2. INTRODUCTION
1) Reactions kinetics also known as Chemical kinetics.
2) Chemical kinetics describe the mechanism of a chemical reaction.
3) This give an ideas of an activation energy of a chemical reaction.
4) Many properties such as the order of a chemical reaction, the rate of reaction or the
concentration of the component can be easily calculated from the study of chemical
kinetics.
5) Rate of reaction is the speed at which chemical reaction take place and it is
measured by change in concentration (dc) with respect to time (dt). It is expressed as
Rate of reaction = Β±
ππ
ππ‘
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3. INTRODUCTION
Where,
Positive (+) sign- Increase in concentration over a period of time.
Negative (-) sign β Decrease in concentration with respect to time.
ο± In general, a chemical reaction for kinetic study is written as
cC + dD Products
Rate =β
1
π
π[πΆ]
ππ‘
Rate =β
1
π
π[π·]
ππ‘
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4. INTRODUCTION
Rate = π[πΆ]π
[π·]π
Where
K- rate constant or specific constant
[C]and [D] β molar concentration of C and D respectively.
ο± Rate constant express the relationship between the rate of chemical reaction
and the concentration of the reacting substances.
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5. MOLECULARITY REACTION
1) It is defined as number of reactant molecules or atoms that take part in
chemical reaction to give the products.
2) If number of reacting particle is one, then the reaction is considered to be
Unimolecular.
For example:- π΅π2 β 2π΅π
OR ππΆπ5 β ππΆπ3 + πΆπ2
3) When two reactant molecules are involved to carry out the reaction, this
reaction are called bimolecular reaction.
For example- 2π»πΌ β π»2 + πΌ2
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6. MOLECULARITY REACTION
4) When three reactant molecules are involved to carry out the reaction, this
reaction are called trimolecular reaction.
For example- 2ππ + π2 β 2ππ2
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7. ORDER OF REACTION
1) The sum of exponents or power of concentration term in the rate equation is
known as order of reaction.
2) Let us consider a general reaction.
π ππ‘π = πΎ[πΆ]π
[π·]π
Thus the above order reaction is (c+d)
a) If the value of (c+d) is 0, then it is called zero order reactions.
b) If the value of (c+d) is 1, then it is called first order reactions.
c) If the value of (c+d) is 2, then it is called second order reactions.
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8. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORDER AND
MOLECULARITY OF REACTION
ORDER OF REACTION MOLECULARITY OF REACTION
It is the sum of power of concentration of
reactant, with respect to rate of reaction
It is sum of reacting atom or molecule
undergoing the chemical reaction to form
product.
It is determine experimentally It is a theoretical concept
It may be fractional value It is always whole number
Sometime, its value is zero It cannot have zero
Order of reaction is based on the overall
reaction
The overall molecularity of a complex
reaction has no significance
It can be change with the parameter like,
pressure, concentration, temperature
Molecularity is not changes with external
parametrs.
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9. ZERO ORDER REACTION
ο± When rate is independent of the reactant concentration, then it is called zero order
reaction.
ο± Let us consider a reaction:
π΄ β π΅
For this Zero order reaction, x=0
Therefore rate =k
Rate =βππ΄
ππ‘
Where,
βππ΄
ππ‘ = change in concentration with respect to time negative (-) indicate decrease
in concentration.
K = specific rate constant for zero order.
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10. ZERO ORDER REACTION
ο± Derivatives
The rate of zero order reaction is expressed as
βππ΄
ππ‘
On integrate equation
= β π΄0
π΄π‘
ππ΄ = πΎ 0
π‘
ππ‘
= β π΄0
π΄π‘
π΄ = πΎ 0
π‘
[π‘]
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11. ZERO ORDER REACTION
= π΄0 β π΄π‘ = π(π‘ β 0)
= π΄0 β π΄π‘ = ππ‘
Or π =
π΄0βπ΄π‘
π‘
This is integrated rate of equation
t= 0 time (t)
Slope = -k
Concentration [A]
Plot of concentration vs time
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12. ZERO ORDER REACTION
ο± Characteristics
1) Half life (ππ/π): It is the time required to reduce initial concentration of the
reactant to become half of its value during the progress of the reaction.
Initial concentration = π΄0
Final concentration = π΄0/2
By putting this value in equation [π΄0 β π΄π‘ = ππ‘] , we get:
ππ‘1/2 = π΄0 β
π΄0
2
ππ‘1/2 =
π΄0
2
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13. ZERO ORDER REACTION
π‘1/2 =
π΄0
2π
Half life is directly proportional to the initial concentration of reactant.
2) Shelf life: It is a time required for reactant concentration to decrease to 90% of
the initial concentration.
π΄π‘ = 0.9 π΄0
By putting this value in equation [π΄0 β π΄π‘ = ππ‘] , we get:
π‘0.9 =
π΄0 β0.9 π΄0
π
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14. ZERO ORDER REACTION
π‘0.9 =
0.1 π΄0
π
This unit of k for zero order reaction is moles/litre/second
ο± Example
1. Photochemical reaction between hydrogen and chlorine.
π»2 π + πΆπ2 π
βπ£
2π»πΆπΏ (π)
2. Decomposition of π΅ππΆ on a hot platinum surface.
π2π β π2 +
1
2
π2
π ππ‘π β [π2π]0
= π[π2π]0
= π
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15. ZERO ORDER REACTION
π[π2π]
ππ‘
= π
3. Decomposition of π΅π―π in the presence of molybdenum or tungsten.
2ππ»3
[ππ]
π2 + 3π»2
ο± Problems
I. What is the value of rate constant if [π΄0] = 2.30M and half life is 7.30 min.
Ans:- π‘1/2 = π΄0/2π
k=2.3 M/2 (7.3min)
k = 0.157 mol/1.min
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16. ZERO ORDER REACTION
II. The amount of vitamin A oxidized in a certain period of time is 300 unit for a
given dose of 3000 IU/ml. It mean that the decrease in potency is 10 percent. If
the dose of the vitamin is 3,00,000, IU/ml, then shelf life = π‘90 = ?
Ans: - π‘90 =
0.1π΄0
π0
=
0.1 π₯ 2.5
2.2 π₯ 10β7
= 1136363.64 sec or 315.66 hrs or 13.15 days
Self studyβ
At 400
πΆ, the intensity of colour of drug preparation is reduced from 1.345 to 1.335
in 90 days. Estimate the reaction rate if colour fading follow zero order reaction?
Answer β 0.011πππ¦π β1
.
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17. PSEUDO ORDER REACTION
ο An order of a chemical reaction that appears to be less than the true order due to
experimental conditions; when a one reactant is in large excess.
ο There are two types of reaction
1) Pseudo first order reaction
2) Pseudo second order reaction
FIRST ORDER REACTION SECOND ORDER REACTION
Pseudo first order kinetics 2nd order rate law
= k [A] or [B]
Pseudo second order kinetic 3rd order rate
law = π[π]2[π΅]
Reduce to first Pseudo first order if either [a]
or [B] in large excess
Reduce to pseudo first order if [A] is in
excess, Pseudo second order if [B] is in
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18. FIRST-ORDER REACTION
ο± First order reaction is defined as a reaction in which the rate of reaction
depends on the concentration of one reactant.
Let us consider
π΄ β πππππ’ππ‘π
Rate =π[π΄]1
Rate = -d[A]/dt
equate both above equation, we get
k[A] = -d[A]/dt
or k dt = -d[A]/[A]
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20. FIRST-ORDER REACTION
π π ππ‘ = log
π΄0
π΄π‘
= ππ‘ = 2.303 πππ10
π΄0
π΄π‘
Or k =
2.303
π‘
log
π΄0
π΄π‘
This equation is integrated rate law of equation
In exponential form, the equation becomes,
ππ‘ = ππππ
π΄0
π΄π‘
πππ‘
=
π΄0
π΄π‘
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21. FIRST-ORDER REACTION
Or π΄π‘ = π΄0πβππ‘
For first order equation, when we plot concentration against time, a curve is
obtained.
The curve shows that concentration decrease exponentially with time.
The π =
2.303
π‘
log[
π΄0
π΄π‘
] can be written as-
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22. FIRST-ORDER REACTION
π =
2.303
π‘
log
π
π β π₯
Where,
a is initial concentration and equal to π΄0
X is decrease in concentration with time
a-x is the concentration remained at time t and equal to π΄π‘
The unit of k for first order reaction is π‘πππβ1
π. π. πππβ1
, ππππ’π‘πβ1
βππ’πβ1
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23. FIRST-ORDER REACTION
ο± Half life:
To calculate half life
π΄π‘ =
π΄0
2
As we know rate equation for first order reaction is
ππ‘ = 2.303 log[
π΄0
π΄π‘
]
By putting value of π΄π‘ into above equation, we get
ππ‘1/2 = 2.303 log[
π΄0
π΄0/2
]
Or ππ‘1/2 = 2.303 πππ2
π‘1/2 = 0.693/k
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24. FIRST-ORDER REACTION
This equation shows that in first order reaction the half life is independent of the initial
concentration
ο± Shelf life:
As per definition
π΄π‘ = 0.9 π΄0
By putting these value in equation {ππ‘ = 2.303 log
π΄0
π΄π‘
}, we get
π‘90 =
2.303
π
πππ
π΄0
0.9π΄0
π‘90 =
2.303
π
πππ
10
9
π‘90 =
0.105
π
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25. FIRST-ORDER REACTION
ο± Problems
I. The half life of drug which decompose according to first order kinetics, is 75
days. Calculate shelf life and K
Ans:- π‘1/2 = 0.693/k
75 = 0.693/k
k = 0.0092πππ¦β1 shelf life
π‘90 =
0.105
π
=
π.πππ
π.ππππ
= 11.41 πππ¦π .
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26. FIRST-ORDER REACTION
II. The initial concentration of drug was found to be 0.075 M. The concentration
after 12 hours was 0.055 M. Calculate the reaction rate constant if
decomposition of drug follows first order reaction.
Solution:- The first order reactions is
ππ‘ = 2.303 log[
π΄0
π΄π‘
]
π =
2.303
12
πππ
0.075
0.055
k = 0.02527βπβ1
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27. SECOND-ORDER REACTION
ο± The reaction is said to be second order when rate of reaction is directly
proportional to the concentration of two reactants.
ο± In second order reaction two condition are possible
1) When
A Products
ππ₯
ππ‘ πΌ [π΄]2
2) When
A + B Products
ππ₯
ππ‘ πΌ π΄ π΅
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28. SECOND-ORDER REACTION
Case 1
When there is one reactant or concentration of both reactants are same
A + A products
At time = 0, initial concentration a a 0
At time = t, Concentration (a-x)(a-x) x
πππ‘π =
ππ₯
ππ‘
πΌ( π β π₯ )2
ππ₯
ππ‘
= π ( π β π₯ )2
Where K is second order rate constant.
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29. SECOND-ORDER REACTION
On integrating between x=0 at t=0 and x=dx at t=t, we obtain
0
π₯ ππ₯
( π βπ₯)2 = π 0
π‘
ππ‘
=
1
(π β π₯)
β
1
π β 0
= ππ‘
ππ ππ‘ =
1
π
π₯
(π β π₯)
ππ π =
1
ππ‘
π₯
(π β π₯)
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30. SECOND-ORDER REACTION
The plot of x/a(a-x) versus time give straight line having slope = k
Plot of x/a(a - x) vs time in case of second order reaction
π₯
π(π β π₯)
Time
Slope = k
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31. SECOND-ORDER REACTION
ο± Half life = π₯ =
π
2
πππ π‘ = π‘1/2
By putting these value in above equation, we get
π =
1
ππ‘1/2
π₯
π/2
(πβπ/2)
π =
1
ππ‘1/2
or π‘1/2 =
1
ππ
According to this equation half life is inversely proportional to initial
concentration.
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32. SECOND-ORDER REACTION
Case 2
When concentration of both reactant are different or not same
A + B Product
At time = 0, initial Concentration A B 0
At time = t, Concentration (a - x)(b - x) X
Where a and b are initial concentrations of A and B respectively and x is amount of
each of A and B reacting in time t, (a - x) and (b β x ) represent concentration of A
and B remaining unreacted at time t.
ππ₯
ππ‘
πΌ (π β π₯)(π β π₯)
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33. SECOND-ORDER REACTION
Or
ππ₯
ππ‘
= π (π β π₯ )(π β π₯)
Rearrange the equation
ππ₯
(π βπ₯)(π βπ₯)
= πππ‘
On integration
ππ₯
(π β π₯)(π β π₯)
= πππ‘
By using partial fraction of
1
(π βπ₯)(π βπ₯)
, we get
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34. SECOND-ORDER REACTION
1
π β π₯ π β π₯
=
1
π β π
1
π β π₯
β
1
π β π₯
Put this value of partial fraction into above equation, we get
ππ₯
(π β π₯)(π β π₯)
=
1
(π β π)
ππ₯
π β π₯
β
ππ₯
π β π₯
= π. ππ‘
1
(π β π)
β ln π β π₯ β β ln π β π₯ = ππ‘ + πΆ
By putting t = 0 and x = 0 in above equation, the value of C will be
πΆ =
1
(π β π)
ππ
π
π
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35. SECOND-ORDER REACTION
Put the value of C in above equation, we get
ο
1
(π βπ)
ln π β π₯ β π β π₯ = ππ‘ +
1
(π βπ)
ππ
π
π
ο
1
(π βπ)
ln
π βπ₯
π βπ₯
β ln
π
π
= ππ‘
ο π =
1
π βπ π‘
ln
π βπ₯
π βπ₯
β ln
π
π
ο π =
1
π βπ π‘
ln
π(π βπ₯)
π(π βπ₯)
ο π =
2.303
π βπ π‘
log
π(π βπ₯)
π(π βπ₯)
The unit of rate constant for second order reaction is litre.moleβ1
secβ1
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36. SECOND-ORDER REACTION
ο± In the saponification of methylacetate at 250
πΆ, the concentration of sodium
hydroxide remaining after 75 minutes was 0.00552 M. The initial concentration of
ester and the base was 0.01 molar. Calculate the second order rate constant and
half life of the reaction.
Solution:- Given:- a = 0.01 molar; (a - x) = 0.00552; t= 75 min;
To find:- π2= ?
x = a β (a - x) = 0.01 β 0.00552
x = 0.00448
π2 =
1
ππ‘
.
π₯
(π βπ₯)
=
1
0.01 π₯ 75
.
0.00448
0.00552
= 1.082
πππ‘ππ
πππ
. πππ
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37. SECOND-ORDER REACTION
Half life = ?
π‘1/2 =
1
π π₯ π2
=
1
1.082 π₯ 0.01
= 92.42 πππ
Examples:
1) Hydrolysis of ester by an alkali (saponification)
πΆπ»3πΆπππΆ2π»5 + ππππ» β πΆπ»3πΆππππ + πΆ2π»5ππ»
2) Decomposition of π΅ππ into NO and πΆπ
2ππ2 β 2ππ + π2
3) Conversion of ozone into oxygen at ππππ
π
2π3 β 3π2
4) Thermal Decomposition of choline monoxide.
2πΆπ2π β 2πΆπ2 + π2
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38. DETRMINATION OF REACTION ORDER
οΌ Order of a reaction can be determine by any one of the following methods:
1) Substitution Method: In this method, the data obtained from a kinetic
experiment is substituted in the appropriate rate equation. The equation gives a
fairly constant value of k and indicates the order of a reaction. The rate and
half-life equation for different order reaction are given in table:-
Order Rate Law
0 Rate=k
1 Rate=k[A]
2 Rate=k[π΄]2
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39. DETRMINATION OF REACTION ORDER
2) Graphical Method: In this method,, the data obtained from a kinetics
experiment is plotted in the appropriate form for determining the order of a
reaction. For Example,
i. If a plot of concentration versus time (t) yield a straight line, the reaction is of
zero-order.
ii. If a plot of log (a - x)versus t yield a straight line, the reaction is of first βorder.
iii. If a plot of
π₯
[π π βπ₯ ]
versus t yields a straight line (provided the initial
concentration are equal), the reaction is of second-order.
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40. DETRMINATION OF REACTION ORDER
3) Half-Life Method: by calculating value of k by above method,π‘1/2 value can be
estimate for each time period in Kinetic study.
Order of reaction ππ/π
0 ππ/π = π΄0/2π
1 ππ/π = 0.693/π
2 ππ/π = 1/ππ
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41. DETRMINATION OF REACTION ORDER
οΌ A general expression for the determination of the half βlife of a reaction can be
given as:
π1/2 πΌ
1
ππβ1
Where,
n= Order of the reaction.
οΆ If two reactions are initiated with two different initial concentrations (π1 and π2,
respectively), the half-lives are determined as:
π‘1/2 1 πΌ
1
π1
πβ1
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43. DETRMINATION OF REACTION ORDER
ππ, π =
log π‘1
2
1 /π‘1/2 (2)
log( π2/π1)
+ 1
Where, n = order of reaction.
Half- lives are calculated by plotting a graph between βaβ and βtβ at two different
initial concentration (a1 and a2). The half- life times are then read at 1/2 a1 and 1/2
a2 respectively from the graph. The values of half life and the initial concentration
are then substituted in the above equation and the order of reaction (n) is
calculated directly.
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44. IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
1) Chemical Kinetics- It include the study of the speed or rate of chemical
processes that occur during chemical reactions.
2) Rate of reaction- It is a speed at which chemical reaction take place.
3) Molecularity of reaction- It is defines as number of reactant molecules or atom
that take part in chemical reactions to give the products.
4) Unimolecular reaction- When only one reactant molecule participate to carry
out the reaction, this reaction are called Unimolecular reaction.
5) Bimolecular reaction- When two reactants molecules are involved to carry out
the reaction these reactions are called Bimolecular reaction.
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45. IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
6) Order of reaction- The sum of exponents or power of concentration terms in
the rate equation is known as order of reactions.
7) Zero order reactions- When rate is independent of the reactant concentration,
that is called as Zero order reactions.
8) Half life- It is the time required to reduce initial concentration of the reactant to
become half of its value during the progress of the reaction.
9) Shelf life- It is the time required for reactant concentration to decrease to 90%
of the initial concentrations.
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46. SUMMARY OF THE KINETICS
Order Rate Law Concentration-
time
Equation
Half βLife M/t Unit of k
0 Rate=k [A] = [π΄]0 - kt
π‘1
2
=
[π΄]0
2π
k m/s, m/min,
m/hrs, etc
1 Rate=k[A] In[A] = In[π΄]0 -
kt
π‘1
2
=
πΌπ2
π
kM π β1, πππβ1, βπβ1,
ππ‘π.
2 Rate=k[π΄]2 1
[π΄]
=
1
[π΄]0
+ ππ‘ π‘1
2
=
1
π π΄ 0
ππ2
πβ1
π β1
, πβ1πππβ1
πβ2
βπβ1
, ππ‘π.
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47. Reference
1) Subramanyam C.V.S, First edition, βChemical Kineticsβ Text Book of Physical
Pharmaceutics, Page No. 13 β 49
2) Martin Physical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, Sixth edition, βChemical
Kinetics and Stabilityβ Text Book of Physical Pharmaceutics, Page No. 328 -- 354
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