the actors in the overall value chain and the relationships with them
Venn diagram

2. FINDINGS: CASSAVA VALUE CHAIN
2.1 SUMMARY OF STUDIED SITE
Andoung Pok village is located in Sralab commune of Tbong Khmum district, in Kampong Cham province. Some parts of Kampong Cham province are flooded by water from the Mekong River, but Andoung Pok village is located in an upland area, where cash crops such as cassava, rubber, cashew, etc. are mostly planted.
Agriculture plays a very important role in producing food and income for the families in the studied village. Note that the farmers also conduct rice farming activities, just to produce rice for family consumption. Cassava is produced as a cash crop to make income for the family.
According to the baseline report (SNV, 2013), the yield of cassava was about 18 tonnes/ha from 2004 to 2012. According to the cassava farmers, the yield decreases to around 10 tonnes/ha if infected with diseases or insects. Soil degradation is also a problem due to monoculture, and crop rotation has not been conducted. Cassava is planted on the same soil for many years, and at the same time there is a lack of soil erosion prevention methods. Upland / slope areas and natural forest are being cleared for expansion of agricultural land.
The cassava planting materials are kept by farmers from one planting season to another. However, the farmers have limited access to healthy / good quality planting materials. In the last few years, the planting materials were often infected with diseases / pests. The farmers do not know the names of cassava varieties that they are planting. However, they noticed that these varieties are imported from Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, etc. This indicates that the selection of good varieties is very limited, because different varieties are used for mixed planting.
Cassava yields mainly rely on weather conditions. Drought is the main problem that cassava farmers are facing. The farmers need to delay production until the rains come. Sometimes, the rains come at the end of the harvesting season, and rot cassava tubers or reduce starch levels. During the last few years, cassava has also been affected by insects and diseases. Witches broom disease, mealy bugs and termites were observed attacking the cassava stems. The farmers have no appropriate solutions to deal with these issues. Some farmers have started using chemicals to control pests, but the effectiveness is still under observation.
It is estimated that, using traditional practices, each cassava farmer family produces about 20-30 tonnes per year; or approximately 700-800 tonnes of cassava is produced in the studied village.1 Based on the FGD with the key informants, 25% of the cassava production is supplied to local processors, 60% supplied to middlemen, and another 15% is directly supplied to Vietnamese traders. In the former cases, the farmers supply their fresh cassava to middlemen and local cassava processors such as Ly Hong Leng Enterprise, Sun Ath Enterprise, etc. There are 10 major middlemen2 who collect cassava from the farmers for exporting to neighbouring Vietnam.
The price of cassava fluctuates depending on market demand, especially demand from Vietnam. In 2013, the price of fresh cassava ranged from 290 to 310 riels/kg (about USD 0.075). Another 40 riels per kilogram is added when the middlemen sell their bought cassava to Vietnamese traders. The farmers prefer to sell fresh rather than dry cassava, and mentioned that 50% of fresh cassava weight is lost when they dry it. The farmers also mentioned that selling fresh cassava is easier for them because they can get income soon to pay for production costs. Furthermore, it is lower risk than selling dry cassava. To make dry cassava, the farmers need more labour and time, and the price is not really good enough to attract them.
Competition among the middlemen and cassava processers is also high. Some middlemen offer special attractions (such as drinks, food, money) to those who bring cassava to sell at their houses. At the same time, the farmers also face weight cheating. Weight scales are not always accurate and reliable, and farmers mentioned that some weight of their cassava is ‘lost’ while using an enterprise’s scales.
The following table provides summary information about cassava production in the studied village. The information was provided by the farmers and the village chief.
1 Only three farmer families have the cassava farm of 3 ha. or more. The other families have about 1 ha on average and 0.5 ha at minimum.
2 Six middlemen are from Sralab commune

Table 2.1: Socio-economic aspects
Particulars
Andoung Pok village
Remarks
Number of households
118
About 150 families
Population
701
354 women
Average cassava planting areas per household (ha)
1
Maximum 2-3 ha, minimum 0.3 ha
Estimated total cassava cultivated land (ha)
50 approx
Average yield (t/ha)
15
The yield was about 10/ha if infected with diseases, insects.
Total production of the cassava per studied village (tonnes)
700-800
2.2 CASSAVA PHENOLOGY
Cassava stems are cut for propagation. Cassava can be harvested from 8 to 12 months when the root has achieved the size that is good for market. The cassava plant has distinct growth phases:
1) The first growth phase (from planting to 8 weeks) involves the production of stems and leaves, and the thin and thick root systems. During this phase, the cassava tuber begins to form.
2) The second growth phase (8-72 weeks) involves the rapid growth of the stems and leaves, as well as the swelling or bulking of the cassava tuber formed in the first phase (CARDI, 2011).
Table 2.2: Phenological stages of cassava across the months in a year Months/ Stages Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Associated issues
Root germinates about 5-7 days after planting
*
Long droughts make the root grow slowly, fungus disease. The root rots if there is heavy rain / waterlogging
Growing of new young leaves / shoots
*
*
*
Colour of the cassava leaves becomesyellow, the leaves become wrinkled (signs of witches broom disease)
Tillering of Cassava stems
*
*
No significant problem happens at this stage
Tuber development
*
*
*
* *
Tubers may be eaten by rats. The tuber rots if too much rain/waterlogging
Starch development
* *
Witches broom disease (young leaves die from the top of the cassava stem).
Maturation and Harvesting
*
*
*
*
* *
*
Farmers plant cassava stem cuttings in the horizontal position. This makes it easy to pull the cassava stems while harvesting.

Cassava farmers who attended the FGD said that that pest insects and diseases are the most critical problems they encountered: for example witches broom disease, mealy bugs, fungus, termites, etc. Witches broom disease was the most critical disease affecting cassava production in 2013. To date, the farmers still have no effective methods to deal with these problems.
Another major problem is drought. The farmers delay cassava production if there is not enough rain at the beginning of production. Heavy rain does not frequently happen, but it can also seriously affect cassava production.
2.3 TIMELINE OF MAJOR CLIMATE EVENTS
The farmers provided their observations on the timeline of major climate events in their village that affected cassava production during the last several years.
Table 2.3: Timeline of major problems and solution carried out by the farmers
Year
Problems/
Calamities
Solutions/
Maintenance
What events do you expect will occur in the future? When?
Does this affect your future productivity or change your existing solutions/ maintenance?
2013-2014
Disease (leaves wrinkled, some stems died, tubers damaged,)
 Uproot from the infected cassava stems from the farms
This kind of disease may also exist in the future
 Spray salt on soil, keep the soil free without cultivation
2013-2014
Mealy bugs
 Clear stems with water
 Use pesticide to eliminate the bug - not so effective
Mealy bugs will continue in the future
 Pesticide will be used to cope with this problem
2013-2014
Cassava stems damaged by weevils
 Parts of cassava stems damaged by weevils were cut out, not used for planting.
This kind of problem will still continue in the future
 Some pesticide would be used
2011
Heavy rain – waterlogging, some cassava stems rot
 Prepared drainage to drain out water from the cassava fields.
Heavy rain will continue in the future
 Prepare raised rows for planting cassava.
 Dig canals / drainage to drain out the rainwater
2008
Long period of drought
 Delay cassava production if the drought happened before planting
Drought will continue to happen
 Cassava cropping calendar needs to be changed to adapt to the changing drought pattern.

2.4 CLIMATE EVENTS IN ANNUAL CALENDAR
Drought patterns have changed. Droughts used to happen at the end of the wet season (October- November) in the past, but now occur at the beginning of the wet season (May-July). This means that the drought span has increased from two months in the past up to three months at present. The intensity of drought is also higher than in the past.
Heavy rains normally happen from September to November. The difference is that there are more heavy rains now, especially in November. The farmers have also noticed that the temperature has increased especially in March. However, they were not sure by how many degrees Celsius it has increased.
Table 2.4: Climate events across the months in a year (Strong ***, Medium **, Weak *)
Events Months Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar
Drought
Past
*
*
Now
**
*
*
Heavy rain
Past
*
**
*
*
Now
*
**
*
**
Cold
Past
*
*
Now
*
**
*
Hot
Past
*
*
*
Now
*
*
**
2.5 CASSAVA PLANTING CALENDAR
Table 2.5: Calendar of cassava activities Months/ Activities Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Observations
Land preparation
The farmers hired tractors to plough their soil. Now rows are prepared for the cassava planting.
Planting
Planting is delayed if rainwater is not sufficient.
Weeding
A lot of weeds grows. 2-4 weedings are conducted during the production cycle.
Fertilizing
70% of the cassava farmers used chemical fertilizer.
Harvesting
Labourers are hired to harvest the cassava.

In the past, the farmers did not use chemical fertilizers to improve soil fertility or to increase yield: the soil fertility was good and they could harvest good yields when they first started. But from year to year, yields have decreased due to soil degradation and monoculture. In 2013, about 70% of the cassava farmers used chemical fertilizer, which is normally applied after weeding. On average, the farmers applied the chemical fertilizer twice during the cassava production cycle.
According to interviews with the farmers, the cost of cassava production is USD 525 per hectare, excluded their own labour costs and the planting materials / cutting stems. The production costs can reach up to USD 850 if they include their own labour costs, planting materials and transport. The price of fresh cassava is about 290 to 300 riels per kg (ie. about USD 0.075 per kg).
Weeding can constitute almost 60% of the total expenses due to rental costs of tractors for soil preparation.
Graph 2.1: Cassava production costs per hectare
The estimated total ‘worker-days’ for cassava production was 141 days per hectare, of which men contributed 60% and women 40%.
Transporting cassava from farms to markets is conducted by men, which is why the figure is higher. The men know how to use tillers for transporting the cassava, but the women not so much.
Table 2.6: Labour needed for cassava production in one hectare (worker-days)
Planting stages
Number of worker-days
% women involvement
% men
involvement
Land preparation
4
50
50
Planting
9
50
50
Weeding
80
50
50
Fertilizing
4
50
50
Harvesting
30
30
70
Transporting and selling
14
0
100
58.82%
4.20%
4.20%
16.81%
10.08%
5.88%
Weeding
Ploughing
Planting
Harvesting
Planting matreials
Transport

2.6 VULNERABILITY MAPPING
It is interesting to note that pest insects and diseases are the most common climate-associated problems that the farmers encountered with cassava production. Pest insects and diseases occurred mainly in 2013, but affected most of the cassava farms in the studied village. The disease affected the cassava tubers’ production of starch, reducing the selling price at markets.
Drought is the major climatic problem for the studied village. The farmers mainly rely on rainwater to start production, and if the rains do not come on time the farmers need to wait to start cassava production. On the other hand, the farmers did not have irrigation facilities such as ponds, canals or wells to provide water for cassava planting.
Heavy rain does not frequently happen, but it can seriously affect cassava production when it does, especially during the tuber development stage. The cassava tubers may rot because of waterlogging; or the starch level is reduced when the cassava absorbs too much water.
The farmers also noted hot temperatures as one of their vulnerabilities, though not as problematic as pest insects/diseases or drought. Hot temperatures in March make it difficult for the farmers to plant cassava at that time.
Graph 2.2: Vulnerability map of Andoung Pok village against climate/climate induced factors
2.6 CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIO MAPPING
The climate of Cambodia is classified as humid-tropical, or more specifically as tropical monsoon, so as to underscore the importance of seasonal droughts. South-west monsoon systems bring high humidity, heavy rains and strong winds into the country from May to October; while north-west winds from November to April are responsible for the dry seasons. Humidity is often high throughout the year, with a mean of 80.3%. The average annual rainfall is 1,604 mm, although this figure rises considerably in the coastal zones and highlands of Cambodia (>3500 mm) (Cambodia Tree Seed Project, FA, DANIDA).
The temperature changes regionally and seasonally. The warmest month is April, when temperatures can rise above 380C, and the coldest of about 220C is January. The average annual temperature is 270C. Mean wind speed in Cambodia is low, to the order of 2m per second. December is known as the month of strong steady wind from the north. Typhoons, which often devastate coastal Vietnam, rarely cause damage in Cambodia.
Annual evaporation is of the order of 2000 to 2200 mm, being highest in March and April at 200 mm to 240 mm, and lowest in September-October at 120 mm to 150 mm (MOE, 2009). Relative humidity ranges from 65-70% in January and February to 85-90% in August and September (MOE, 2009).
According to the Kampong Cham Provincial Department of Water Resources and Meteorology (PDoWRAM), the average annual rainfall in the province over the last 14 years was 1449.4 mm. The maximum was 1770 mm and the minimum 1133 mm. The average temperature was 27.9 Celsius. The maximum temperature was 29.3 and the minimum is 26.2. The temperature has been increasing over the last several years.
4
3
2
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
Drought
Heavy rain
Hot
Pest insect / disease

Graphics 2.3-2.6: Rainfall and temperature figures for Cambodia (top row) and Kampong Cham province.
Source: World Bank 2014
Source: Cambodia Tree Seed Project, FA, DANIDA
Source: PDoWRAM of Kampong Cham (2013)
Source: PDoWRAM of Kampong Cham (2013)
1505.5
1323.4
1133.3
1422.4
1182.3
1446.4
1529.4
1536.5
1501.4
1770.4
1374
1393.1
1709.3
1464.4
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Rainfall (mm)
27.1
28.9
28.1
28.1
28.5
28
28
27.6
27.6
26.2
27
28
29.3
29
24.5
25
25.5
26
26.5
27
27.5
28
28.5
29
29.5
30
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Temperature C

The following is the farmers’ own observation on how drought, flooding, rainfall and temperature has affected their village. In general, it was observed that men could remember climactic events better than the women. In addition, the farmers mainly noted that pest insects and disease only broke out from October to December in 2013. Previously, they did not experience outbreaks of pest insects and diseases.
Table 2.7a: Farmers’ observations on drought and flooding
Month / year
Indicator
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Remarks
2013
Drought
***
***
***
*
**
**
10% of cassava
yield lost
Flood3
**
***
***
**
2012
Drought
***
***
***
*
**
**
Flood
*
*
***
***
**
2011
Drought
***
***
***
*
Flood
*
*
*
***
*
2010
Drought
***
***
***
*
**
**
Flood
*
*
**
**
*
2009
Drought
***
***
***
*
**
**
Flood
*
**
***
***
*
Table 2.7b: Farmers’ observations on rainfall
Month / year
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
2013
*
**
*
**
**
**
*
2012
*
*
**
*
***
***
*
2011
*
*
*
**
**
***
**
2010
*
**
**
*
**
**
*
2009
*
*
**
**
***
***
**
*
Table 2.7c: Farmers’ observations on temperature
Month / year
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
2013












2012












2011












2010












2009












3 Note that there was no flooding from the Mekong River in the studied village, only flash flooding from rainwater occurred.

2.7 LOCAL SOLUTIONS
Table 2.8: Summary of observed climate events
S.N.
Climatic Parameters
Observation
Effects
Local Adaptation Practices
1.
Pest insects and diseases
 Drought creates favourable conditions for pest outbreaks. The farmers observed that more pest insects occurred during droughts. For instance, witches broom disease, fungus, etc.
 Pest insects and diseases definitely affected cassava yield. Plant growth was slow, stunted, the leaves were wrinkled. Starch development was reduced and the farmers lost income once selling to markets. Normally, the price of low- starch cassava is lower.
 No appropriate solutions to deal with these problems. Without technical support from any specialized institutions, some farmers just started using chemical pesticides, but the effectiveness is not yet conclusive.
2.
Drought
 The drought span is longer than the past; it has increased from two months in the past up to three months now.
 In the past, drought occurred at the end of the wet season (October-November), but now it mostly happens at the beginning of the wet season (May-July).
 In the past, there were some rains during the drought, but not now.
 Cassava is a drought-tolerant crop. But long drought affects its growth especially when drought occurs after planting.
 If drought happens before planting, planting will be delayed until the rains come.
 The farmers had no appropriate measures to deal with drought if it happens after planting. They try to find more planting materials for re-planting if initial planting is lost. However, it is difficult to find new planting materials at the middle or the end of the planting season.
 The usual cutting length of stems is about 15 - 20 cm. In case of drought, the farmers cut the stems a bit longer for planting. A longer cutting stem is more tolerant to drought.
3.
Heavy rain
 There are more heavy rains now than the past. The rain intensity is also stronger.
 Cassava tubers rot if waterlogging stays longer than a week.
 Some farmers have prepared drainage to flow water out from their cassava farms.

There are some barriers that make it difficult for the cassava farmers to implement adaptive measures:
 The farmers have limited technical knowledge and skills in dealing with the climatic problems that they have encountered. Current practices are based on habit, or practices that they have learned from other farmers in their communities. It is emphasized that the farmers do not know what kind of measures should be undertaken to address the problems of pest insects and diseases; and soil fertility is degraded but they don’t have sufficient knowledge and technical capacity to improve it. Government departments or other relevant development agencies have not yet provided intensive training on cassava production.
 Farmers also have limited capital to operate adaptive measures. For example, farmers spend a lot of money on land preparation: ie. renting tractors for ploughing their land before planting cassava. Most of them rent tractors from other villagers inside their own village or from neighbouring villages. The costs of land preparation results in higher production costs, lowering the famers’ benefits.
 Most of the cassava farmers use their own family’s labour in cassava production, but additional labour is always needed.
2.8 LIVELIHOOD PROFILING
Natural resources: About 70% of the total families in the studied village have arable land for farming purposes. The farmers observed that soil fertility has degraded, while monoculture has been practiced for many years on the same land. The other 30% are landless families who depend on income from off- farm activities to support their livelihoods (such as selling labour to other farmers inside and outside the studied village, weeding, planting cassava, etc.). Most of them migrate to look for jobs outside their village in the dry season.
Human resources: The farmers have many years of experience in planting cassava, but use conventional practices not adapted to climate change. They have limited technical knowledge, for instance pest management, and technical practices to adapt to climate change impacts.
Social resources: No farmer groups have been set up in the studied village. Under the IBC project, 30 farmers from the studied village will be selected to join cassava producer groups at the commune level. The cassava producer groups are being supported by the SNV project with facilitation and technical support from SNV and PDA.
Physical resources: There are some ponds4 in rice fields, but not in the cassava farms. Cassava production wholly relies on rainwater. There are 28-30 tillers in the studied village, used for ploughing the soil and to transport the harvested cassava from farms to local markets.
Financial resources: Approximately 93% of the families in the studied village rely mainly on agriculture as the main income source for their family. Cassava is a very important cash crop that the farmers sell to make additional income. According to the village chief, approximately 60% of families in the village are indebted. They received loans from MFIs, banks, and private money lenders. ACLEDA, CREDIT, THORNEAKEA PHUM provide credit services in this studied village with monthly interest rates ranging from 2.8% to 3%. Credit officers normally come to find their customers in the studied village. The loan size is generally less than USD500 per loan with a duration of one year. Previously, there was a collective savings group, but the group has disappeared due to insufficient capacity of the group management committee and group members also wanted to break up the group.
4 The pond size: 8m x 5m, 2-3m depth

Concerning cassava production, the farmers buy agricultural inputs (e.g. chemical fertilizer and pesticide) from local markets, especially Khnar Market and Soung Market. Most go to Khnar Market as it is closer to their village, about 5 km. For cassava stems to be used for planting, the farmers normally buy these from other farmers in their communities, or from other people who have bigger cassava farms. The farmers normally hire tractors from within their village or neighbouring villages.
The farmers bring their harvested cassava to sell to middlemen/cassava collectors at the district level, often at the middlemen’s houses. In addition, some farmers also sell their harvested cassava to local cassava processing enterprises (e.g., Ly HongLeng enterprise), which produce processed food made from cassava starch for selling to consumers in the district. Only a minority of the farmers sell their cassava directly to Vietnamese traders, because they have limited transportation means to carry their cassava from the village to the cassava collection points.
2.9 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS
Since 2013, three development organizations (SNV, CIAT and the Provincial Department of Agriculture of Kampong Cham province) have jointly implemented the ‘Inclusive Business Models to Promote Sustainable Smallholder Cassava Production’ (IBC) project in 24 villages across four communes of Tboung Khmum district.
The studied village is one of the targeted villages selected by the project mentioned above. Trainings on cassava production are being organized, but only for the leaders of the cassava producer groups. The training topics focus on cassava crop production systems.
Table 2.9: List of development organizations/institutions working in the studied village
N
Institutions
In
Status
Objectives / activities
1
CIAT
2013
On-going
Providing capacity building on cassava crop production systems to the farmers
2
Provincial Department of Agriculture of Kampong Cham province
2013
On-going
Working closely with SNV and CIAT as partner to provide capacity building on cassava production and facilitate cassava value chain development through contract farming.
3
SNV
2013
On-going
Facilitating set up of cassava producer groups and create cassava value chain development.
2.10 CLIMATE CHANGE LEARNING NEEDS
The farmers prioritized pest insects and diseases for learning because they are currently facing this critical problem and they did not have effective solutions to deal with it. In addition, they are interested in how to select good planting materials without the infection of diseases or pest insects; as well as the selection of good cassava varieties for planting (currently different varieties are planted without proper selection).
The cassava farmers would like to have a training series on cassava production practices that enable them to increase their technical knowledge and capacity for improving production and productivity adapted to climate change impacts. The farmers mentioned that they have not yet received adequate training and support from specialized government departments as well as other development agencies in cassava production.
Furthermore, they are interested to conduct on-farm trials/field experiments on different planting practices that enable them to learn and identify good practices for improving their cassava production.

Table 2.10: Training needed by the cassava farmers
Urgent training topics
Topics for long term trainings
Pest insects and diseases control – prevention method
The farmers expect to have training series on cassava production that will enable them to gain more technical knowledge and capacity to adapt to climate change and improve cassava yield.
Selection of good planting materials, cassava varieties
On-farm experiments / trials on different planting practices to identify good practices for replication and dissemination.
Through the FGD with the key informants, it emerged that the farmers are interested to learn new things and conduct some field trials as follows:
 Basic climate change: Concepts, causes and effects of climate change, adaptation and mitigation measures, etc.
 Planting methods: The farmers would like to see different cassava planting methods, such as planting cassava stems in the horizontal, vertical and angled positions.
 Soil preparation: Some farmers indicated that they will plant cassava in raised rows that is adaptable to waterlogging in the future.
 Varieties: They are interested to know what varieties provide high yields and are tolerant to pest insects and diseases. Currently, different cassava varieties are planted in the same farm or even in the same planting row.
 Water: Some farmers mentioned that they wanted to dig drilled wells and use the underground water for watering the cassava if drought occurs. The price for digging one drilled well is about USD150 to USD500, or even more depending on the depth. However, they think that this solution is not sustainable so they are interested to learn other practices that help improve soil water retention capacity.

3. FINDINGS: VEGETABLE VALUE CHAIN
3.1 SUMMARY OF STUDIED SITE
Svay Rieng province is located in the south-east of Cambodia. It borders Kampong Cham to the north and Prey Veng to the west, and has a long border with Vietnam from east to south. Svay Rieng is 122km from Phnom Penh and is on the primary trade route between Ho Chi Minh City and Phnom Penh.
In 2008, the total population was 478,252, with 465,731 of the population living in rural areas. The annual population growth rate was 9%, 10& for the rural population. The total number of households was 115,282 with an average household size of 4.2 persons (NIS 2008).
The topography of Svay Rieng is mostly lowland paddy fields, with lowland/upland mosaic and upland forest areas in the northern district of Romeas Hek. Total land area is 274,049 hectares, including 168,721 ha of cultivated land area and 469.57 ha of cropland (NCDD 2009).
The total land size for each household is 1.3 hectares on average, of which vegetable account for 0.2 ha (CFAP 2010). In 2010, the total vegetable production in Svay Rieng was 14,892 tonnes, of which 10,392 tonnes was during the wet season and 4,500 tonnes during the dry season (MAFF 2010). This does not place Svay Rieng among the major vegetable producing provinces in the country, and the majority of the province’s farmers grow vegetables primarily to ensure food security for their families.
Demand for the large scale imports that travel through the province are generated by markets in Phnom Penh, with these markets also acting as distribution hubs for produce travelling to the rest of the nation. Although small-scale provincial farming is unable to supply the volumes required by the national market, there is growing local demand. Much of this comes from the Bavet Special Economic Zone (SEZ), local consumers (who desire pesticide-free produce) and also, reportedly, from Vietnamese importers who consider the province’s vegetables to be of superior quality.
Table 3.1: Vegetable production in Svay Rieng province in 2010
Description
Wet season (2010)
Dry season (2010)
Total
Cultivated area
1,142 ha
508 ha
1,650 ha
Average yield
9.099 tonnes/ha
9.025 tonnes/ha
9.025 tonnes/ha
Production
10,392 tonnes
4,500 tonnes
14,892 tonnes
Source: Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), 2010
There are two types of vegetable producers in Svay Rieng province: individual farmers and farmer groups or cooperatives. Each producer sells through multiple channels including: directly to consumers in village and town markets; by bulk directly to provincial wholesalers; to small wholesalers; or to larger scale purchasers. IDE and IVY have supplied farmers with agricultural inputs purchased from Thailand and Vietnam (e.g. vegetable seeds, mulching film, nets, chemical fertilisers and pesticide). Vegetables are also imported from Vietnam on a daily basis.
The assessment was carried out in Basak commune of Svay Chrum district5 as it was formerly a target area of an SNV pilot project, ‘Promote vegetable production through water storage and supply systems enhancement’. In Basak commune, vegetables are the second major crop (rice being the staple food that farmers produce for family consumption). The most popular vegetables in the studied commune are: yard long beans, cucumbers, wax gourds, sponge gourds, bitter gourds, watermelons etc.
The average land size for vegetable growing was about 150 square metres per household. Vegetable growing is commonly carried out in the wet season thanks to the availability of rainwater. Limited vegetable growing occurs in the dry season due to the shortage of water. The families that have ponds or drilled wells (using ground water) can continue planting vegetables in the dry season. However, the water from the ponds is not enough to irrigate the vegetable during the whole dry season.
5 There are 16 communes in Svay Chrum district

Svay Taplor6 is a village in the studied commune where many farmers are interested in growing vegetables for selling. Vegetable seeds are not locally produced by the farmers, but purchased from local markets. The farmers also use chemical fertilizer to improve soil fertility; and chemical pesticides to control pests. At the same time, the pest insect population has increased from season to season after the use of chemical insecticides.
Most of the vegetable farmers bring their products to sell at local markets. Some of them sell their products to retailers at communal markets and/or Svay Rieng markets, and they themselves also act as retailers at the markets. Besides the local and Svay Rieng markets, vegetables are also sold to neighbouring families inside their village / community. The farmers normally transport their harvested vegetables from the village to local markets by themselves, and women play important roles in selling the vegetables.
The following table provides a summary of vegetable production in the studied commune. The information was provided by the farmers and village chief.
Table 3.2: Socio-economic aspects of vegetable farming in Basak commune
Particulars
Number
Remark
Families
2,002
Population
8,659
Average vegetable planting areas per household (ha)
0.015
Average quantity of vegetable produced per household (kgs per 6 months)
420
Vegetable growing is normally conducted in the wet season, except some farmers who have water access and grow some vegetables in the dry season.
Average incomes from vegetable selling (USD/HH)
170
Incomes from vegetables generated by the vegetable producer group members.
Source: Commune Data Base (2010)
6 According to the village chief, 40-50 families in Svay Taplor village planted vegetables both in the wet season and the dry season, but not the whole year. There are about 24 family ponds in the village. On average, the family has 100-200m2 for growing vegetables, or 500m2 at maximum.

3.2 VEGETABLE PHENOLOGY
As mentioned above, the farmers plant vegetables in the wet season, starting from June to November. Different kinds of vegetable are planted: cucumbers are one of the most popular, with a 45 day life cycle from planting to harvesting (maturity). Normally, the farmers plant two cropping cycles; those farmers who have access to water sources apply three cropping cycles.
Irregularity of rainfall / drought, heavy rain, insects / diseases affect vegetable production in the studied commune. If drought happens in the beginning of the wet season, vegetable planting needs to be delayed.7 According to the participants/respondents, vegetables are susceptible to climate impacts at all stages of growth and development.
Table 3.3: Phenological stages of vegetable production across the year Months/ Stages Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Associated issues Solutions
Germination
*
*
*
 Heavy rain rots the crop
 Insects damage leaves
 Fungus
 Weeds
 Prepare raised beds
 Used insecticide to control pest insects
 Fungicide
 Mulching
Growing new leaves
*
*
*
 Leaves eaten by bugs
 Rolling leaf worms
 Leaves yellowing
 Use insecticide
 Uproot the yellow stems
Planting in vegetable gardens
*
*
*
 10% of the newly planted stems die
 Replanting
Growing new roots
*
*
*
 New roots could be damaged if water logging occurs
 Replanting
Stems, leaves growing larger
*
*
*
 Rolling leaf worms
 Strong winds break stems
 Insecticide
 Allow falling stems to grow without replanting
Growing and tillering of stems
*
*
*
 Leaves wrinkled due to ants
 Insecticide
Flowering
*
*
*
 Dropping flowers Insects attack fruits
 Use insecticide from IVY
Fruiting
*
*
*
Fruit maturing
*
*
*
7 The women’s group mentioned that they planted vegetables in July as it is a short dry span in the wet season. They received better prices if they planted the vegetables at this time.

3.3 TIMELINE OF MAJOR CLIMATE EVENTS
Drought, flooding, pest insects, irregularity of rainfall, and increase of temperature were the major climatic problems affecting vegetable production in the studied commune. It seems that major climate events happen every five years. A flood occurred in 2000, resulting in 80% of crop yield lost, and then drought occurred in 2005. In 2011, drought occurred from June to August, followed by flash floods from September to October.
In the case of drought, those farmers who have access to water sources (e.g. ponds, drilled wells) pumped water to irrigate their crops. Some farmers planted tolerant varieties, but not many farmers know about these. To control pest insects, the farmers use chemical insecticide, but it has not been so effective. The farmers noticed that the pest insect population increased after using insecticide; some insects may now be familiar with the insecticides.
Table 3.4: Timeline of major problems and solutions carried out by the farmers
Year
Problems/
Calamities
Solutions/
Maintenances
What events do you expect will occur in the future? When?
Does this affect your future productivity or change your existing solutions/ maintenance?
2009-2013
 Drought and flooding in 2011
 Pest insects occurred every cropping season
 Rainfall is irregular
 Temperature increased
 Replanting of vegetables
 Pumped water from ponds / drilled wells to water vegetables
 Use mechanical methods, botanical and chemical insecticides to deal with pest insects
 Planted drought tolerant varieties (e.g. the farmers have changed from cucumbers to yard long beans)
 The farmers noted that drought, flooding, insects, irregular rainfall and increase of temperature will continue increasing
 Improve vegetable production plans by selecting the right time for planting vegetables
 Improve access to water sources by digging ponds, wells.
 Improve vegetable growing practices (e.g. planting living fences to attract pest insects)
2004-2008
 Drought in 2005
 Flood in 2007, but not significantly affecting vegetable production in the commune
 Planted vegetables after the flood
 Drought will continue to happen in the future
 Improve water storage and water accessibility (e.g. ponds, drilled wells)
1998-2003
 Flood in 2000 (80% of vegetables and other crops lost)
 Planted vegetables after the flood to make additional income for the family
 Flooding will continue to happen
 Prepare vegetable production plans (vegetable growing will be carried out before and after floods)

3.4 VEGETABLE PLANTING CALENDAR
Vegetable growing was normally conducted in the wet season, from June to November. Normally, the farmers planted short rotation vegetable varieties. For instance, the farmers would plant three cropping cycles of cucumbers if they had access to water sources (e.g. ponds, drilled wells). The farmers without ponds or drilled wells could only plant one or two cycles. According to the farmers, the life cycle of cucumbers is only 45 days from planting to harvesting (maturity). The women farmers also mentioned that they could plant vegetables from July.
Table 5: Calendar of vegetable production activities
Months/
Activity
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Observation
Plough soil / land preparation
*
*
*
Two ploughings conducted
Make rows for growing vegetables
*
*
*
Fertilizing
*
*
*
Plastic mulching
*
*
*
Majority of the farmers used plastic mulch.
Planting
*
*
*
Care taking
*
*
*
*
*
*
Harvesting and transporting harvested vegetables to markets
*
*
*
Women are greatly involved in selling of the harvested vegetables.
3.5 GENDER AGGREGATION OF LABOUR
Women and men share the labour in vegetable production. According to discussions with the women’s group, women and men share the total labour (working days) 50-50. Women are much more involved in the harvesting and selling of the products, as they are good at production classification and selling. Men are more involved in ploughing soil/soil preparation because they have stronger physical strength. In widow-headed families, the women are wholly involved in all of the planting activities mentioned above.
The table below indicates the number of working days of women and men involved in planting vegetables on a plot sized 10m x 15m = 150m2.
Table 3.6: Working days in vegetable production (result from women’s group discussion)
Planting stages
Number of working days
% of women’s involvement
% of men’s involvement
Ploughing soil
1
10
90
Making rows
2
50
50
Fertilizing
2
20
80
Mulching
1
50
50
Planting
2
50
50
Prepare vegetable planting frames
5
50
50
Caretaking
40
50
50
Harvesting
1
70
30
Transporting
4
50
50
Selling
4
100
0

Table 3.7: Working days in vegetable production (result from men’s group discussion)
Planting stages
Number of working days
% of women’s involvement
% of men’s involvement
Ploughing soil
1.5
0
100
Make planting rows
2-3
50
50
Fertilizing
2-3
50
50
Soil loosening
2-3
50
50
Plastic mulching
1
50
50
Planting
1-2
50
50
Caretaking
42
50
50
Harvesting
2
50
50
Transporting
5-6
50
50
Selling
4
100
0
3.6 VULNERABILITY MAPPING
Both women and men indicated that drought is the main climatic problem affecting vegetable production in their commune, scoring it four out of five for severity. On the other hand, the women also gave flooding a score of four, but the men only gave it three. The men noticed that hot temperatures have significantly increased during the last few years. Insects and diseases occur every cropping season, although the women gave it a score of three and the men a score of two, because they think that they do have some measures to deal with insects / diseases.
Graph 3.1: Results of vulnerability mapping from the women’s group
Graph 3.2: Results of vulnerability mapping from the men’s group
4
3
3
3.5
0
1
2
3
4
flood
drought
insects/ diseases
hot
rainfall
4
2
4
3
0
1
2
3
4
flood
drought
insects/ diseases
hot
rainfall

3.7 CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIO MAPPING
Over the next 50 years, increasing population in the region will increase the demand for food, increasing pressure on land and water resources in turn (Nesbitt 2005). In addition, there is widespread poverty, with the people of Cambodia being amongst the poorest in the world, primarily surviving on subsistence farming. Improving water productivity and therefore crop yields can be an important pathway for improving average household incomes and general standards of living.
According to data for the last 14 years provided by the Provincial Department of Water Resources of Svay Rieng province, the average annual rainfall in Svay Rieng is 1713.41 mm, the maximum is 2195.2 mm and the minimum is 1306.5 mm. Note that rainfall has decreased during the last several years. The average annual temperature is 27.8 Celsius. The maximum is 28.49 C and the minimum is 26.59 C.
Graphics 3.3-3.4: Rainfall and temperature figures for Svay Rieng province.
Source: PDoWRAM of Svay Rieng (2013)
Source: PDoWRAM of Svay Rieng (2013)
2195.2
1306.5
1583.9
1657
1444.1
1721.9
1633.4
1684.4
2163.2
1474.6
2001
1867.9
1769.8
1484.8
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Rainfall (mm)
28.41
27.83
28.41
27.63
28.24
27.93
27.65
26.9
27.43
28.1
28.49
27.8
26.59
27.8
25.5
26
26.5
27
27.5
28
28.5
29
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Temperature (Celsius)

During the climate change vulnerability assessment, women and men were separated to discuss major climatic events occurring in their commune.
Drought and flooding: According to the participants, there were only two major floods that have hit the studied commune. In 2013, flash floods occurred from September to October due to the heavy rain during these two months. A flood from the river occurred from September to November in 2011 resulting in loss of about 20% of the rice yield in the commune. Note that drought also happened from June to August in 2011.
Rainfall: Rainfall is irregular and the rainfall pattern has changed. The duration of rainfall is shorter, but the intensity of rainfall is higher, meaning stronger rain in a shorter period. The farmers also noticed that there was some lightning especially at the beginning of the wet season (in the middle of May): three buffalo and two people were killed by lightning in 2008.
Table 3.8: Rainfall observations by the farmers
Year month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
2013
*
***
***
***
*
*
2012
*
**
**
**
*
*
2011
*
**
*
*
*
**
**
*
2010
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
2009
*
**
*
*
*
*
*
Table 3.9: Temperature observations by the farmers
Year / month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
2013



 








2012



 








2011












2010



 








2009



 









3.8 LOCAL SOLUTIONS EXERCISE
Table 3.10: Summary of observed climate events
S.N.
Climatic Parameters
Observation
Effects
Local Adaptation Practices
1.
Drought and irregular rainfall
 Drought happensevery year and the duration of drought is longer
 Planted vegetables damaged due to the shortage of water
 Pump water from ponds and/or drilled wells to irrigate vegetables
 Improve water storage (e.g. digging ponds)
 Plant drought tolerant varieties (e.g. yard long beans)
2.
Flooding
 Flooding does not happen frequently (twice in the last five years)
 Vegetables and rice damaged
 Plant vegetables after flood
 Make proper vegetable production plan (vegetables could be planted before and/or after the flood)
3.
Pest insects
 Pest population has increased from season to season, while the farmers have increased use of chemical insecticide
 Vegetables damaged by insects
 Use mechanical methods, spray botanical and chemical insecticide to control pests
4
Increase in temperature
 Farmers noticed that the temperature has significantly increased in the last two years
 Vegetables damaged
 Plastic film mulching
 Select and plant drought tolerant varieties
There are some barriers that make it difficult for the vegetable farmers to carry out adaptive measures:
 Some NGOs / development agencies are working in the studied commune, but there is a lack of CSA integration into their agricultural extension activities. A CFAP project is digging four ponds for the farmers, but integration of vegetable growing practices adapted to climate change is limited.
 Lack of integration of climate smart agriculture extension into development plan of the commune council. Most activities carried out by the commune council chiefly focus on infrastructure construction such as village roads, bridges, water pipes, etc. Climate infrastructure proofing has not yet been integrated.
 Some farmers have limited capital to invest in agricultural activities. For instance, they did not have enough capital to invest in preparing tarpaulin ponds. Some farmers took loans from MFIs or banks, but they are at risk if their production fails to produce good yields. At the same time, a supply of tarpaulin is not available in their community.

3.9 LIVELIHOOD PROFILING
Natural resources: The commune is surrounded by natural streams. Four natural streams exist in the commune, two are dry in the dry season but the other two have water the whole year.
Human resources: 10 farmers are good at vegetable growing, and could act as model farmers for other farmers to learn from, though they still lack knowledge and technical skills in climate smart agriculture.
Social resources: There are three vegetable producer groups in the studied commune. These producer groups were set up with technical support from CFAP. The producer groups have good relationships with local development agencies (e.g. CFAP, IVY etc.) to access agricultural inputs.
Physical resources: There are four community ponds in the commune. The farmers have planted vegetables in the areas around these community ponds.
Financial resources: About 70% of the total families in the studied commune took loans from banks. The average loan size was USD 500; the maximum is up to USD 2,500, and monthly interest rates range from 1.9 to 3%.
Mobility maps
According to the women’s group, the vegetables are produced mainly for family consumption. If there is a surplus, they are sold to neighbouring families, local markets, and markets in the Svay Rieng provincial town.
However, vegetable farmers need to borrow from MFIs and banks, to buy vegetable seeds and other agricultural inputs (e.g. chemical fertilizer, pesticide etc.). In general, the farmers bought agricultural inputs from Svay Rieng market, which is about 8km from the commune. Note that IVY, the Provincial Department of Agriculture and CFAP also supply some seeds and other agricultural inputs to vegetable producer associations in the studied commune.
Based on the result from the men’s group, 40% of the total quantity of harvested vegetables was supplied to Svay Rieng market, 40% to the local Kbal Spean market, and another 20% sold inside the village. The men’s group indicated that the vegetable producer associations also provided loans to its members to buy agricultural inputs.
Graphic 3.5: Mobility map (by women’s group)
Graphic 3.6: Mobility map (by men’s group)

3.10 STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS
At least three NGOs are working on agricultural extension in the studied commune. Some other NGOs such as CWS and Wataneakpheap have already completed their activities. The farmers noticed that CFAP and KADRA are actively working in their commune.
Table 3.11: List of development organizations/institutions working in the studied village
N
Institutions
In
Status
Objectives / activities
1
CFAP
2007
On-going
 Provide training on vegetable growing practices
 Form vegetable producer associations
 Collective saving
 Rice field
 Provide agricultural materials (e.g., seeds, ponds, etc.)
2
CWS
2000
Completed in 2005
 Saving group
 Cow bank
 Rice granary
 Pond construction
 Provide milled rice to vulnerable families
3
Chrong Chroy
2011
On-going
 Saving and credit
 Water filtration containers
 Water pipes
 Hygienic latrines
4
SNV
2011
Completed
 Cooperate with CFAP to implement ‘Promote vegetable production through water storage and supply systems enhancement’ and ‘Promote rice production through water supply enhancement’ projects
5
KADRA
2012
On-going
 Agricultural extension (e.g., vegetable growing, livestock husbandry, etc.)
 Savings groups water filtration containers
6
Banks (e.g. Acleda, Amret, Prasac, AMK, HathaKasekor, Thoneakeaphum, Chansok)
N/A
On-going
 Provide loans for investment in agricultural and other business activities.
7
Wataneakpheap
2008
Completed in 2013
 Library
 Provide learning materials to children
 Hygienic latrines
 Sanitation
 Working with commune councillors to mainstream development activities into commune development plan

4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1 CONCLUSIONS FOR CASSAVA VALUE CHAIN IN KAMPONG CHAM
Based on the assessment, drought is the major climatic phenomenon affecting cassava production. Drought patterns have changed significantly. Previously, droughts occurred at the end of the wet season, but now happen in the beginning of the wet season, resulting in the delay of cassava production. Furthermore, the drought span is also longer: it used to be two months (from October to November), but is now up to three months from May to July. The farmers noticed that some cassava dies if drought occurs after planting.
In addition to drought, changing weather creates favourable conditions for pest insects and diseases such as witches’ broom disease, mealy bugs, etc. In 2013, much of the cassava was infected with witches’ broom disease; and farmers had very limited technical knowledge on dealing with this problem which affects the growth of cassava, especially tuber yield and starch development.
Heavy rain did not frequently occur, although its intensity is higher than in the past. Cassava stems, especially young stems and tubers, rot if waterlogging occurs longer than a week. Currently, the drainage system inside the cassava farms is not well prepared.
The farmers’ technical knowledge of appropriate cassava planting practices is limited, especially regards adaptive practices to climate change. Generally, the farmers are not good at land preparation and soil fertility improvement. Monoculture is applied: only cassava is planted on the same arable land for many years without crop rotation and diversification, which results in depletion of soil fertility. In general, the farmers are interested to learn new innovations and skills that enable them to increase cassava yield.
Women and men play important roles in cassava production. The women are mostly involved in the harvesting of the cassava product; and men are mainly involved in transporting and selling harvested cassava to local markets. Transport to markets is normally conducted using tillers; each tiller can store about 1200 to 1300 kg. With this weight, it is more difficult for the women to transport the harvested cassava from farms to markets.
Based on the assessment, the farmers are interested to improve their understanding of climate change (e.g. general climate change concepts, causes of climate change, climate change impacts, adaptation and mitigation measures etc.). Furthermore, they are interested in learning how they can adapt cassava production systems to deal with climate impacts currently affecting them. The priorities to be addressed now are diseases and pest insects currently affecting cassava production, and which will continue affecting it in the future.
4.2 CONCLUSIONS FOR VEGETABLE VALUE CHAIN IN SVAY RIENG
Drought, flooding, irregular rainfall, increasing temperatures, and outbreaks of pest insects were the main climatic problems affecting vegetable production in the studied commune.
Drought is more serious than flooding because it happens almost every year, while flooding occurred twice during the last five years. Because of drought, the farmers don’t have enough water to irrigate their vegetables in the dry season. At the same time, the farmers’ capacity in rainwater harvesting is also limited. The existing ponds (5m x 10m, 2m depth) are not usable for the whole dry season.
The farmers have limited capacity to carry out adaptation measures. Some farmers don’t understand the advantages of water ponds, and others have limited capital to invest in rehabilitating/constructing them. In addition, the application of climate smart agricultural practices is still limited.
In terms of labour, women and men share the workload in vegetable production. Women are much more involved in the harvesting and selling of the harvested vegetables (marketing); but men are more involved in soil preparation (production). The women farmers actively participated in the meeting, raising their knowledge and experience. Women are also good at marketing activities such as product classification, selling skill, etc.

4.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CASSAVA VALUE CHAIN IN KAMPONG CHAM
Based on the findings from this climate vulnerability assessment, recommendations are as follows:
 Awareness raising on climate change impacts, especially the impact on cassava farmers, local authorities (village chiefs, commune chiefs, commune councillors) and other local stakeholders. Women should be especially encouraged to participate.
 Field trials to demonstrate appropriate cassava crop production systems should be conducted with technical assistance from CIAT and PDA. The trials should focus on planting methods, soil preparation / soil fertility management, diversified cropping etc. In addition to the field trials, field days should also be organized to provide opportunities for the farmers to gain new knowledge and experience to improve the cassava production and productivity.
 Training on pest management is important for the cassava farmers. Specific topics that the training should focus on are: the prevention and treatment of witches’ broom disease, fungus, mealy bugs etc. Identification of disease symptoms should be done directly in the cassava farms; this would enable the farmers to clearly understand the symptoms of each pest.
 Improve access to healthy planting materials (ie. planting materials without infection by insects / diseases) is very important for the cassava farmers. Cassava farmers should at least know how to identify healthy planting materials to be selected for the next planting season.
 Concerning cassava crop production systems, improved soil water retention capacity should be introduced to the farmers. During the climate vulnerability assessment, some farmers noted that they wanted to dig drilled wells in order to use underground water. But other farmers said that this would not be sustainable, so soil water retention practices also need to be introduced.
4.4 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR VEGETABLE VALUE CHAIN IN SVAY RIENG
Based on the findings from this climate vulnerability assessment, recommendations are as follows:
 Awareness raising for farmers, village chiefs, commune councillors and other local stakeholders to understand the general concepts of climate change: for instance definitions of climate change, impacts on agricultural production / livelihood activities, adaptation and mitigation etc. Women should be encouraged to participate.
 Training on pest management and vegetable growing practices adapted to climate change impacts are very important for the vegetable farmers. To have active participation from women, the trainings should be separately organized for women and men. Field practices and demonstrations should be carried out to provide a good learning environment.
 Strengthen cooperation and communication with the commune council in order to convince them to integrate CSA activities into the commune development plan, and to allocate some budget for implementation of CSA activities. In addition, the project should also work with commune councillors with regard to land use planning, especially the use of land located near water sources. Currently, this land is used for dry season rice production or receding rice cultivation, but not for growing vegetables.
 Select potential farmers, especially women, who have ponds for storage of rainwater. Some farmers might already have tarpaulin ponds previously supported by the SNV pilot project since 2012. If possible, the ponds should be rehabilitated or made larger than 5m x 10m, and also deeper than 2m (they should be 10m x 15m with 3m depth).
 The cost of tarpaulin is high so it is also good to find substitute materials at cheaper prices. It would also be good to find local tarpaulin suppliers rather than depending on external suppliers based in Phnom Penh, far away from the studied commune.
 It would also be good to link farmers with low interest loans; the farmers would be able to borrow money for their investment in preparing the tarpaulin ponds.

ANNEXES
ANNEX 1: RESOURCE MAPS
Resource map of the studied village on cassava production
Resource map of the studied commune on vegetable production
Basak commune has four natural streams. However, some of those streams are dry in the dry season. Rice fields are susceptible to both flooding and drought, and the vegetable growing areas are the drought prone areas. There are four community ponds in the studied commune. Water from the community ponds is also used for vegetable growing in the surrounding areas.
ANNEX 2: PHOTOS TAKEN DURING THE CASSAVA VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT STUDY
Photo 1: Cassava leaves going yellow/red (witches’ broom disease)
Photo 2: Cassava tubers laid on the ground after harvesting
1.
2.
Photo 3: Different kinds of chemical pesticides used for pest control

Photo 4: Tillers used for carrying harvested cassava from fields to sell at middlemen’s houses. One tiller can carry 1200 to 1300 kg.
Photo 5: Cassava mix planted with rubber (in the first / second year of rubber planting)
Photo 6: Planting materials piled horizontally for planting in the next season
Photo 7: Planting materials kept vertically for planting in the next season
Photo 8: Cassava pile at Ly Hong Leng processing enterprise
Photo 9: Starch produced from cassava is packed by the processor for selling to markets

ANNEX 3: PHOTOS TAKEN DURING THE VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT STUDY
Photo 1: Participants in the plenary discussion
Photo 2: Men’s group
Photo 3: Women’s group
Photo 4: Representative of women’s group presenting group results.
Photo 5: CFAP staff facilitating discussion on labour needed in vegetable production
Photo 6: Yard long bean – farmers consider it a drought tolerant crop.
Photo 7: Pond (10m x 15m, 3m depth) supported by CFAP project
Photo 8: Bitter gourds planted in a back yard

ANNEX 4: LIST OF THE KEY INFORMANTS ATTENDING THE FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (CASSAVA)
N
Name
Village
Position
Contact
1
Lib Eun
Andong Pok
Farmer
2
Dy Din
Andong Pok
Farmer
3
Han Rath
Andong Pok
Farmer
4
Ann Sokhon
Andong Pok
Farmer
5
Ruos Srogn
Andong Pok
Farmer
6
Chron Sophal
Andong Pok
Farmer
7
Chann Sokry
Andong Pok
Farmer
8
Leng Saveun
Andong Pok
Farmer
9
Yein Chheung
Andong Pok
Farmer
10
Hann Huon
Andong Pok
Deputy village chief
088 887 1433
ANNEX 5: LIST OF THE KEY INFORMANTS ATTENDING THE FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (VEGETABLES)
N
Name
Village
Position
Contact
1
Keo Tith
Basak
Farmer
097 690 6971
2
Chor Bakin
Basak
Farmer
097 381 4400
3
Prom Salim
Salarean
Farmer
088 401 5326
4
Pov Saveang
Salarean
Farmer
097 712 5271
5
Prom Sineang
Salarean
Farmer
6
Khon Sokha
Salarean
Farmer
088 794 0223
7
Som Savon
Salarean
Farmer
088 978 8090
8
U Yuoy
Salarean
Farmer
9
Mey Seth
Basak
Farmer
10
Kenn Snor
Basak
Farmer
11
Ton Ra
Basak
Farmer
12
Kong Saveun
Svay Taplor
Farmer
13
Prom Saream
Svay Taplor
Farmer
088 950 0271
14
Kong Rann
Svay Taplor
Farmer
15
Pov Siem
Svay Taplor
Farmer
16
Tith Chanreun
Svay Taplor
Farmer
17
Phok Nomol
Basak
Farmer
18
Suon Oeun
Svay Rieng
Farmer
015 513 498
19
Yab Theoun
Svay Rieng
Farmer
015 750 002

ANNEX 6: LIST OF VILLAGE CHIEFS AND COMMUNE COUNCILLORS / OTHER STAKEHOLDERS INTERVIEWED DURING THE ASSESSMENT ON VEGETABLE
N
Name
Location / village
Position
Contact
1
Dy
Svay Rieng
Chief of the administration office of the Provincial Department of Water Resources and Meteorology
+855 15 834 484
2
Ngoun Bo
Salarean village, Basak commune, Svay Chrum district,
Deputy village chief
Salarean village, Basak commune, Svay Chrum district,
+855 97 480 5858
3
Mey Tith
Basak village, Basak commune, Svay Chrum district,
Village chief
+855 97 934 0765
4
Pov Sun
Svay Taplok village, Basak commune, Svay Chrum district,
Village chief
+855 97 322 2760
5
Pot Kim San
Basak commune, Svay Chrum district,
Commune chief
+855 88 518 5511
6
Pean Sameun
Basak commune, Svay Chrum district,
Key person
+855 88 966 7423

Climate Change: Vulnerability and Impact Assessment

More Related Content

Similar to Climate Change: Vulnerability and Impact Assessment

More from Soksophors yim

Recently uploaded

Climate Change: Vulnerability and Impact Assessment