Chronic kidney disease (CKD) consists of a spectrum of different pathophysiologic processes associated with abnormal kidney function, and a progressive decline in glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
Chronic Kidney Disease Management and caresachintutor
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined as the presence of kidney damage or an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) less than 60 ml/min/1.73 mt2, persisting for 3 months or more, irrespective of the cause.
Slowing Progression of Chronic Kidney Disease Through Value-Based Carei3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make this infographic from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This two module CPE activity brings two leading pharmacists together to discuss the slowing progression of Chronic Kidney disease through value-based care.
In Module 1 of this activity, Jeff Sperry, PharmD, BCPS, Clinical Pharmacist at UCHealth Memorial Hospital, will explore risk factors contributing to CKD, efficacy and safety of novel therapies for slowing kidney function decline, and evidence-based strategies for management of CKD complications.
In Module 2 Justin J. Bioc, PharmD, BCPS, BCGP, RPh, Head of Clinical Pharmacy at Devoted Health, will explore the cost-effectiveness of novel therapies indicated to slow kidney function decline and strategies that maximize collaboration between payers and providers to optimize the care of patients with CKD.
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) consists of a spectrum of different pathophysiologic processes associated with abnormal kidney function, and a progressive decline in glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
Chronic Kidney Disease Management and caresachintutor
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined as the presence of kidney damage or an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) less than 60 ml/min/1.73 mt2, persisting for 3 months or more, irrespective of the cause.
Slowing Progression of Chronic Kidney Disease Through Value-Based Carei3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make this infographic from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This two module CPE activity brings two leading pharmacists together to discuss the slowing progression of Chronic Kidney disease through value-based care.
In Module 1 of this activity, Jeff Sperry, PharmD, BCPS, Clinical Pharmacist at UCHealth Memorial Hospital, will explore risk factors contributing to CKD, efficacy and safety of novel therapies for slowing kidney function decline, and evidence-based strategies for management of CKD complications.
In Module 2 Justin J. Bioc, PharmD, BCPS, BCGP, RPh, Head of Clinical Pharmacy at Devoted Health, will explore the cost-effectiveness of novel therapies indicated to slow kidney function decline and strategies that maximize collaboration between payers and providers to optimize the care of patients with CKD.
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
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NYSORA Guideline
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micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
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Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
3. EPIDEMILOGY
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) has been recognized as a leading public health problem worldwide.
The global estimated prevalence of CKD is 13.4% (11.7-15.1%), and patients with end-stage kidney disease
(ESKD) needing renal replacement therapy is estimated between 4.902 and 7.083 million.
Through its effect on cardiovascular risk and ESKD, CKD directly affects the global burden of morbidity and
mortality worldwide.
The global increase in this disease is mainly driven by the increase in the prevalence of diabetes mellitus,
hypertension, obesity, and aging.
But in some regions, other causes such as infection, herbal and environmental toxins are still common.
In US, More than 1 in 7, that is 15% of US adults or 37 million people, are estimated to have CKD.
As many as 9 in 10 adults with CKD do not know they have CKD. About 2 in 5 adults with severe CKD do not
know they have CKD.
The large number of deaths is due to poor access to renal replacement therapy in developing countries
4. Definition
Chronic kidney disease is defined as the presence of kidney damage (usually detected as
urinary albumin excretion of ≥30 mg/day or equivalent) or decreased kidney function (defined
as estimated glomerular filtration rate [eGFR] <60 mL/min/1.73 m2) for three or more months,
irrespective of the cause.
5.
6. staging
The stages of CKD are classified as follows :
Stage 1: Kidney damage with normal or increased GFR (>90 mL/min/1.73 m 2)
Stage 2: Mild reduction in GFR (60-89 mL/min/1.73 m 2)
Stage 3a: Moderate reduction in GFR (45-59 mL/min/1.73 m 2)
Stage 3b: Moderate reduction in GFR (30-44 mL/min/1.73 m 2)
Stage 4: Severe reduction in GFR (15-29 mL/min/1.73 m 2)
Stage 5: Kidney failure (GFR < 15 mL/min/1.73 m 2 or dialysis)
8. •GFR and albuminuria levels are also used when evaluating risks for overall mortality,
cardiovascular disease, end-stage kidney failure, acute kidney injury, and the progression of CKD.
• Patients with CKD should be referred to a nephrologist when the estimated glomerular filtration
rate (eGFR) is <30 mL/min/1.73 m2 in order to discuss and potentially plan for kidney
replacement therapy
9. Assess GFR and albuminuria at least annually in people with CKD. Assess GFR and albuminuria
more often for individuals at higher risk of progression, and/ or where measurement will
impact therapeutic decisions. (Not Graded
Define CKD progression based on one or more of the following: Decline in GFR category (≥90
[G1], 60-89 [G2], 45-59 [G3a], 30-44 [G3b], 15-29 [G4], <15 [G5] ml/min/1.73m2).
A certain drop in eGFR is defined as a drop in GFR category accompanied by a 25% or greater
drop in eGFR from baseline.
Rapid progression is defined as a sustained decline in eGFR of more than 5 mL/1.73m2/year.
The confidence in assessing progression is increased with increasing number of serum
creatinine measurements and duration of follow-up.
10. causes
Diseases and conditions that cause chronic kidney disease include:
Type 1 or type 2 diabetes
High blood pressure
Glomerulonephritis , an inflammation of the kidney's filtering units (glomeruli)
Interstitial nephritis, an inflammation of the kidney's tubules and surrounding structures
Polycystic kidney disease or other inherited kidney diseases
Prolonged obstruction of the urinary tract e.g. in enlarged prostate, kidney stones and some
cancers
Vesicoureteral reflux, a condition that causes urine to back up into your kidneys
pyelonephritis
11. Risk factors
Factors that can increase your risk of chronic
kidney disease include:
Diabetes
High blood pressure
Heart (cardiovascular) disease
Smoking
Obesity
Being Black, Native American or Asian
American
Family history of kidney disease
Abnormal kidney structure
Older age
Frequent use of medications that can damage
the kidneys
12. complications
Fluid retention (Anarsaca, high blood pressure, pulmonary edema)
hyperkalemia
Anemia
Heart disease
Weak bones and an increased risk of bone fractures
Low libido, erectile dysfunction or reduced fertility
CNS - difficulty concentrating, personality changes or seizures
Decreased immune response, which makes you more vulnerable to infection, malignancy
Pericarditis
Pregnancy complications
end-stage kidney disease
Death
13. prevention
To reduce the risk of developing kidney disease:
Follow instructions on over-the-counter medications or a prescribed by doctor
Maintain a healthy weight.
Don't smoke.
Manage your medical conditions with your doctor's help, If you have diseases or conditions
that increase your risk of kidney disease,
14. Signs and symptoms
Patients with CKD stages 1-3 are generally asymptomatic, if symptomatic, they are often non-specific
Nausea
Vomiting
Loss of appetite
Fatigue and weakness
Sleep problems
Urinating more or less
Decreased mental sharpness
Muscle cramps
Swelling of feet and ankles
Dry, itchy skin
High blood pressure (hypertension) that's
difficult to control
Shortness of breath, if fluid builds up in the
lungs
Chest pain, if fluid builds up around the lining
of the heart
15. Signs and symptoms
Signs of metabolic acidosis in stage 5 CKD include the following:
Protein-energy malnutrition
Loss of lean body mass
Muscle weakness
Signs of alterations in the way the kidneys are handling salt and water in stage 5 include the
following:
Peripheral edema
Pulmonary edema
Hypertension
16. Anemia in CKD is associated with the following:
Fatigue
Reduced exercise capacity
Impaired cognitive and immune function
Reduced quality of life
Development of cardiovascular disease
New onset of heart failure or the development of more severe heart failure
Increased cardiovascular mortality
17. Other manifestations of uremia in ESRD:
Pericarditis
Encephalopathy:
Peripheral neuropathy, usually asymptomatic
Restless leg syndrome
Gastrointestinal symptoms: Anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
Skin manifestations: Dry skin, pruritus, ecchymosis
Fatigue, increased somnolence, failure to thrive
Malnutrition
Erectile dysfunction, decreased libido, amenorrhea
Platelet dysfunction with tendency to bleeding
18. Diagnosis
History and physical examination
Complete blood count (CBC)
Basic metabolic panel – U/E/Cs, eGFR
Urinalysis
Serum albumin levels
Lipid profile
Serum calcium and phosphate
25-hydroxyvitamin D
Alkaline phosphatase
Intact parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels
19. Others
Serum and urine protein electrophoresis and free light chains: Screen for a monoclonal protein
possibly representing multiple myeloma
Antinuclear antibodies (ANA), double-stranded DNA antibody levels: Screen for systemic lupus
erythematosus
Serum complement levels: Results may be depressed with some glomerulonephritides
Cytoplasmic and perinuclear pattern antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (C-ANCA and P-ANCA)
levels: Positive findings are helpful in the diagnosis of granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener
granulomatosis); P-ANCA is also helpful in the diagnosis of microscopic polyangiitis
Anti–glomerular basement membrane (anti-GBM) antibodies: Presence is highly suggestive of
underlying Goodpasture syndrome
Hepatitis B and C, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Venereal Disease Research Laboratory
(VDRL) serology: Conditions associated with some glomerulonephritides
20. Imaging studies
Renal U/S: Useful to screen for hydronephrosis, which may not be observed in early obstruction
or dehydrated patients; or for involvement of the retroperitoneum with fibrosis, tumor, or
diffuse adenopathy; small, echogenic kidneys are observed in advanced kidney failure
pyelography: useful in cases with high suspicion for obstruction despite negative renal
ultrasonograms, for diagnosing renal stones
CT scan: Useful to better define renal masses and cysts usually noted on ultrasonograms; also
the most sensitive test for identifying kidney stones
MRI: Useful in patients who require a CT scan but who cannot receive intravenous contrast;
reliable in the diagnosis of renal vein thrombosis
Renal radionuclide scanning: Useful to screen for renal artery stenosis when performed with
captopril administration; also quantitates the renal contribution to the GFR
22. management
General management of the patient with CKD involves the following issues
• Treatment of reversible causes of kidney failure
• Preventing or slowing the progression of kidney disease
• Treatment of the complications of kidney failure
• Adjusting drug doses when appropriate for the level of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR)
• Identification and adequate preparation of the patient in whom kidney replacement therapy will be
required
Management of CKD requires a multidisciplinary approach.
23. Management of CKD complications
Anemia: When the hemoglobin level is below 10 g/dl, treat with erythropoiesis-stimulating
agents (ESAs), which include epoetin alfa and darbepoetin alfa after iron saturation and ferritin
levels are at acceptable levels
Hyperphosphatemia: Treat with dietary phosphate binders and dietary phosphate restriction
Hypocalcemia: Treat with calcium supplements with or without calcitriol
Hyperparathyroidism: Treat with calcitriol or vitamin D analogues or calcimimetics
Hypertension is present in approximately 80 to 85% of patients with CKD. ACEIs & ARBs are
recommended
24. Hyperlipidemia - Use statins
Fluid overload: Treat with loop diuretics or ultrafiltration
Metabolic acidosis: Treat with oral alkali supplementation e.g. sodium bicarbonate
Uremic manifestations: Treat with long-term renal replacement therapy (hemodialysis,
peritoneal dialysis, or renal transplantation
25. Infection and vaccination — Patients with CKD are at increased risk for infection that increases
with the decline in kidney function(Pul’ &GUT). Vaccination is important
2012 KDIGO guidelines
• Adults with all stages of CKD should be offered annual vaccination with influenza virus unless
contraindicated.
• Adults with stage 4 and 5 CKD who are at high risk of progression of CKD should be immunized
against hepatitis B and the response confirmed by immunologic testing.
• Adults with CKD stages 4 and 5 should be vaccinated with polyvalent pneumococcal vaccine unless
contraindicated. Patients who have received pneumococcal vaccination should be offered
revaccination within five years.
REFERRAL TO A NEPHROLOGISTS
◦ Patients with CKD should be referred to a nephrologist when the estimated glomerular filtration rate
(eGFR) is <30 mL/min/1.73 m2 in order to discuss and potentially plan for kidney replacement therapy
26. Indications for renal replacement therapy include the following:
Severe metabolic acidosis
Hyperkalemia
Pericarditis/ Pleuritis (URGENT)
Encephalopathy, with signs such as confusion, asterixis, myoclonus, wrist or foot drop, or, in
severe, cases, seizures(URGENT)
Intractable volume overload
Hypertension poorly responsive to antihypertensive medications
27. Failure to thrive and malnutrition
Persistent nausea and vomiting
Peripheral neuropathy
A clinically significant bleeding diathesis attributable to uremia (urgent indication).
In asymptomatic patients, a GFR of 5-9 mL/min/1.73 m², irrespective of the cause of the CKD
or the presence or absence of other comorbidities
Relative indications for the initiation of dialysis include decreased attentiveness and cognitive
tasking, depression, persistent pruritus, or the restless leg syndrome
28. Dialysis should be initiated in the patient with symptoms and/or signs due to uremia.
To help avoid the onset of possible life-threatening complications of uremia, dialysis should be
initiated in the asymptomatic patient with an extremely low eGFR, such as an eGFR of
approximately 8 to 10 mL/min/1.73 m2
29. Replacement therapy
The 2015, KDOQI guidelines recommend that patients with an estimated glomerular filtration
rate (eGFR) <30 mL/min/1.73 m2 should be educated on replacement therapy
Replacement therapy: hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis and renal transplant
Kidney transplantation is the treatment of choice for ESKD.
Patient declining replacement therapy should be offered conservative management ( KDIGO,
2012).
Conservative care includes the management of symptoms, advance-care planning, and
provision of appropriate palliative care
There are three major types of vascular access for maintenance hemodialysis: primary
arteriovenous (AV) fistulas, AV grafts, and tunneled hemodialysis catheters
30. Arteriovenous fistulas
AVFs are the preferred form of vascular access given their significantly higher long-
term patency rates and lower rate of complications (infections).
A well-constructed radial cephalic fistula that functions for the first six months can
be expected to function for up to 20 years. routinely
The patient should be instructed on the care of the fistula e.g.
• checking for a thrill and notifying the nephrologist if this is not present.
• The arm that has the fistula should not be used for blood drawing or for blood pressure
checks.
• Patients should avoid sleeping on the access arm, avoid tight clothing on the access, and
not carry anything that weighs more than 5 pounds with that arm.
The fistula should be regularly examined by a clinician
31. Arteriovenous grafts
AV grafts are constructed by interposing a graft between an artery and vein, most commonly
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).
provide excellent vascular access in patients who have inadequate vascular anatomy to support
an AV fistula.
AV grafts have a higher long-term complication rate (eg, infection, thrombosis) compared with
primary fistulas.
patient should be instructed in the care of the AV graft
The graft should be regularly examined by a clinician.
32. Tunneled hemodialysis catheters
This can be used immediately after placement (in the right internal jugular vein).
Are primarily used as intermediate-duration vascular access during maturation of AV fistulas.
They can also provide acceptable long-term access in patients with contraindications to AV
access or those who have exhausted all available sites.
Are inferior to AV access, they provide lower flows and have higher rates of infection and other
complications.
33. Peritoneal dialysis
Catheters are placed into the abdominal cavity
can be used immediately after placement .
However, to minimize the risk of fluid leak, it is preferable to wait at least 10 to 14 days before
beginning dialysis.
If dialysis is required less than 10 days following catheter placement, small volume exchanges
performed in the recumbent position can be performed with little risk of leak
34. Dietary recommendations in CKD
CARBOHYDRATES
If your provider has recommended a low-protein diet, you may replace the calories from
protein by eating carbohydrates
PROTEINS - a low-protein is recommended
FATS -Fats can be a good source of calories. Use monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats
(olive oil, canola oil, sunflower oil)
35. CALCIUM AND PHOSPHOROUS
Hyperphosphatemia in CKD leads to hypocalcemia
Patient is advised to limit phosphorus intake by limiting dairy foods e.g. yogurt, and cheese.
calcium supplements may be require to prevent bone disease, and
vitamin D to control the balance of calcium and phosphorous in your body.
"phosphorous binders" may be recommended if diet changes alone do not work to control the
balance of this mineral in your body.
36. FLUIDS
No fluid limitation is required in the early stages of CKD.
In advanced stages and when on dialysis, patient needs to watch the amount of liquid he/she takes in.
Take fluids as recommended
Patient should Keep a count of foods that contain a lot of water, such as soups, fruit-flavored gelatin, fruit-
flavored ice pops, ice cream, grapes, melons, lettuce, tomatoes, and celery.
Use smaller cups or glasses and turn over your cup after you have finished it.
Tips to keep from becoming thirsty include:
Avoid salty foods
Freeze some juice in an ice cube tray and eat it like a fruit-flavored ice pop (you must count these ice
cubes in your daily amount of fluids)
Stay cool on hot days
37. SALT OR SODIUM
Sodium intake reduction helps control high blood pressure.
It also keeps you from being thirsty, and prevents your body from holding onto extra fluid.
When buying foods look for these words on food labels: Low-sodium, No salt added, Sodium-
free, Sodium-reduced, Unsalted
Check all labels to see how much salt or sodium foods contain per serving.
Also, avoid foods that list salt near the beginning of the ingredients.
Look for products with less than 100 milligrams (mg) of salt per serving.
DO NOT use salt when cooking and take the salt shaker away from the table. Most other herbs
are safe, and you can use them to flavor your food instead of salt.
DO NOT use salt substitutes because they contain potassium. People with CKD also need to
limit their potassium.
38. POTASSIUM
Hyperkalemia is associated with arrhythmias – death.
Fruits and vegetables contain large amounts of potassium, and for that reason should be avoided or
chosen carefully to maintain a healthy heart.
Fruits: Choose peaches, grapes, pears, apples, berries, pineapple, plums, tangerines, and
watermelon
Limit or avoid oranges and orange juice, nectarines, kiwis, raisins or other dried fruit, bananas,
cantaloupe, honeydew, prunes, and nectarines
Vegetables: Choose broccoli, cabbage, carrots, cauliflower, celery, cucumber, eggplant, green and
wax beans, lettuce, onion, peppers, watercress, zucchini, and yellow squash
Limit or avoid asparagus, avocado, potatoes, tomatoes or tomato sauce, winter squash, pumpkin,
and cooked spinach
39. IRON
anemia in KF requires extra iron.
Sources of iron - liver, beef, pork, chicken, lima and kidney beans, iron-fortified cereals.
40. DIETARYRECOMMENDATIONSFOR ADULTPATIENTSWITHCHRONICRENAL FAILURE WHO
ARE NOT ON DIALYSIS
Nutrient Recommendation
Protein 0.6–0.8 g/kg/day
Calories 35 kcal/kg/day
Phosphorus 0.8–1.2 g/day
Calcium 1.2–1.6 g/day
Sodium 1–3 g/day
Potassium <60 mEq/day (restricted if serum potassium level is
elevated or urinary output is <1 L/day)
41. DIETARYRECOMMENDATIONSFOR ADULTSWITHEND-STAGE RENALDISEASE ON DIALYSIS
Nutrient Recommendation for Hemodialysis Recommendation for
Peritoneal Dialysis
Protein 1.1–1.4 g/kg/day 1.2–1.5 g/kg/day
Calories 30–35 kcal/kg/day 25–35 kcal/kg/day
Phosphorus <17 mg/kg/day <17 mg/kg/day
Calcium 1.0–1.8 g/day 1.0–1.8 g/day
Fluid Daily urinary output + 500–750 mL/day 2–3 L/day based on
weight and blood pressure
Sodium 2–3 g/day 3–4 g/day based on weight
Potassium 40 mg/kg Unrestricted unless elevated
42.
43. REFERENCES
Uptodate, overview of chronic kidney disease https://www.uptodate.com/contents/overview-
of-chronic-kidney-disease-
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/chronic-kidney-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-
20354521
KDIGO CKD GUIDELINES, 2014.
American Dietetic Association. Manual of Clinical Dietetics. 6th ed. Chicago, IL: Academy of
Nutrition and Dietetics; 2000.