Analyzing References to Classical Literature in Journalism

CLAS 1110, Prof. Yarrow, Writing Assignment #2
The objective of this assignment is to apply what you are
learning in class and through the readings to
what you experience in contemporary journalism. You’re asked
to do this primarily through analysis.
Your job is to explain the comparison as clearly as possible. To
do this you’ll need specific examples.
And you’ll need to analyze those specific examples. The genre
of this paper is the persuasive essay.
Your answer to the set question should be clear from your thesis
statement and the rest of the paper
should support that assertion.
First, decide if you want to read a few longer articles or more
shorter articles. If the former choose
option 1, if the later choose option 2.
Option 1: How is _____________ mentioned in The New
Yorker? How do these references connect to
what you’ve read in class? What do the references suggest
about how the authors and their intended
readership perceive Classical Literature and/or Ancient Greece?
Option 2: How is _____________ mentioned in the New York
Times? How do these references
connect to what you’ve read in class? What do the references
suggest about how these authors and
their intended readership perceive Classical Literature and/or
Ancient Greece?
Second, you must pick a proper noun or adjective derived from

a proper noun to fill in the blank in your
question!
Any of the authors we’ve read or will read before the midterm
are fine choices: Herodotus, Thucydides,
Homer, Sappho, Plato....
Other valid choices are the names of primary characters
including, but not limited, to Pericles, Socrates,
Helen of Troy, Odysseus, Aphrodite, Croesus, Antigone, etc.
You can also pick famous places or peoples: Sparta,
Thermopylae, Spartans
Or, you may even pick adjectives derived from names: Laconic,
Platonic, etc.
Don’t get stuck on your first choice. After you run a few
searches, you may choose to pick a different
one that has more interesting or more substantial material.
For Option 1, go to the New Yorker website
(http://www.newyorker.com/search) and search for the
term. Chose 3 articles for analysis. These articles must have
been written in your lifetime. At least
one must have been published in the last 12 months. You may
not chose book, theatre, or art reviews;
all other articles are acceptable, but some may be more suitable
to the assignment than others. Be
selective.
For Option 2, you can go to the NYTimes website
(http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch/) and
search for the term. Restrict your search to your own lifetime.
At least one article must be published in
2016. Choose 5-6 articles for analysis. You may not chose

book, theatre, or art reviews; all other
articles are acceptable, but some may be more suitable to the
assignment than others. Be selective.
Both of these media outlets have paywalls! You may need to
use resources from
library.brooklyn.cuny.edu to access those portions of the
website behind the paywall.
http://www.newyorker.com/search
http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch/
http://library.brooklyn.cuny.edu/resources/
PART OF WHAT YOU’RE GRADED ON IS HOW WELL YOU
FOLLOW THESE INSTRUCTIONS.
Requirements for all Papers.
The top of your first page should look like this:
[Your Student ID Number]
CLAS 1110, Spring [or Fall] 20XX, TR2 [or TR3], Yarrow
Writing Assignment #1
[The option you have chosen and its full question just as it
appears in bold above]
Word Count: [XXXX]
x I’ve activated anonymous grading, so you should not put your
name on the paper.
x Your file must be .docx or .pdf. No other file formats are
accepted.
x Use any traditional font in 11 or 12 pt (i.e. Times New Roman
or Calibri is fine, but Comic Sans is

not).
x Use any line spacing between 1.15 and 2.
x Indent the beginning of new paragraphs.
x You must insert page numbers in the bottom right hand corner
of each page.
x Use grammar, punctuation, and vocabulary appropriate to
formal academic writing.
x Your word count must be at least 900 and not more than 1200.
Be sure to include your final
word count in your header.
x A title is not required.
x No quotation may be longer than 12 words. Make sure it is
intelligible to someone who may not
have read the other piece of literature you’re using in your
comparison. If 12 words doesn’t
seem enough, you should consider summarizing instead.
x Your paper needs to make an argument and have one unifying
idea. It cannot be a random
jumble of possible answers. It should be focused on one specific
answer.
x This main idea should be expressed in a thesis statement in
your first paragraph; this thesis
statement should not be too general. (e.g. “Translation affects
our understanding of the text” is
too broad!)
x Use summary only when it is directly connected to your
analysis.
x You should make at least three references to specific portions
of the readings from class and at
least five references to pieces of modern journalism. You may

choose to use many more! You
may refer to a section of the text without quoting it!
x These references should be cited with parenthetical notation,
e.g. (Hdt. 7.235) or (Sappho fr. 1)
or (Jensen A10) or (Malik 47).
x Your chosen piece of comparative literature must appear at
the end of your paper in MLA
format. What’s MLA format? Learn here.
x Do not start your paper with a banal, general statement such
as “Classical literature has long
been admired.” “The Ancient Greeks were masters of oral
poetry.” Similarly do not end with
banal, general statement such as “Thus we see embedded
narratives have a timeless place in
literature of all cultures.”
x Papers must be submitted through BlackBoard and will be
checked by SafeAssign, a tool to
discourage plagiarism.
x Papers will be graded with a BlackBoard rubric as the primary
feedback tool. The rubric is
available for consultation before you begin.
x NO PHYSICAL COPY IS REQUIRED.
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/07/
Hymn to Aphrodite, Page 1 of 15

Extracted from Diane Rayor’s The Homeric Hymns: A
Translation, with Introduction and Notes:
The Homeric Hymns have survived for two and a half millennia
because of their captivating stories, beautiful language, and
religious significance. I have been teaching the Hymns in
courses—mythology, classical literature, women in antiquity,
and Greek language—for many years. I love them, and my
students usually do too. The myths in these poems raise
questions that humanity still struggles to answer—questions
about our relationships with others and our place in the
world.
The Homeric Hymns is a collection of thirty-four poems: thirty-
three invoke and celebrate the gods and one addresses
"hosts," either the host of the immediate performance or all
those in general who provide hospitality. The Hymns are
"Homeric" because they are composed in the same traditional
epic meter (dactylic hexameter), dialect, and style as Homer’s
Iliad and Odyssey. They are "hymns" in that each poem
celebrates the attributes or epiphany of the god or goddess to
whom the hymn is addressed. The longer hymns worship a
deity by telling the story of how he or she obtains or exercises
power. In general, the hymns express the essence of the
particular deity. Although Thucydides (3.104), our earliest
reference to the Hymns, assumes that Homer himself
composed and performed these works, they are actually
anonymous poems. Most were written in the archaic and early
classical periods in Greece (700–500 b.c.e.); a few may have
been composed as late as Hellenistic times (third to second
centuries b.c.e.), and one may be from fifth century c.e. (see
the notes on Ares 8). The earliest Hymns may be
contemporary with the poetry of Homer and Hesiod; more
likely, they appeared immediately afterward.

[Section on survival removed.]
RELIGIOUS MEANING
The Hymns provide introductions to the principal ancient
Greek deities, and they include some of the earliest literary
references to key religious rituals and sites. The Hymn to
Demeter, one of the most beautiful and moving stories in
Greek literature, is also the earliest literary version of one of
the myths behind the foundation of the Eleusinian Mysteries,
a popular mystery religion practiced from the eighth century
b.c.e. to the fourth century c.e. Its story of Demeter and her
daughter, Persephone or Kore (Girl), is the basis of various
women’s festivals, such as the Thesmophoria. Similarly, the
Hymn to Apollo describes the mythical foundation of Delphi,
the most famous oracular site in ancient Greece.
In religious terms, to "hymn" the god is to sing a song of
praise, to celebrate the god through song. Most of the
Homeric Hymns end with a prayer to the god of that hymn.
The ancient singer (bard) and community worshipped the
deity through the song. The poet’s rendition of these stories
was synonymous with worship; their telling invoked the gods
even as it recalled events that changed the world. Because
Apollo slew the dragon and established his temple at Delphi,
ancient worshippers believed they were granted access to
"unerring counsel" (Apollo 3.253, 293). They could go to
Delphi and consult Apollo through his oracle. Because
Demeter experienced the loss and recovery of her daughter
Persephone, she established the Eleusinian Mysteries. For

initiates, the daughter’s descent to the underworld and return
continued annually, giving them hope for better afterlives.
These foundation or birth myths had essential significance for
communities of worshippers.
PERFORMANCE
The genre of Homeric hymns probably began as short
introductions to the long recitations of traditional, oral epic
poetry that was popular centuries before the advent of writing
in Greece in the eighth century b.c.e. Most of the short hymns
in this collection seem appropriate invocations to a god in
prelude to a narrative tale; two hymns (31 and 32) specifically
say in conclusion that the bard will next turn to a recitation of
epic poetry:
I will sing about the glory of demigods, whose deeds
the bards, servants of the Muses, celebrate in sweet
song. (32.19–20)
As these "preludes" grew into longer, more complex narrative
tales, the recitation of the hymn may have become the main
event. It is possible, though, that even the long hymns
continued to be preludes: Thucydides (3.104) refers to the
546-line Hymn to Apollo as a prooimion (prelude).
The Homeric Hymns were "sung or recited solo by specialists"
who "preserved traditional material and passed it on, not in
fixed form but through recomposition-in-performance," a kind
of improvisation based on familiarity with a long oral poetic
tradition (Stehle 1997: 170). Early on, those specialists or
bards were called singers (aoidoi) and perhaps accompanied
their songs with a lyre. Later, rhapsodes (literally, "stitchers of
songs") recited poetry, while beating time with a staff. Bards
traveled throughout the Greek world to perform on a variety

of special occasions: "Music played a role in every moment of
Greek communal life—in religious ceremonies, competitions,
symposia, festivals, even in political contentions" (Comotti
1989: 6). Many performances took place in competitions
sponsored by religious centers, states, kings, or prominent
families. The Hymn to Apollo (3) may have been performed in
the competitions at Delphi, or perhaps at the festival of Apollo
on the island of Delos that is mentioned in the hymn itself
(149–64). Bards may have sung the Hymn to Demeter (2) at
religious festivals such as the Eleusinian Mysteries at Eleusis,
or any of the local women’s festivals in honor of Demeter,
such as the Thesmophoria. Perhaps the Hymn to Aphrodite (5)
was performed at a private banquet, like the one in the
Odyssey at which the bard sings of Ares and Aphrodite’s
adulterous affair (8.256–366). The Hymn to Hermes (4) would
be perfect fare for young men at a symposium or a feast, as
mentioned in the hymn, when Hermes sings in
accompaniment to his newly invented lyre (55–59).
[one paragraph removed]
FORMAL STYLE
The hymn is a distinctive genre with formal features, including
a characteristic structure (Janko 1981). Like the Iliad and
Odyssey, the Homeric hymns use formulae, the building blocks
of oral composition, in which phrases recur repeatedly in the
same metrical position in the dactylic hexameter line. Short
formulae, such as the epithets "rich-haired Demeter" or "far-
shooting Apollo," recur frequently in the Hymns. It usually is

thought that this use of set formulae provided breathing space
for the bard to improvise, but the repeated epithets also help
characterize the deities—the goddess of grain and fertility,
earth mother Demeter, grows abundant hair, and Apollo, god
of healing and plague, shoots his arrows of sickness from far
off.
Most of the hymns begin with a formulaic introduction, such
as "I sing to Pallas Athena, dread guardian of the city" (11.1).
In the Greek, the god’s name appears in the first line of thirty-
one of the thirty-three hymns (all but Dionysos 1 and Pan 19);
in most, it is the first word. At some point in the hymn, usually
at the end, the poet directly addresses the deity. As in
traditional Greek prayers, the hymn always invokes the deity
by name and major attributes, and often mentions important
cult sites or other mythological connections, as in this Hymn to
Aphrodite (the Cyprian):
I will sing to Cyprian Cytheria, who gives
kind gifts to mortals; on her lovely face,
ever smiling, an alluring bloom shimmers.
Hail, Goddess, ruling well-built Salamis
and Cyprus in the sea: give me an alluring song.
(10.1–5)
All but two of the hymns to gods have formulaic endings; the
Hymn to Hera 12 is probably incomplete, and the Hymn to
Ares 8 is more of a "cletic" or summoning prayer and, as noted
above, was written far later than the rest of the collection.
The closing formulae range from two to four lines. Twenty-
nine of the thirty-three address the deity with the salutation
"khaire" ("hail," "farewell," "rejoice"):
Hail, child of fair Semele! There is no way
to forget you and still compose sweet song.

(Dionysos 7.58–59)
Fifteen hymns end with a variation of "I began with you and
will turn to the rest of the hymn" (5.293), or "But I will
remember you and the rest of the song" (2.495). This means
that the poet invokes the god’s presence by singing that
hymn—"remembering is making present"—and now will move
on to sing the next part of the song, perhaps an epic tale (see
Bakker 2002: 72). The word in Greek for "the rest of" (allos)
could mean "another," which then would refer to another,
separate song that the bard plans to sing. In time, the closing
formula may also have become simply a traditional way to end
a hymn, without referring to an actual transition from one
part of the song to another or from one song to a different
one.
LONG HYMNS
The Hymns consist of four long narrative poems (293 to 580
lines) and twenty-nine short poems (3 to 59 lines). While a few
of the short hymns are narratives, most are invocations that
provide snapshots of the gods. The long narratives—Hymns
2—5, to Demeter, Apollo, Hermes, and Aphrodite—each tell a
revealing story about a critical event in the deity’s life that led
to a change in his or her power. They show the cosmos itself in
the process of being ordered in its details, though its broad
patterns are already in place. Zeus’ rule, too, is new and
perhaps not yet firmly established. The story of the divine
realm as told in the Hymns provides the missing link between
Hesiod’s Theogony and Homer’s epics (see Clay 1989: 11).

Zeus first takes power in the Theogony; in Homer, this power
is firmly set and unchallenged, and the hierarchy of the gods
fixed. Homer shifts the focus from the gods’ power struggles
with one another to their relationships to human beings. Even
Hera’s conflicts with Zeus in the Iliad are, in the end,
ineffectual and do not seriously challenge his power or the
world order.
In the long hymns, while all four gods are subordinate to Zeus,
they remain potentially threatening, and their power gives us
a more complete and complex picture of the Greek worldview.
Three gods—Apollo, Hermes, and Aphrodite—are Zeus’
children; Demeter is his sister and the mother of his daughter
Persephone. Apollo and Hermes could have challenged Zeus’
authority, but do not. Demeter does challenge Zeus. The
Hymn to Aphrodite states that Aphrodite has disrupted Zeus in
the past, by "mating him with mortal women," making him
"forget Hera, sister and wife" (5.39–40). Zeus’ children
ultimately submit to Zeus’ order. Demeter is also integrated
into or subordinated to the Olympian patriarchy—although,
perhaps, she finds a way to make that order acceptable to her.
[Two paragraphs removed on the hymns celebrating male
gods.]
The two hymns to the female goddesses, Demeter and
Aphrodite, differ strikingly from those to Apollo and Hermes.
Demeter and Aphrodite are fully mature goddesses in these
poems, which celebrate their primary aspects of fertility and
sexuality, respectively. Yet both hymns tell stories that
demonstrate restrictions on Demeter’s and Aphrodite’s
powers.
The Hymn to Aphrodite celebrates a distinct limitation of
Aphrodite’s power over sexuality. Zeus contrives Aphrodite’s

defeat and humiliation through her own sexuality. Aphrodite
had been demonstrating her power over all the gods,
including Zeus, by making them lose control, mate with
humans, and give birth to or father mortal children. Her power
threatens Zeus, "deceiving even his strong mind whenever she
wished,/easily mating him with mortal women" (5.38–39). In
order to stop the intermingling of human and divine, and to
establish firmly his own rule, Zeus usurps Aphrodite’s power:
"Casting sweet desire into Aphrodite’s own heart,/Zeus made
her long for a human man" (5.45–46). By having sex with a
mortal man, Aphrodite is reduced to the same shameful
position as the gods she previously manipulated. Once on
their level, she loses her special power over the other gods to
make them mate with humans, though she does maintain her
ability to cause humans, animals, and even gods to desire
their own kind.
[Two paragraphs on the hymn to Demeter have been
removed.]
Taken from:
http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/9232/9232.intro.html
http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/9232/9232.intro.html
Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite
Translated by Gregory Nagy
Taken from

http://courses.dce.harvard.edu/~clase116/txt_aphrodite.html
Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite
Translated by H. G. Evelyn-White
Taken from http://www.theoi.com/Text/HomericHymns3.html
Muse, tell me the things done by golden Aphrodite,
the one from Cyprus, who arouses sweet desire for gods
and who subdues the races of mortal humans,
and birds as well, who fly in the sky, as well as all beasts
5 —all those that grow on both dry land and the sea [pontos].
They all know the things done by the one with the beautiful
garlands, the one from Kythera. 1
[1] Muse, tell me the deeds of golden Aphrodite the Cyprian,
who stirs up sweet passion
in the gods and subdues the tribes of mortal men and birds that
fly in air and all the
many creatures that the dry land rears, and all the sea: all these
love the deeds of rich-
crowned Cytherea.
But there are three whose phrenes * she cannot win
over or deceive.
The first is the daughter of aegis-bearing Zeus, bright-eyed
Athena.

For she takes no pleasure in the things done by golden
Aphrodite.
10 What does please her is wars and what is done by Ares,
battles and fighting, as well as the preparation of splendid
pieces of craftsmanship.
For she was the first to teach mortal humans to be craftsmen
in making war-chariots and other things on wheels, decorated
with bronze.
And she it is who teaches maidens, tender of skin, inside the
palaces,
15 the skill of making splendid pieces of craftsmanship, putting
it
firmly into each one’s mind [phrên].
The second is the renowned Artemis, she of the golden shafts:
never
has she been subdued in lovemaking [philotês] by Aphrodite,
lover of smiles [to whom smiles are
phila].
For she takes pleasure in the bow and arrows, and the killing of
wild beasts in the mountains,
as well as lyres, groups of singing dancers, and high-pitched
shouts of celebration.

20 Also shaded groves and the city of dikaioi men.
The third one not to take pleasure in the things done by
Aphrodite is that young Maiden full of
aidôs,
Hestia,2 who was the first-born child of Kronos, the one with
the crooked mêtis **,
[7] Yet there are three hearts that she cannot bend nor yet
ensnare. First is the daughter
of Zeus who holds the aegis, bright-eyed Athene; for she has no
pleasure in the deeds of
golden Aphrodite, but delights in wars and in the work of Ares,
in strifes and battles and
in preparing famous crafts. She first taught earthly craftsmen to
make chariots of war
and cars variously wrought with bronze, and she, too, teaches
tender maidens in the
house and puts knowledge of goodly arts in each one's mind.
Nor does laughter-loving
Aphrodite ever tame in love Artemis, the huntress with shafts of
gold; for she loves
archery and the slaying of wild beasts in the mountains, the lyre
also and dancing and
thrilling cries and shady woods and the cities of upright men.
Nor yet does the pure
maiden Hestia love Aphrodite's works. She was the first-born
child of wily Cronos and
youngest too, 6 by will of Zeus who holds the aegis, -- a
queenly maid whom both
Poseidon and Apollo sought to wed. But she was wholly
unwilling, nay, stubbornly
refused; and touching the head of father Zeus who holds the
aegis, she, that fair

goddess, sware a great oath which has in truth been fulfilled,
that she would be a
maiden all her days. So Zeus the Father gave her an high honour
instead of marriage,
and she has her place in the midst of the house and has the
richest portion. In all the
temples of the gods she has a share of honour, and among all
mortal men she is chief of
the goddesses.
1Cyprus and Kythera were both particularly famous for their
cults of Aphrodite. This is acknowledged regularly, even on the
pan-Hellenic level.
* phrenes = mind, as in intellect
2Hestia [Ionic Histiê] means ‘hearth, fireplace’.
** mêtis = mind, as in wisdom or cunning
as well as the last and youngest, 3 through the Will [boulê] of
Zeus, holder of the aegis.
She was the Lady who was wooed by Poseidon and Apollo.
25 But she was quite unwilling, and she firmly refused.
She had sworn a great oath, and what she said became what
really happened.
She swore, as she touched the head of her father Zeus, the
aegis-bearer, 4

that she would be a virgin for all days to come, that illustrious
goddess.
And to her Father Zeus gave a beautiful honor, as a
compensating substitute for marriage.
30 She is seated in the middle of the house, getting the richest
portion. 5
And in all the temples of the gods she has a share in the tîmê †.
Among all the mortals, she is the senior goddess.
These are the three [goddesses] that she [Aphrodite] could not
persuade in their phrenes.
As for all the rest, there is nothing that has escaped Aphrodite:
35 none of the blessed gods nor any of mortal humans.
She even led astray the noos ‡ of Zeus, the one who delights in
the thunder,
the one who is the very greatest and the one who has the very
greatest tîmê as his share.
But even his well-formed phrenes are deceived by her,
whenever she wants,
as she mates him with mortal women with the greatest of ease,
40 unbeknownst to Hera, his sister and wife,
who is the best among all the immortal goddesses in her great
beauty.

She was the most glorious [kudos-filled] female to be born to
Kronos, the one with the crooked
mêtis,
and to her mother, Rhea. And Zeus, the one whose resources
are inexhaustible [a-phthi-ta],
made her his honorable wife, one who knows the ways of
affection.
[33] Of these three Aphrodite cannot bend or ensnare the hearts.
But of all others there
is nothing among the blessed gods or among mortal men that
has escaped Aphrodite.
Even the heart of Zeus, who delights in thunder, is led astray by
her; though he is
greatest of all and has the lot of highest majesty, she beguiles
even his wise heart
whensoever she pleases, and mates him with mortal women,
unknown to Hera, his
sister and his wife, the grandest far in beauty among the
deathless goddesses -- most
glorious is she whom wily Cronos with her mother Rhea did
beget: and Zeus, whose
wisdom is everlasting, made her his chaste and careful wife.
6 Cronos swallowed each of his children the moment that they
were born, but ultimately was forced to disgorge them. Hestia,
being the first to be swallowed, was the last to be disgorged,
and so was at once the first and latest

born of the children of Cronos. Cp. Hesiod Theogony, ll. 495-7.
3A reference to the myth, as we find it in the Theogony of
Hesiod (495-497), that tells how Kronos swallowed his children,
only to disgorge them later. The first-born Hestia was the first
to be swallowed and the last to be
disgorged. It is a common theme in the myths of many societies
that fire is simultaneously very old and very young.
4This gesture reflects the custom of touching a philon part of a
philos person in order to perform a philon act corresponding to
the phila words addressed to that person.
5The hearth is the focus of sacrificial offerings.
† time = honor
‡ noos = mind, as in consciousness or perception
45 But even upon her [Aphrodite] Zeus put sweet desire in her
thûmos *
—desire to make love to a mortal man, so that
not even she may go without mortal lovemaking
and get a chance to gloat at all the other gods,
with her sweet laughter, Aphrodite, lover of smiles,
50 boasting that she can make the gods sleep with mortal
women,
who then bear mortal sons to immortal fathers,

and how she can make the goddesses sleep with mortal men.
[45] But upon Aphrodite herself Zeus cast sweet desire to be
joined in love with a mortal
man, to the end that, very soon, not even she should be innocent
of a mortal's love; lest
laughter-loving Aphrodite should one day softly smile and say
mockingly among all the
gods that she had joined the gods in love with mortal women
who bare sons of death to
the deathless gods, and had mated the goddesses with mortal
men.
And so he [Zeus] put sweet desire in her thûmos—
desire for Anchises.
At that time, he [Anchises] was herding cattle at the steep
peaks of Mount Ida, famous for its many
springs.
55 To look at him and the way he was shaped was like looking
at the immortals.
When Aphrodite, lover of smiles, saw him,
she fell in love with him. A terrible desire seized her in her
phrenes.
She went to Cyprus, entering her temple fragrant with incense,
to Paphos.7 That is where her sacred precinct is, and her altar,
fragrant with incense.
60 She went in and closed the shining doors.

Then the Kharites [‘Graces’] bathed her and anointed her with
oil
—the kind that gives immortality, glistening on the complexion
of the gods, who last for all time.
Immortal it was, giver of pleasures, and it had the fragrance of
incense.
Then she wrapped all her beautiful clothes around her skin.
65 She was decked out in gold, Aphrodite, lover of smiles.
She rushed toward Troy, leaving behind fragrant Cyprus.
Making her way with the greatest of ease, high up among the
clouds.
She arrived at Mount Ida, famous for its many springs,
nurturing mother of beasts.
She went straight for the herdsmen’s homestead, up over the
mountain. Following her came
70 gray wolves and lions with fierce looks, fawning on her;
bears too, and nimble leopards, who cannot have their fill of
devouring deer,
came along. Seeing them, she was delighted in her thûmos,
inside her phrenes,
and she put desire where their hearts were. So they all
went off in pairs and slept together in shaded nooks.

[53] And so he put in her heart sweet desire for Anchises who
was tending cattle at that
time among the steep hills of many-fountained Ida, and in shape
was like the immortal
gods. Therefore, when laughter-loving Aphrodite saw him, she
loved him, and terribly
desire seized her in her heart. She went to Cyprus, to Paphos,
where her precinct is and
fragrant altar, and passed into her sweet-smelling temple. There
she went in and put to
the glittering doors, and there the Graces bathed her with
heavenly oil such as blooms
upon the bodies of the eternal gods -- oil divinely sweet, which
she had by her, filled
with fragrance. And laughter-loving Aphrodite put on all her
rich clothes, and when she
had decked herself with gold, she left sweet-smelling Cyprus
and went in haste towards
Troy, swiftly travelling high up among the clouds. So she came
to many-fountained Ida,
the mother of wild creatures and went straight to the homestead
across the mountains.
After her came grey wolves, fawning on her, and grim-eyed
lions, and bears, and fleet
leopards, ravenous for deer: and she was glad in heart to see
them, and put desire in
their breasts, so that they all mated, two together, about the
shadowy coombes.
* thûmos = heart
7Paphos is a city on the island of Cyprus.

75 She in the meantime came to the well-built shelters
and found him [Anchises] left all alone at the herdsmen’s
homestead,
that hero [hêrôs] Anchises, who had the beauty of the gods.
All the others [the other herdsmen] went after the herds, along
the grassy pastures,
while he was left all alone at the herdsmen’s homestead,
80 pacing back and forth, playing tunes on his lyre that pierce
the inside.
She stood before him, the daughter of Zeus, Aphrodite,
looking like an unwed maiden in size of length 8 and
appearance.
She did not want him to notice [verb of noos] her with his eyes
and be frightened of her.
When Anchises saw her he was filled with wonder as he took
note
85 of her appearance and size of length and splendid clothes.
For she wore a robe that was more resplendent than the
brightness of fire.
She had twisted brooches, and shiny earrings in the shape of
flowers.

Around her tender throat were the most beautiful necklaces.
It [her robe] was a thing of beauty, golden, decorated with
every sort of design. Like the moon
90 it glowed all around her tender breasts, a marvel to behold.
[75] But she herself came to the neat-built shelters, and him she
found left quite alone in
the homestead -- the hero Anchises who was comely as the
gods. All the others were
following the herds over the grassy pastures, and he, left quite
alone in the homestead,
was roaming hither and thither and playing thrillingly upon the
lyre. And Aphrodite, the
daughter of Zeus stood before him, being like a pure maiden in
height and mien, that he
should not be frightened when he took heed of her with his
eyes. Now when Anchises
saw her, he marked her well and wondered at her mien and
height and shining
garments. For she was clad in a robe out-shining the brightness
of fire, a splendid robe of
gold, enriched with all manner of needlework, which shimmered
like the moon over her
tender breasts, a marvel to see. Also she wore twisted brooches
and shining earrings in
the form of flowers; and round her soft throat were lovely
necklaces.
Seized with love, Anchises said to her:
“Hail, my Lady, you who come here to this home, whichever of
the blessed ones you are,

Artemis or Leto or golden Aphrodite
or Themis of noble birth or bright-eyed Athena.
95 Or perhaps you are one of the Kharites, you who have come
here. They are the ones
who keep company with all the gods and are called immortal.
Or you are one of those Nymphs who range over beautiful
groves,
or one of those Nymphs who inhabit this beautiful mountain,
and the fountainheads of rivers and grassy meadows.
100 For you, on some high peak, in a spot with a view going all
round,
I will set up an altar, and I will perform for you beautiful
sacrifices
every year as the season [hôrâ] comes round. And I wish that
you in turn may have a kindly-disposed
thûmos towards me.
Grant that I become a man who is distinguished among the
Trojans.
Make the genealogy that comes after me become a flourishing
one. And make me
105 live a very long life and see the light of the sun,
blessed [olbios] in the midst of the people. And let me arrive at

the threshold of old age.”9
[91] And Anchises was seized with love, and said to her: "Hail,
lady, whoever of the
blessed ones you are that are come to this house, whether
Artemis, or Leto, or golden
Aphrodite, or high-born Themis, or bright-eyed Athene. Or,
maybe, you are one of the
Graces come hither, who bear the gods company and are called
immortal, or else one of
those who inhabit this lovely mountain and the springs of rivers
and grassy meads. I will
make you an altar upon a high peak in a far seen place, and will
sacrifice rich offerings to
you at all seasons. And do you feel kindly towards me and grant
that I may become a
man very eminent among the Trojans, and give me strong
offspring for the time to
come. As for my own self, let me live long and happily, seeing
the light of the sun, and
come to the threshold of old age, a man prosperous among the
people."
8Ordinarily, gods would be larger-than-life-size.
Then Aphrodite, daughter of Zeus, answered him:
“Anchises, most glorious of earth-born men!
I am no goddess. Why do you liken me to the female

immortals?
110 No, I am a mortal. The mother that bore me was a woman.
My father is Otreus, famed for his name.10 Maybe you have
heard of him.
He rules over all of Phrygia, with its strong-walled fortresses.
But I know your language as well as my own.11
The nursemaid who brought me up in the palace was a Trojan.
12 Ever since I was a small child,
115 she brought me up, having taken me from my philê *
mother.
That is why I know your language as well as my own.
But then, the one with the golden wand, the Argos-killer
[Hermes], abducted me,
taking me from a festival of song and dance in honor of
Artemis, the one with the golden arrows.
There were many of us nymphs there, maidens worth many
cattle as bride-price.
120 We were having a good time, and a crowd so large that you
couldn’t count them was standing
around us in a circle.
Then it was that the one with the golden wand, the Argos-
killer, abducted me.

He carried me over many fields of mortal humans
and over vast stretches of land unclaimed and unsettled, where
wild beasts,
eaters of raw flesh, roam about, in and out of their shaded lairs.
125 I thought that my feet would never again touch the earth,
grower of grain.
And he [Hermes] said that I, in your bed, the bed of Anchises,
would be called your
lawfully-wedded wife, and that I would give you splendid
children.
But once he [Hermes] pointed this out and made note of it,
straightaway
he went back, that powerful Argos-killer, to that separate
group, the immortals.
130 I in the meantime reached you here, and there is an
overpowering compulsion that I have in me.
In the name of Zeus, in the name of your parents, I appeal to
you as I touch your knees.
Your parents must be noble, for base ones could never have
conceived such a one as you. 13
Take me, virgin that I am, inexperienced in making love
[philotês ],
and show me to your father and to your caring mother

[106] Thereupon Aphrodite the daughter of Zeus answered him:
"Anchises, most
glorious of all men born on earth, know that I am no goddess:
why do you liken me to
the deathless ones? Nay, I am but a mortal, and a woman was
the mother that bare me.
Otreus of famous name is my father, if so be you have heard of
him, and he reigns over
all Phrygia rich in fortresses. But I know your speech well
beside my own, for a Trojan
nurse brought me up at home: she took me from my dear mother
and reared me
thenceforth when I was a little child. So comes it, then, that I
well know you tongue also.
And now the Slayer of Argus with the golden wand has caught
me up from the dance of
huntress Artemis, her with the golden arrows. For there were
many of us, nymphs and
marriageable maidens, playing together; and an innumerable
company encircled us:
from these the Slayer of Argus with the golden wand rapt me
away. He carried me over
many fields of mortal men and over much land untilled and
unpossessed, where savage
wild-beasts roam through shady coombes, until I thought never
again to touch the life-
giving earth with my feet. And he said that I should be called
the wedded wife of
Anchises, and should bear you goodly children. But when he
had told and advised me,
he, the strong Slayer of Argos, went back to the families of the
deathless gods, while I
am now come to you: for unbending necessity is upon me. But I
beseech you by Zeus
and by your noble parents -- for no base folk could get such a
son as you -- take me now,

stainless and unproved in love, and show me to your father and
careful mother and to
your brothers sprung from the same stock. I shall be no ill-
liking daughter for them, but a
likely. Moreover, send a messenger quickly to the swift-horsed
Phrygians, to tell my
father and my sorrowing mother; and they will send you gold in
plenty and woven stuffs,
many splendid gifts; take these as bride-piece. So do, and then
prepare the sweet
marriage that is honourable in the eyes of men and deathless
gods."
9Anchises may be formulating his request in an “incorrect”
order of preference.
10The name seems to mean: “he who impels, he who gives
impulse.”
11The Phrygian tongue would be foreign to Greeks.
12From the standpoint of this poem, it seems that Trojans are
“Greeks.”
* philê = beloved, dear (feminine)
13By implication, the disguised Aphrodite is saying that
Anchises surely must have some divine ancestry himself. She
almost gives herself away here.
135 and to your brothers, those born from the same parents.
I will not be an unseemly in-law for them, but a seemly one
indeed.

And send a messenger quickly to the Phrygians, trainers of
swift horses,
to tell my father and my mother, however much she grieves.
They will send you plenty of gold, and woven clothing as well.
140 Take these abundant and splendid things as dowry.
After you have done so, prepare a lovely wedding-feast
that gives tîmê to both humans and immortals.”
After she said these things, she put sweet desire in his thûmos,
and Anchises was seized with love. He said these words,
calling out to her:
145 “If you are mortal, and if a woman was the mother who
gave birth to you,
and if Otreus is your father, famed for his name, as you say he
is,
and if you have come here because of the Immortal Conductor
[of psûkhai],
Hermes, and if you are to be called my wife for all days to
come,
then it is impossible for any god or any mortal human
150 to hold me back, right here, from joining with you in
making love [philotês],
right now, on the spot—not even if the one who shoots from

afar, Apollo himself,
takes aim from his silver bow and shoots his arrows that bring
misery.
Then, O lady who looks like the gods, I would willingly,
once I have been in your bed, go down into the palace of Hades
below.”
[143] When she had so spoken, the goddess put sweet desire in
his heart. And Anchises
was seized with love, so that he opened his mouth and said: "If
you are a mortal and a
woman was the mother who bare you, and Otreus of famous
name is your father as you
say, and if you are come here by the will of Hermes the
immortal Guide, and are to be
called my wife always, then neither god nor mortal man shall
here restrain me till I have
lain with you in love right now; no, not even if far-shooting
Apollo himself should launch
grievous shafts from his silver bow. Willingly would I go down
into the house of Hades, O
lady, beautiful as the goddesses, once I had gone up to your
bed."
155 So saying, he took her by the hand. And Aphrodite, lover of
smiles,
went along, with her face turned away and her eyes downcast,
towards the bed, all nicely made, which had already been
arranged for the lord, 14
all nicely made with soft covers. 15 And on top lay skins of

bears and lions, who roar with their deep voices,
160 which he himself had killed on the lofty mountainsides.
And when they went up into the sturdy bed,
he first took off the jewelry shining on the surface of her body
—the twisted brooches and the shiny earrings in the shape of
flowers.
Then he undid her girdle and her resplendent garments.
165 He stripped them off and put them on a silver-studded
stool,
Anchises did. And then, by the will of the gods and by fate
[aisa],
[155] So speaking, he caught her by the hand. And laughter-
loving Aphrodite, with face
turned away and lovely eyes downcast, crept to the well-spread
couch which was
already laid with soft coverings for the hero; and upon it lay
skins of bears and deep-
roaring lions which he himself had slain in the high mountains.
And when they had gone
up upon the well-fitted bed, first Anchises took off her bright
jewelry of pins and twisted
brooches and earrings and necklaces, and loosed her girdle and
stripped off her bright
garments and laid them down upon a silver-studded seat. Then
by the will of the gods
and destiny he lay with her, a mortal man with an immortal
goddess, not clearly knowing

what he did.
14The epithet anax ‘lord’ is appropriate both to persons of royal
ancestry and to cult-heroes.
15The word khlaina ‘cloak, cover’ seems to be used consistently
in contexts where an ainos is at work.
he lay next to the immortal female, mortal male that he was. He
did not know what he was really
doing.
But when the time comes for herdsmen to drive back to the fold
their cattle and sturdy sheep, back from the flowery pastures,
170 then it was that she [Aphrodite] poured sweet sleep over
Anchises,
sweet and pleasurable. She in the meantime put back on her
beautiful clothes, which covered again
the surface of her body.
Now that her skin was again beautifully covered over, the
resplendent goddess
stood by the bed, and the well-built roof-beam

—her head reached that high up. 16 And beauty shone forth
from her cheeks
175 —an immortal beauty, the kind that marks the one with the
beautiful garlands, the goddess from
Kythera.
Then she woke him from his sleep and called out to him,
saying:
“Rise up, son of Dardanos! Why do you sleep such a sleep
without awakening?
See if I look like
what you noticed [verb of noos] when you first saw me with
your eyes.”
[168] But at the time when the herdsmen driver their oxen and
hardy sheep back to the
fold from the flowery pastures, even then Aphrodite poured soft
sleep upon Anchises,
but herself put on her rich raiment. And when the bright
goddess had fully clothed
herself, she stood by the couch, and her head reached to the
well-hewn roof-tree; from
her cheeks shone unearthly beauty such as belongs to rich-
crowned Cytherea. Then she
aroused him from sleep and opened her mouth and said: "Up,
son of Dardanus! -- why
sleep you so heavily? -- and consider whether I look as I did
when first you saw me with
your eyes."
180 So she spoke, and he, fresh out of his sleep, straightaway

heeded her word.
As soon as he saw the neck and the beautiful eyes of
Aphrodite,
he was filled with fright and he turned his eyes away, in
another direction.
Then he hid his beautiful face with a cloak [khlaina],
and, praying to her, addressed her with winged words:
185 “The first time I ever laid eyes on you, goddess,
I knew you were a god. But you did not speak to me accurately.
Now I appeal to you by touching your knees, in the name of
Zeus the holder of the aegis,
don’t let me become disabled [without menos],17 don’t let me
live on like that among humans!
Please, take pity! I know that no man is full of life, able, 18
190 if he sleeps with immortal goddesses.”
[180] So she spake. And he awoke in a moment and obeyed her.
But when he saw the
neck and lovely eyes of Aphrodite, he was afraid and turned his
eyes aside another way,
hiding his comely face with his cloak. Then he uttered winged
words and entreated her:
"So soon as ever I saw you with my eyes, goddess, I knew that
you were divine; but you
did not tell me truly. Yet by Zeus who holds the aegis I beseech
you, leave me not to lead

a palsied life among men, but have pity on me; for he who lies
with a deathless goddess
is no hale man afterwards."
16The goddess here resumes her divine dimensions.
17A euphemism, replacing words that are clearly better left
unsaid.
18Again, a matter of euphemism.
He was answered by the daughter of Zeus, Aphrodite:
“Anchises, most glorious of mortal humans!
Take heart, and do not be too afraid in your phrenes.
You should have no fear of that I would do any kind of bad
thing to you,
195 or that any of the the other blessed ones would. For you are
philos * indeed to the gods.
And you will have a philos son, who will be king among the
Trojans.
And following him will be generations after generations for all
time to come.
His name will be Aineias [Aeneas], since it was an unspeakable
[ainos] 19 akhos ** that took hold of

me—grief that I had fallen into the bed of a mortal man.
200 And yet, of all mortal humans, the closest to the gods by far
are those who come from your family line, 20 both in looks and
in constitution.21
[191] Then Aphrodite the daughter of Zeus answered him:
"Anchises, most glorious of
mortal men, take courage and be not too fearful in your heart.
You need fear no harm
from me nor from the other blessed ones, for you are dear to the
gods: and you shall
have a dear son who shall reign among the Trojans, and
children's children after him,
springing up continually. His name shall be Aeneas, because I
felt awful grief in that I laid
me in the bed of mortal man: yet are those of your race always
the most like to gods of
all mortal men in beauty and in stature.
Why, there was blond Ganymede, whom Zeus the master of
mêtis
abducted on account of his beauty, so that he may be together
with the immortal ones,
as wine-pourer for the gods in the palace of Zeus, 22
205 a wonder to behold, given his share of tîmê by all the
immortals,
pouring red nectar from a golden mixing-bowl.

Tros [Ganymede’s father] was gripped in his phrenes by a
penthos † that is beyond forgetting. He did
not know
where the miraculous gust of wind took his philos son,
abducting him.
He [Tros] mourned him [Ganymede] without pause, for all
days,
210 and Zeus took pity on him: he gave him a compensation for
his son,
a set of high-stepping horses whom the gods use for their
travels.
These horses he [Zeus] gave him [Tros] as a gift to keep. And
he [Tros] was told all the details of
what happened,
at the behest of Zeus, by the Argos-killer, the Conductor [of
psûkhai].
He was told that he [Ganymede] would be immortal and
ageless, just like the gods.
[202] "Verily wise Zeus carried off golden-haired Ganymedes
because of his beauty, to
be amongst the Deathless Ones and pour drink for the gods in
the house of Zeus -- a
wonder to see -- honoured by all the immortals as he draws the
red nectar from the
golden bowl. But grief that could not be soothed filled the heart
of Tros; for he knew not

whither the heaven-sent whirlwind had caught up his dear son,
so that he mourned him
always, unceasingly, until Zeus pitied him and gave him high-
stepping horses such as
carry the immortals as recompense for his son. These he gave
him as a gift. And at the
command of Zeus, the Guide, the slayer of Argus, told him all,
and how his son would be
deathless and unageing, even as the gods. So when Trosheard
these tidings from Zeus,
he no longer kept mourning but rejoiced in his heart and rode
joyfully with his storm-
footed horses.
* philos = beloved, dear (masculine)
19This is the adjective ainos [‘unspeakable, causing
nervousness, fear, terror, terrible’], not the noun ainos
[designates a mode of discourse that contains within it more
than one message, and where only one of the messages is
true]. What we see here is a “folk etymology”: Aphrodite is
deriving the name Aineias from ainos.
** akhos = distress
20This reflects, I think, on the name Ankhisês, which I take to
be a conflation of the epithets ankhitheos ‘close to the gods’
and isotheos ‘equal to the gods’. Both of these epithets reflect
the theme of god-hero antagonism.
21In other words, it is in these two respects that Anchises and
the other males in his family line come closest to the gods.
22So the gods too, like the Greeks, have wine-pourers; as we
shall now see, however, what is poured for the gods is not
exactly wine.
† penthos = sorrow, mourning, grief

215 And when he [Tros] heard the message of Zeus,
he no longer lamented but was happy within his phrenes,
and merrily did he ride around, in a chariot drawn by horses
with feet swift as a gust of wind,
In much the same way was Tithonos abducted by Eos [the Dawn
Goddess], she of the golden embroidery. 23
He too belonged to your family line, looking like the immortal
ones.
220 Then she went with a request to the Son of Kronos [Zeus],
him of the dark clouds,
asking that he [Tithonos] become immortal and live for all days
to come.24
Zeus nodded yes to her and brought to fulfillment the words of
her wish.
Too bad that her thinking was disconnected! The Lady Eos did
not notice [verb of noos] in her
phrenes
that she should have asked for adolescence [hêbê] and a
stripping away of baneful old age.
225 Well, for a while he [Tithonos] held on to adolescence
[hêbê] ,

enjoying Eos, the one with the gold embroidery, 25 the one
early-born.
He lived at the streams of the Okeanos, and the ends of the
earth.
But when the first strands of gray hair started growing
from his beautiful head and his noble chin,
230 then the Lady Eos stopped coming to his bed.
But she nourished him, keeping him in her palace,
with grain and ambrosia. And she gave him beautiful clothes.
But when hateful old age was pressing hard on him, with all its
might,
and he couldn’t move his limbs, much less lift them up,
235 then in her thûmos she thought up this plan, a very good
one indeed:
she put him in her chamber, and she closed the shining doors
over him.
From there his voice pours out—it seems never to end—and he
has no strength at all,
the kind he used to have in his limbs when they could still
bend.
[218] "So also golden-throned Eos rapt away Tithonus who was
of your race and like the

deathless gods. And she went to ask the dark-clouded Son of
Cronos that he should be
deathless and live eternally; and Zeus bowed his head to her
prayer and fulfilled her
desire. Too simply was queenly Eos: she thought not in her
heart to ask youth for him
and to strip him of the slough of deadly age. So while he
enjoyed the sweet flower of life
he lived rapturously with golden-throned Eos, the early-born, by
the streams of Ocean,
at the ends of the earth; but when the first grey hairs began to
ripple from his comely
head and noble chin, queenly Eos kept away from his bed,
though she cherished him in
her house and nourished him with food and ambrosia and gave
him rich clothing. But
when loathsome old age pressed full upon him, and he could not
move nor lift his limbs,
this seemed to her in her heart the best counsel: she laid him in
a room and put to the
shining doors. There he babbles endlessly, and no more has
strength at all, such as once
he had in his supple limbs.
23Alternatively, ‘she of the golden throne’.
24Eos botches the wording of her request. As we shall now see,
the ruined formula produces ruinous results.
25Alternatively, ‘her of the golden throne’.

I would not choose that you [Anchises] be that way, amongst
the immortal ones,
240 immortal and living for all days to come.26
If you could only stay the way you are, in looks and
constitution,
staying alive as my lawfully-wedded husband,
then akhos would not have to envelop me and my sturdy
phrenes. 27
But now wretched old age will envelop you,
245 pitilessly, just as it catches up with every man.
It is baneful, it wears you down, and even the gods shrink back
from it.
[239] "I would not have you be deathless among the deathless
gods and live continually
after such sort. Yet if you could live on such as now you are in
look and in form, and be
called my husband, sorrow would not then enfold my careful
heart. But, as it is, harsh
old age will soon enshroud you -- ruthless age which stands
someday at the side of every
man, deadly, wearying, dreaded even by the gods.
As for me, I will have a great disgrace [oneidos], in the eyes of
the immortal ones,
a disgrace that will last for all days to come, without end, all
on account of you.

My trysts and stratagems [mêtis pl.] with which I used to get
all
250 the immortal gods mated with mortal women,
used to be feared by them [the gods]. For my power of noos
used to subdue all of them.
But now my mouth can never again boast
about this among the immortals. I have gone very far off the
track,
in a wretched and inexcusable way. I have strayed from my
noos.
255 I got myself a child beneath my girdle, having slept with a
male mortal.
As for him [the child], the moment he sees the light of the sun,
Nymphs, living in the mountains and wearing low-slung
girdles, will raise him
—Nymphs that live on this great and fertile mountain.
They associate neither with mortals nor with immortals,
260 they live for a long time, and they eat immortal food.
They put on a beautiful song and dance, even by the standards
of the immortals.
They mate with Seilênoi 28 or with the sharp-sighted Argos-
killer,

making love [philotês] in the recesses of lovely caves.
When they are born, firs and oaks with lofty boughs
265 spring out of the earth, that nurturer of men.
Beautiful trees, flourishing on high mountains,
they stand there pointing to the sky, and people call them the
sacred places
of the immortal ones. Mortals may not cut them down with
iron.
But when the fate [moira] of death is at hand for them,
270 these beautiful trees become dry, to start with,
[247] "And now because of you I shall have great shame among
the deathless gods
henceforth, continually. For until now they feared my jibes and
the wiles by which, or
soon or late, I mated all the immortals with mortal women,
making them all subject to
my will. But now my mouth shall no more have this power
among the gods; for very
great has been my madness, my miserable and dreadful
madness, and I went astray out
of my mind who have gotten a child beneath my girdle, mating
with a mortal man. As for
the child, as soon as he sees the light of the sun, the deep-
breasted mountain Nymphs
who inhabit this great and holy mountain shall bring him up.
They rank neither with
mortals nor with immortals: long indeed do they live, eating
heavenly food and treading

the lovely dance among the immortals, and with them the Sileni
and the sharp-eyed
Slayer of Argus mate in the depths of pleasant caves; but at
their birth pines or high-
topped oaks spring up with them upon the fruitful earth,
beautiful, flourishing trees,
towering high upon the lofty mountains (and men call them holy
places of the
immortals, and never mortal lops them with the axe); but when
the fate of death is near
at hand, first those lovely trees wither where they stand, and the
bark shrivels away
about them, and the twigs fall down, and at last the life of the
Nymph and of the tree
leave the light of the sun together. These Nymphs shall keep my
son with them and rear
him, and as soon as he is come to lovely boyhood, the goddesses
will bring him here to
you and show you your child. But, that I may tell you all that I
have in mind, I will come
here again towards the fifth year and bring you my son. So soon
as ever you have seen
him -- a scion to delight the eyes -- you will rejoice in
beholding him; for he shall be most
godlike: then bring him at once to windy Ilion. And if any
mortal man ask you who got
your dear son beneath her girdle, remember to tell him as I bid
you: say he is the
offspring of one of the flower-like Nymphs who inhabit this
forest-clad hill. But if you tell
26Aphrodite repeats the botched formula of Eos.
27But, as she has already said, Aphrodite will have sorrow from
this affair.
28These are satyr-like beings.

and then their bark wastes away, and then the branches drop
off,
and, at the same time, the psûkhê * goes out of them, as it
leaves the light of the sun.
These [the Nymphs] will raise my son, keeping him in their
company.
And when adolescence [hêbê], full of loveliness, first takes
hold of him,29
275 the goddesses [the Nymphs] will take him here to you and
show you your child.
As for you, in order that I may tell you in the proper order
everything that I have in my phrenes,
I too will come back to you as the fifth anniversary approaches,
bringing you your son.
And the moment you see this young seedling [Aineias/Aeneas]
with your eyes,
you will be happy to look at him. For he will be very godlike.
280 And straightaway you shall take him to windy Ilion.
And if any mortal human asks you

what mother got your philos son beneath her girdle,
keep in mind [root mnê-] to tell him as I command you.
Say that he is the offspring of one of the flower-faced Nymphs
285 who live on this beautiful mountain, shaded over by forests.
But if you say out loud and boast, with a thûmos bereft of
phrenes,
that you made love [philotês] to the Lady of Kythera, the one
with the beautiful garlands,
then Zeus in his anger will smite you with a smoking
thunderbolt.
Now then, everything has been said to you. You take note [verb
of noos] in your phrenes.
290 And refrain from naming me. Avoid the mênis ** of the
gods.”
So saying, she bolted away towards the windy sky.
all and foolishly boast that you lay with rich-crowned
Aphrodite, Zeus will smite you in
his anger with a smoking thunderbolt. Now I have told you all.
Take heed: refrain and
name me not, but have regard to the anger of the gods." When
the goddess had so
spoken, she soared up to windy heaven.
I wish you kharis [‘I wish you pleasure and happiness from our
relationship, starting now’], goddess, you who

rule over beautifully-colonized Cyprus.
Having started with you, I will now go on to the rest of my
performance.
[292] Hail, goddess, queen of well-builded Cyprus! With you
have I begun; now I will turn
me to another hymn.
* psûkhê = soul (from this we get our word, psyche)
29What seems to be meant is the very first signs that
differentiate pre-adolescents from children.
** mênis = anger, wrath
Herodotus Extracts, p. 1
Extracts from Book 1
This is the display of the inquiry of Herodotus of Halicarnassus,
so that things done by man not be forgotten in time, and that
great and marvelous deeds, some displayed by the Hellenes,
some by the barbarians, not lose their glory, including among
others what was the cause of their waging war on each other.
The Persian learned men say that the Phoenicians were the
cause of the dispute. These (they say) came to our seas from
the sea which is called Red, and having settled in the country
which they still occupy, at once began to make long voyages.

Among other places to which they carried Egyptian and
Assyrian merchandise, they came to Argos, [2] which was at
that time preeminent in every way among the people of what
is now called Hellas. The Phoenicians came to Argos, and set
out their cargo. [3] On the fifth or sixth day after their arrival,
when their wares were almost all sold, many women came to
the shore and among them especially the daughter of the king,
whose name was Io (according to Persians and Greeks alike),
the daughter of Inachus. [4] As these stood about the stern of
the ship bargaining for the wares they liked, the Phoenicians
incited one another to set upon them. Most of the women
escaped: Io and others were seized and thrown into the ship,
which then sailed away for Egypt.
2. In this way, the Persians say (and not as the Greeks), was
how Io came to Egypt, and this, according to them, was the
first wrong that was done. Next, according to their story, some
Greeks (they cannot say who) landed at Tyre in Phoenicia and
carried off the king's daughter Europa. These Greeks must, I
suppose, have been Cretans. So far, then, the account between
them was balanced. But after this (they say), it was the Greeks
who were guilty of the second wrong. [2] They sailed in a long
ship to Aea, a city of the Colchians, and to the river Phasis: and
when they had done the business for which they came, they
carried off the king's daughter Medea. [3] When the Colchian
king sent a herald to demand reparation for the robbery and
restitution of his daughter, the Greeks replied that, as they had
been refused reparation for the abduction of the Argive Io,
they would not make any to the Colchians.
3. Then (they say), in the second generation after this,
Alexandrus, son of Priam, who had heard this tale, decided to
get himself a wife from Hellas by capture; for he was confident
that he would not suffer punishment. [2] So he carried off
Helen. The Greeks first resolved to send messengers

demanding that Helen be restored and atonement made for
the seizure; but when this proposal was made, the Trojans
pleaded the seizure of Medea, and reminded the Greeks that
they asked reparation from others, yet made none themselves,
nor gave up the booty when asked.
4. So far it was a matter of mere seizure on both sides. But
after this (the Persians say), the Greeks were very much to
blame; for they invaded Asia before the Persians attacked
Europe. [2] “We think,” they say, “that it is unjust to carry
women off. But to be anxious to avenge rape is foolish: wise
men take no notice of such things. For plainly the women
would never have been carried away, had they not wanted it
themselves. [3] We of Asia did not deign to notice the seizure
of our women; but the Greeks, for the sake of a
Lacedaemonian woman, recruited a great armada, came to
Asia, and destroyed the power of Priam. [4] Ever since then we
have regarded Greeks as our enemies.” For the Persians claim
Asia for their own, and the foreign peoples that inhabit it;
Europe and the Greek people they consider to be separate
from them.
5. Such is the Persian account; in their opinion, it was the
taking of Troy which began their hatred of the Greeks. [2] But
the Phoenicians do not tell the same story about Io as the
Persians. They say that they did not carry her off to Egypt by
force. She had intercourse in Argos with the captain of the
ship. Then, finding herself pregnant, she was ashamed to have
her parents know it, and so, lest they discover her condition,
she sailed away with the Phoenicians of her own accord. [3]

These are the stories of the Persians and the Phoenicians. For
my part, I shall not say that this or that story is true, but I shall
identify the one who I myself know did the Greeks unjust
deeds, and thus proceed with my history, and speak of small
and great cities of men alike. [4] For many states that were
once great have now become small; and those that were great
in my time were small before. Knowing therefore that human
prosperity never continues in the same place, I shall mention
both alike.
6. Croesus was a Lydian by birth, son of Alyattes, and
sovereign
of all the nations west of the river Halys, which flows from the
south between Syria and Paphlagonia and empties into the sea
called Euxine. [2] This Croesus was the first foreigner whom we
know who subjugated some Greeks and took tribute from
them, and won the friendship of others: the former being the
Ionians, the Aeolians, and the Dorians of Asia, and the latter
the Lacedaemonians. [3] Before the reign of Croesus, all Greeks
were free: for the Cimmerian host which invaded Ionia before
his time did not subjugate the cities, but raided and robbed
them.
There follows an account of how Croesus’ family came to
power.
26. After the death of Alyattes, his son Croesus, then thirty-five
years of age, came to the throne. The first Greeks whom he
attacked were the Ephesians. [2] These, besieged by him,
dedicated their city to Artemis; they did this by attaching a
rope to the city wall from the temple of the goddess, which
stood seven stades away from the ancient city which was then
besieged. [3] These were the first whom Croesus attacked;
afterwards he made war on the Ionian and Aeolian cities in
turn, upon different pretexts: he found graver charges where
he could, but sometimes alleged very petty grounds of offense.

27. Then, when he had subjugated all the Asiatic Greeks of the
mainland and made them tributary to him, he planned to build
ships and attack the islanders; [2] but when his preparations
for shipbuilding were underway, either Bias of Priene or
Pittacus of Mytilene (the story is told of both) came to Sardis
and, asked by Croesus for news about Hellas, put an end to the
shipbuilding by giving the following answer: [3] “O King, the
islanders are buying ten thousand horse, intending to march to
Sardis against you.” Croesus, thinking that he spoke the truth,
said: “Would that the gods would put this in the heads of the
islanders, to come on horseback against the sons of the
Lydians!” Then the other answered and said: [4] “O King, you
appear to me earnestly to wish to catch the islanders riding
horses on the mainland, a natural wish. And what else do you
suppose the islanders wished, as soon as they heard that you
were building ships to attack them, than to catch Lydians on
the seas, so as to be revenged on you for the Greeks who dwell
on the mainland, whom you enslaved?” [5] Croesus was quite
pleased with this conclusion, for he thought the man spoke
reasonably and, heeding him, stopped building ships. Thus he
made friends with the Ionians inhabiting the islands.
28. As time went on, Croesus subjugated almost all the nations
west of the Halys; for except the Cilicians and Lycians, all the
rest Croesus held subject under him. These were the Lydians,
Phrygians, Mysians, Mariandynians, Chalybes, Paphlagonians,
the Thracian Thynians and Bithynians, Carians, Ionians,
Dorians, Aeolians, and Pamphylians;
29. and after these were subdued and subject to Croesus in

addition to the Lydians, all the sages from Hellas who were
living at that time, coming in different ways, came to Sardis,
which was at the height of its property; and among them came
Solon the Athenian, who, after making laws for the Athenians
at their request, went abroad for ten years, sailing forth to see
the world, he said. This he did so as not to be compelled to
repeal any of the laws he had made, [2] since the Athenians
themselves could not do that, for they were bound by solemn
oaths to abide for ten years by whatever laws Solon should
make.
30. So for that reason, and to see the world, Solon went to visit
Amasis in Egypt and then to Croesus in Sardis. When he got
there, Croesus entertained him in the palace, and on the third
or fourth day Croesus told his attendants to show Solon
around his treasures, and they pointed out all those things that
were great and blest. [2] After Solon had seen everything and
had thought about it, Croesus found the opportunity to say,
“My Athenian guest, we have heard a lot about you because of
your wisdom and of your wanderings, how as one who loves
learning you have traveled much of the world for the sake of
seeing it, so now I desire to ask you who is the most fortunate
man you have seen.” [3] Croesus asked this question believing
that he was the most fortunate of men, but Solon, offering no
flattery but keeping to the truth, said, “O King, it is Tellus the
Athenian.” [4] Croesus was amazed at what he had said and
replied sharply, “In what way do you judge Tellus to be the
most fortunate?” Solon said, “Tellus was from a prosperous
city, and his children were good and noble. He saw children
born to them all, and all of these survived. His life was
prosperous by our standards, and his death was most glorious:
[5] when the Athenians were fighting their neighbors in Eleusis,
he came to help, routed the enemy, and died very finely. The
Athenians buried him at public expense on the spot where he
fell and gave him much honor.”

31. When Solon had provoked him by saying that the affairs of
Tellus were so fortunate, Croesus asked who he thought was
next, fully expecting to win second prize. Solon answered,
“Cleobis and Biton. [2] They were of Argive stock, had enough
to live on, and on top of this had great bodily strength. Both
had won prizes in the athletic contests, and this story is told
about them: there was a festival of Hera in Argos, and their
mother absolutely had to be conveyed to the temple by a team
of oxen. But their oxen had not come back from the fields in
time, so the youths took the yoke upon their own shoulders
under constraint of time. They drew the wagon, with their
mother riding atop it, traveling five miles until they arrived at
the temple. [3] When they had done this and had been seen by
the entire gathering, their lives came to an excellent end, and
in their case the god made clear that for human beings it is a
better thing to die than to live. The Argive men stood around
the youths and congratulated them on their strength; the
Argive women congratulated their mother for having borne
such children. [4] She was overjoyed at the feat and at the
praise, so she stood before the image and prayed that the
goddess might grant the best thing for man to her children
Cleobis and Biton, who had given great honor to the goddess.
[5] After this prayer they sacrificed and feasted. The youths
then lay down in the temple and went to sleep and never rose
again; death held them there. The Argives made and dedicated
at Delphi statues of them as being the best of men.”
32. Thus Solon granted second place in happiness to these
men. Croesus was vexed and said, “My Athenian guest, do you

so much despise our happiness that you do not even make us
worth as much as common men?” Solon replied, “Croesus, you
ask me about human affairs, and I know that the divine is
entirely grudging and troublesome to us. [2] In a long span of
time it is possible to see many things that you do not want to,
and to suffer them, too. I set the limit of a man's life at seventy
years; [3] these seventy years have twenty-five thousand, two
hundred days, leaving out the intercalary month. But if you
make every other year longer by one month, so that the
seasons agree opportunely, then there are thirty-five
intercalary months during the seventy years, and from these
months there are one thousand fifty days. [4] Out of all these
days in the seventy years, all twenty-six thousand, two
hundred and fifty of them, not one brings anything at all like
another. So, Croesus, man is entirely chance. [5] To me you
seem to be very rich and to be king of many people, but I
cannot answer your question before I learn that you ended
your life well. The very rich man is not more fortunate than the
man who has only his daily needs, unless he chances to end his
life with all well. Many very rich men are unfortunate, many of
moderate means are lucky. [6] The man who is very rich but
unfortunate surpasses the lucky man in only two ways, while
the lucky surpasses the rich but unfortunate in many. The rich
man is more capable of fulfilling his appetites and of bearing a
great disaster that falls upon him, and it is in these ways that
he surpasses the other. The lucky man is not so able to support
disaster or appetite as is the rich man, but his luck keeps these
things away from him, and he is free from deformity and
disease, has no experience of evils, and has fine children and
good looks. [7] If besides all this he ends his life well, then he
is
the one whom you seek, the one worthy to be called fortunate.
But refrain from calling him fortunate before he dies; call him
lucky. [8] It is impossible for one who is only human to obtain
all these things at the same time, just as no land is self-

sufficient in what it produces. Each country has one thing but
lacks another; whichever has the most is the best. Just so no
human being is self-sufficient; each person has one thing but
lacks another. [9] Whoever passes through life with the most
and then dies agreeably is the one who, in my opinion, O King,
deserves to bear this name. It is necessary to see how the end
of every affair turns out, for the god promises fortune to many
people and then utterly ruins them.”
33. By saying this, Solon did not at all please Croesus, who sent
him away without regard for him, but thinking him a great fool,
because he ignored the present good and told him to look to
the end of every affair.
34. But after Solon's departure divine retribution fell heavily on
Croesus; as I guess, because he supposed himself to be blessed
beyond all other men. Directly, as he slept, he had a dream,
which showed him the truth of the evil things which were
going to happen concerning his son. [2] He had two sons, one
of whom was ruined, for he was mute, but the other, whose
name was Atys, was by far the best in every way of all of his
peers. The dream showed this Atys to Croesus, how he would
lose him struck and killed by a spear of iron. [3] So Croesus,
after he awoke and considered, being frightened by the dream,
brought in a wife for his son, and although Atys was
accustomed to command the Lydian armies, Croesus now
would not send him out on any such enterprise, while he took
the javelins and spears and all such things that men use for war
from the men's apartments and piled them in his store room,
lest one should fall on his son from where it hung.

35. Now while Croesus was occupied with the marriage of his
son, a Phrygian of the royal house came to Sardis, in great
distress and with unclean hands. This man came to Croesus'
house, and asked to be purified according to the custom of the
country; so Croesus purified him ( [2] the Lydians have the
same manner of purification as the Greeks), and when he had
done everything customary, he asked the Phrygian where he
came from and who he was: [3] “Friend,” he said, “who are
you, and from what place in Phrygia do you come as my
suppliant? And what man or woman have you killed?” “O
King,” the man answered, “I am the son of Gordias the son of
Midas, and my name is Adrastus; I killed my brother
accidentally, and I come here banished by my father and
deprived of all.” [4] Croesus answered, “All of your family are
my friends, and you have come to friends, where you shall lack
nothing, staying in my house. As for your misfortune, bear it as
lightly as possible and you will gain most.”
36. So Adrastus lived in Croesus' house. About this same time a
great monster of a boar appeared on the Mysian Olympus,
who would come off that mountain and ravage the fields of the
Mysians. The Mysians had gone up against him often; but they
never did him any harm but were hurt by him themselves. [2]
At last they sent messengers to Croesus, with this message: “O
King, a great monster of a boar has appeared in the land, who
is destroying our fields; for all our attempts, we cannot kill him;
so now we ask you to send your son and chosen young men
and dogs with us, so that we may drive him out of the
country.” [3] Such was their request, but Croesus remembered
the prophecy of his dream and answered them thus: “Do not
mention my son again: I will not send him with you. He is
newly married, and that is his present concern. But I will send
chosen Lydians, and all the huntsmen, and I will tell those who
go to be as eager as possible to help you to drive the beast out

of the country.”
37. This was his answer, and the Mysians were satisfied with it.
But the son of Croesus now entered, having heard what the
Mysians had asked for; and when Croesus refused to send his
son with them, the young man said, [2] “Father, it was once
thought very fine and noble for us to go to war and the chase
and win renown; but now you have barred me from both of
these, although you have seen neither cowardice nor lack of
spirit in me. With what face can I now show myself whenever I
go to and from the market-place? [3] What will the men of the
city think of me, and what my newly wedded wife? With what
kind of man will she think that she lives? So either let me go to
the hunt, or show me by reasoning that what you are doing is
best for me.”
38. “My son,” answered Croesus, “I do this not because I have
seen cowardice or anything unseemly in you, but the vision of
a dream stood over me in my sleep, and told me that you
would be short-lived, for you would be killed by a spear of iron.
[2] It is because of that vision that I hurried your marriage and
do not send you on any enterprise that I have in hand, but
keep guard over you, so that perhaps I may rob death of you
during my lifetime. You are my only son: for that other, since
he is ruined, he doesn't exist for me.”
39. “Father,” the youth replied, “no one can blame you for
keeping guard over me, when you have seen such a vision; but
it is my right to show you what you do not perceive, and why
you mistake the meaning of the dream. [2] You say that the
dream told you that I should be killed by a spear of iron? But

has a boar hands? Has it that iron spear which you dread? Had
the dream said I should be killed by a tusk or some other thing
proper to a boar, you would be right in acting as you act; but
no, it was to be by a spear. Therefore, since it is not against
men that we are to fight, let me go.”
40. Croesus answered, “My son, your judgment concerning the
dream has somewhat reassured me; and being reassured by
you, I change my thinking and permit you to go to the chase.”
41. Having said this, Croesus sent for Adrastus the Phrygian
and when he came addressed him thus: “Adrastus, when you
were struck by ugly misfortune, for which I do not blame you,
it was I who cleansed you, and received and still keep you in
my house, defraying all your keep. [2] Now then, as you owe
me a return of good service for the good which I have done
you, I ask that you watch over my son as he goes out to the
chase. See that no thieving criminals meet you on the way, to
do you harm. [3] Besides, it is only right that you too should go
where you can win renown by your deeds. That is fitting for
your father's son; and you are strong enough besides.”
42. “O King,” Adrastus answered, “I would not otherwise have
gone into such an arena. One so unfortunate as I should not
associate with the prosperous among his peers; nor have I the
wish so to do, and for many reasons I would have held back. [2]
But now, since you urge it and I must please you (since I owe
you a return of good service), I am ready to do this; and as for
your son, in so far as I can protect him, look for him to come
back unharmed.”
43. So when Adrastus had answered Croesus thus, they went
out provided with chosen young men and dogs. When they
came to Mount Olympus, they hunted for the beast and,

finding him, formed a circle and threw their spears at him: [2]
then the guest called Adrastus, the man who had been
cleansed of the deed of blood, missed the boar with his spear
and hit the son of Croesus. [3] So Atys was struck by the spear
and fulfilled the prophecy of the dream. One ran to tell
Croesus what had happened, and coming to Sardis told the
king of the fight and the fate of his son.
44. Distraught by the death of his son, Croesus cried out the
more vehemently because the killer was one whom he himself
had cleansed of blood, [2] and in his great and terrible grief at
this mischance he called on Zeus by three names—Zeus the
Purifier, Zeus of the Hearth, Zeus of Comrades: the first,
because he wanted the god to know what evil his guest had
done him; the second, because he had received the guest into
his house and thus unwittingly entertained the murderer of his
son; and the third, because he had found his worst enemy in
the man whom he had sent as a protector.
45. Soon the Lydians came, bearing the corpse, with the
murderer following after. He then came and stood before the
body and gave himself up to Croesus, holding out his hands
and telling him to kill him over the corpse, mentioning his
former misfortune, and that on top of that he had destroyed
the one who purified him, and that he was not fit to live. [2] On
hearing this, Croesus took pity on Adrastus, though his own
sorrow was so great, and said to him, “Friend, I have from you
the entire penalty, since you sentence yourself to death. But it
is not you that I hold the cause of this evil, except in so far as
you were the unwilling doer of it, but one of the gods, the
same one who told me long ago what was to be.” [3] So
Croesus buried his own son in such manner as was fitting. But
Adrastus, son of Gordias who was son of Midas, this Adrastus,
the destroyer of his own brother and of the man who purified

him, when the tomb was undisturbed by the presence of men,
killed himself there by the sepulcher, seeing clearly now that
he was the most heavily afflicted of all whom he knew.
46. After the loss of his son, Croesus remained in deep sorrow
for two years. After this time, the destruction by Cyrus son of
Cambyses of the sovereignty of Astyages son of Cyaxares, and
the growth of the power of the Persians, distracted Croesus
from his mourning; and he determined, if he could, to forestall
the increase of the Persian power before they became great.
[2] Having thus determined, he at once made inquiries of the
Greek and Libyan oracles, sending messengers separately to
Delphi, to Abae in Phocia, and to Dodona, while others were
despatched to Amphiaraus and Trophonius, and others to
Branchidae in the Milesian country. [3] These are the Greek
oracles to which Croesus sent for divination: and he told others
to go inquire of Ammon in Libya. His intent in sending was to
test the knowledge of the oracles, so that, if they were found
to know the truth, he might send again and ask if he should
undertake an expedition against the Persians.
47. And when he sent to test these shrines he gave the Lydians
these instructions: they were to keep track of the time from
the day they left Sardis, and on the hundredth day inquire of
the oracles what Croesus, king of Lydia, son of Alyattes, was
doing then; then they were to write down whatever the
oracles answered and bring the reports back to him. [2] Now
none relate what answer was given by the rest of the oracles.
But at Delphi, no sooner had the Lydians entered the hall to
inquire of the god and asked the question with which they
were entrusted, than the Pythian priestess uttered the
following hexameter verses: [3]

““I know the number of the grains of sand and the extent of
the sea,
And understand the mute and hear the voiceless.
The smell has come to my senses of a strong-shelled tortoise
Boiling in a cauldron together with a lamb's flesh,
Under which is bronze and over which is bronze.””
48. Having written down this inspired utterance of the Pythian
priestess, the Lydians went back to Sardis. When the others as
well who had been sent to various places came bringing their
oracles, Croesus then unfolded and examined all the writings.
Some of them in no way satisfied him. But when he read the
Delphian message, he acknowledged it with worship and
welcome, considering Delphi as the only true place of
divination, because it had discovered what he himself had
done. [2] For after sending his envoys to the oracles, he had
thought up something which no conjecture could discover, and
carried it out on the appointed day: namely, he had cut up a
tortoise and a lamb, and then boiled them in a cauldron of
bronze covered with a lid of the same.
49. Such, then, was the answer from Delphi delivered to
Croesus. As to the reply which the Lydians received from the
oracle of Amphiaraus when they had followed the due custom
of the temple, I cannot say what it was, for nothing is recorded
of it, except that Croesus believed that from this oracle too he
had obtained a true answer.
50. After this, he tried to win the favor of the Delphian god
with great sacrifices. He offered up three thousand beasts from
all the kinds fit for sacrifice, and on a great pyre burnt couches
covered with gold and silver, golden goblets, and purple cloaks
and tunics; by these means he hoped the better to win the aid
of the god, to whom he also commanded that every Lydian

sacrifice what he could. [2] When the sacrifice was over, he
melted down a vast store of gold and made ingots of it, the
longer sides of which were of six and the shorter of three
palms' length, and the height was one palm. There were a
hundred and seventeen of these. Four of them were of refined
gold, each weighing two talents and a half; the rest were of
gold with silver alloy, each of two talents' weight. [3] He also
had a figure of a lion made of refined gold, weighing ten
talents. When the temple of Delphi was burnt, this lion fell
from the ingots which were the base on which it stood; and
now it is in the treasury of the Corinthians, but weighs only six
talents and a half, for the fire melted away three and a half
talents.
51. When these offerings were ready, Croesus sent them to
Delphi, with other gifts besides: namely, two very large bowls,
one of gold and one of silver. The golden bowl stood to the
right, the silver to the left of the temple entrance. [2] These
too were removed about the time of the temple's burning, and
now the golden bowl, which weighs eight and a half talents
and twelve minae, is in the treasury of the Clazomenians, and
the silver bowl at the corner of the forecourt of the temple.
This bowl holds six hundred nine-gallon measures: for the
Delphians use it for a mixing-bowl at the feast of the Divine
Appearance. [3] It is said by the Delphians to be the work of
Theodorus of Samos, and I agree with them, for it seems to me
to be of no common workmanship. Moreover, Croesus sent
four silver casks, which stand in the treasury of the Corinthians,
and dedicated two sprinkling-vessels, one of gold, one of silver.
The golden vessel bears the inscription “Given by the
Lacedaemonians,” who claim it as their offering. But they are

wrong, [4] for this, too, is Croesus' gift. The inscription was
made by a certain Delphian, whose name I know but do not
mention, out of his desire to please the Lacedaemonians. The
figure of a boy, through whose hand the water runs, is indeed
a Lacedaemonian gift; but they did not give either of the
sprinkling-vessels. [5] Along with these Croesus sent, besides
many other offerings of no great distinction, certain round
basins of silver, and a female figure five feet high, which the
Delphians assert to be the statue of the woman who was
Croesus' baker. Moreover, he dedicated his own wife's
necklaces and girdles.
52. Such were the gifts which he sent to Delphi. To
Amphiaraus, of whose courage and fate he had heard, he
dedicated a shield made entirely of gold and a spear all of solid
gold, point and shaft alike. Both of these were until my time at
Thebes, in the Theban temple of Ismenian Apollo.
53. The Lydians who were to bring these gifts to the temples
were instructed by Croesus to inquire of the oracles whether
he was to send an army against the Persians and whether he
was to add an army of allies. [2] When the Lydians came to the
places where they were sent, they presented the offerings, and
inquired of the oracles, in these words: “Croesus, king of Lydia
and other nations, believing that here are the only true places
of divination among men, endows you with such gifts as your
wisdom deserves. And now he asks you whether he is to send
an army against the Persians, and whether he is to add an
army of allies.” [3] Such was their inquiry; and the judgment
given to Croesus by each of the two oracles was the same:
namely, that if he should send an army against the Persians he
would destroy a great empire. And they advised him to
discover the mightiest of the Greeks and make them his
friends.

54. When the divine answers had been brought back and
Croesus learned of them, he was very pleased with the oracles.
So, altogether expecting that he would destroy the kingdom of
Cyrus, he sent once again to Pytho and endowed the
Delphians, whose number he had learned, with two gold
staters apiece. [2] The Delphians, in return, gave Croesus and
all Lydians the right of first consulting the oracle, exemption
from all charges, the chief seats at festivals, and perpetual right
of Delphian citizenship to whoever should wish it.
55. After his gifts to the Delphians, Croesus made a third
inquiry of the oracle, for he wanted to use it to the full, having
received true answers from it; and the question which he
asked was whether his sovereignty would be of long duration.
To this the Pythian priestess answered as follows: [2]
““When the Medes have a mule as king,
Just then, tender-footed Lydian, by the stone-strewn Hermus
Flee and do not stay, and do not be ashamed to be a coward.””
56. When he heard these verses, Croesus was pleased with
them above all, for he thought that a mule would never be king
of the Medes instead of a man, and therefore that he and his
posterity would never lose his empire. Then he sought very
carefully to discover who the mightiest of the Greeks were,
whom he should make his friends.
[How do you think things will work out for Croesus? What
might the oracles mean?]

Extracts from Book 3: The Persians Debate the Best
Constitution
Before this point in the narrative the Magi conspired and
successfully overthrew Cambyses. There is then a conspiracy
that overturn the rule of the Magi.
80. After the tumult quieted down, and five days passed, the
rebels against the Magi held a council on the whole state of
affairs, at which sentiments were uttered which to some
Greeks seem incredible, but there is no doubt that they were
spoken. Otanes was for turning the government over to the
Persian people: “It seems to me,” he said, “that there can no
longer be a single sovereign over us, for that is not pleasant or
good. You saw the insolence of Cambyses, how far it went, and
you had your share of the insolence of the Magus. How can
monarchy be a fit thing, when the ruler can do what he wants
with impunity? Give this power to the best man on earth, and
it would stir him to unaccustomed thoughts. Insolence is
created in him by the good things to hand, while from birth
envy is rooted in man. Acquiring the two he possesses
complete evil; for being satiated he does many reckless things,
some from insolence, some from envy. And yet an absolute
ruler ought to be free of envy, having all good things; but he
becomes the opposite of this towards his citizens; he envies
the best who thrive and live, and is pleased by the worst of his
fellows; and he is the best confidant of slander. Of all men he is
the most inconsistent; for if you admire him modestly he is
angry that you do not give him excessive attention, but if one
gives him excessive attention he is angry because one is a
flatter. But I have yet worse to say of him than that; he upsets
the ancestral ways and rapes women and kills indiscriminately.
But the rule of the multitude has in the first place the loveliest

name of all, equality, and does in the second place none of the
things that a monarch does. It determines offices by lot, and
holds power accountable, and conducts all deliberating
publicly. Therefore I give my opinion that we make an end of
monarchy and exalt the multitude, for all things are possible
for the majority.”
81. Such was the judgment of Otanes: but Megabyzus urged
that they resort to an oligarchy. “I agree,” said he, “with all
that Otanes says against the rule of one; but when he tells you
to give the power to the multitude, his judgment strays from
the best. Nothing is more foolish and violent than a useless
mob; for men fleeing the insolence of a tyrant to fall victim to
the insolence of the unguided populace is by no means to be
tolerated. Whatever the one does, he does with knowledge,
but for the other knowledge is impossible; how can they have
knowledge who have not learned or seen for themselves what
is best, but always rush headlong and drive blindly onward, like
a river in flood? Let those like democracy who wish ill to
Persia;
but let us choose a group of the best men and invest these
with the power. For we ourselves shall be among them, and
among the best men it is likely that there will be the best
counsels.”
82. Such was the judgment of Megabyzus. Darius was the third
to express his opinion. “It seems to me,” he said, “that
Megabyzus speaks well concerning democracy but not
concerning oligarchy. For if the three are proposed and all are
at their best for the sake of argument, the best democracy and

oligarchy and monarchy, I hold that monarchy is by far the
most excellent. One could describe nothing better than the
rule of the one best man; using the best judgment, he will
govern the multitude with perfect wisdom, and best conceal
plans made for the defeat of enemies. But in an oligarchy, the
desire of many to do the state good service often produces
bitter hate among them; for because each one wishes to be
first and to make his opinions prevail, violent hate is the
outcome, from which comes faction and from faction killing,
and from killing it reverts to monarchy, and by this is shown
how much better monarchy is. Then again, when the people
rule it is impossible that wickedness will not occur; and when
wickedness towards the state occurs, hatred does not result
among the wicked, but strong alliances; for those that want to
do the state harm conspire to do it together. This goes on until
one of the people rises to stop such men. He therefore
becomes the people's idol, and being their idol is made their
monarch; and thus he also proves that monarchy is best. But
(to conclude the whole matter in one word) tell me, where did
freedom come from for us and who gave it, from the people or
an oligarchy or a single ruler? I believe, therefore, that we who
were liberated through one man should maintain such a
government, and, besides this, that we should not alter our
ancestral ways that are good; that would not be better.”
83. Having to choose between these three options, four of the
seven men preferred the last. Then Otanes, whose proposal to
give the Persians equality was defeated, spoke thus among
them all: “Fellow partisans, it is plain that one of us must be
made king (whether by lot, or entrusted with the office by the
choice of the Persians, or in some other way), but I shall not
compete with you; I desire neither to rule nor to be ruled; but
if I waive my claim to be king, I make this condition, that
neither I nor any of my descendants shall be subject to any one
of you.” To these terms the six others agreed; Otanes took no

part in the contest but stood aside; and to this day his house
(and no other in Persia) remains free, and is ruled only so far as
it is willing to be, so long as it does not transgress Persian law.
The story continues with Darius’ ascension to the throne.
Extracts from Book 7: The 300 at Thermopylae
After an unsuccessful revolt of the Greek city states in Asia
Minor, Darius invaded the mainland. He is defeated at the
battle of Marathon (490 BCE). After his death, his son Xerxes
again wages war on the Greeks.
219. The seer Megistias, examining the sacrifices, first told the
Hellenes at Thermopylae that death was coming to them with
the dawn. Then deserters came who announced the circuit
made by the Persians. These gave their signals while it was still
night; a third report came from the watchers running down
from the heights at dawn. [2] The Hellenes then took counsel,
but their opinions were divided. Some advised not to leave
their post, but others spoke against them. They eventually
parted, some departing and dispersing each to their own cities,
others preparing to remain there with Leonidas.
220. It is said that Leonidas himself sent them away because he
was concerned that they would be killed, but felt it not fitting
for himself and the Spartans to desert that post which they had
come to defend at the beginning. [2] I, however, tend to
believe that when Leonidas perceived that the allies were
dispirited and unwilling to run all risks with him, he told then
to

depart. For himself, however, it was not good to leave; if he
remained, he would leave a name of great fame, and the
prosperity of Sparta would not be blotted out. [3] When the
Spartans asked the oracle about this war when it broke out,
the Pythia had foretold that either Lacedaemon would be
destroyed by the barbarians or their king would be killed. She
gave them this answer in hexameter verses running as follows:
[4] “For you, inhabitants of wide-wayed Sparta,
Either your great and glorious city must be wasted by Persian
men,
Or if not that, then the bound of Lacedaemon must mourn a
dead king, from Heracles' line.
The might of bulls or lions will not restrain him with opposing
strength; for he has the might of Zeus.
I declare that he will not be restrained until he utterly tears
apart one of these.”
Considering this and wishing to win distinction for the Spartans
alone, he sent away the allies rather than have them leave in
disorder because of a difference of opinion.
221. Not the least proof I have of this is the fact that Leonidas
publicly dismissed the seer who attended the expedition, for
fear that he might die with them. This was Megistias the
Acarnanian, said to be descended from Melampus, the one
who told from the sacrifices what was going to happen to
them. He was dismissed but did not leave; instead he sent
away his only son who was also with the army.
222. Those allies who were dismissed went off in obedience to
Leonidas, only the Thespians and Thebans remaining with the
Lacedaemonians. The Thebans remained against their will and
desire, for Leonidas kept them as hostages. The Thespians very
gladly remained, saying they would not abandon Leonidas and

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