by Marcel Dicke and Jan Bruin, Laboratory of Entomology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University, in Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 29 (2001) 981–994
The Use of Dwarf Tomato Cultivar for Genetic and Physiology Study Applicable ...Premier Publishers
The effect of Gibberellic acid (GA) on plant growth and Mendel’s law of heredity were integrated in biology textbooks in many countries. However, there were not practical experiments described in those textbooks, especially in the Cambodian biology textbooks. Students had to learn based on the theories written in the books. Therefore, it was very difficult for them to understand the contents by imaging the terms from the books. In this study, we introduced experimental methods using dwarf tomato plant which is applicable for school education. The result of our research suggested that the causal factor of dwarf tomato using in this study was the less of GA and the inheritance of this dwarf followed Mendel’s law of dominance and segregation. Dwarf tomato being used in this study was a good material and it will also be a good plant material for biological experiment in schools all over the world.
The Use of Dwarf Tomato Cultivar for Genetic and Physiology Study Applicable ...Premier Publishers
The effect of Gibberellic acid (GA) on plant growth and Mendel’s law of heredity were integrated in biology textbooks in many countries. However, there were not practical experiments described in those textbooks, especially in the Cambodian biology textbooks. Students had to learn based on the theories written in the books. Therefore, it was very difficult for them to understand the contents by imaging the terms from the books. In this study, we introduced experimental methods using dwarf tomato plant which is applicable for school education. The result of our research suggested that the causal factor of dwarf tomato using in this study was the less of GA and the inheritance of this dwarf followed Mendel’s law of dominance and segregation. Dwarf tomato being used in this study was a good material and it will also be a good plant material for biological experiment in schools all over the world.
Genetics Materials for Experimental Class of Mendel’s 3rd Law Using Dihybrid ...Premier Publishers
Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment was included in biology education in high school in many countries. Gregor Mendel performed a dihybrid cross by using two true-breeding peas having homozygous dominant or recessive alleles for each trait in a plant: one with yellow round seeds (YYRR) and one with green wrinkled seeds (yyrr). Mendel obtained the F2 phenotypic ratio 9: 3: 3: 1 of the yellow round: green round: yellow wrinkled: green wrinkled seed plants. In this study, we performed dihybrid crosses using lettuce cultivars having homozygous dominant and recessive alleles for each trait in a plant: one with green oak leaf (rrOO) and other plants with red lobed leaf (RRoo). We obtained the F2 phenotypic ratio the same as Mendel’s experiment result, i.e. 9: 3: 3: 1 of red oak: green oak: red lobed: green lobed leaf plants. The results of this experiment and Mendel’s experiment result of a dihybrid cross can be used to explain that the alleles of two different genes are sorted into gametes independently of one another. Lettuce crossing techniques and experimental methods used in this study are suitable for biological experiments in high school.
Chemical and ecological control methods for Epitrix spp.GJESM Publication
Very little information exists in regards to the control options available for potato flea beetles, Epitrix spp. This short review covers both chemical and ecological options currently available for control of Epitrix spp. Synthetic pyrethroids are the weapon of choice for the beetles. However, the impetus in integrated pest management is
to do timely (early-season) applications with something harsh which will give long-term protection at a time when there are not a lot of beneficials in the field. Finding the balance for control of Epitrix spp. is proving difficult.
Examining the spatial distribution pattern and optimum sample size for monito...AI Publications
The white mango scale insect, Aulacaspis tubercularis (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) is one of the most destructive pests of mango trees in Egypt. The main objective of the present work is to estimate the spatial distribution pattern and minimum sample size for monitoring populations of A. tubercularis on six different cultivars of mango through the two successive years of 2017/2018 and 2018/2019 at Esna district, Luxor Governorate, Egypt. Data on the indices of distribution and Taylor’s and Iwao’s regression analyses indicate significant aggregation behaviour during each year in all the tested cultivars of mango trees, that may be caused by environmental heterogeneity. The regression models of Taylor’s power law (b) and Iwao’s patchiness (β) were both significantly >1, indicating that A. tubercularis had an aggregation distribution with a negative binomial distribution during each year in all the tested mango cultivars. The Iwao regression coefficients were used to determine the optimum sample size required to estimate populations at three fixed precision levels. The optimum size decreased with increased density in all levels of precision (5, 10 and 15%) in all tested mango cultivars. These can be deployed to develop a sampling plan to estimate the population density accurately. Results suggesting that the optimum sample size was flexible and the precision levels of 5 and 10% were suitable for ecological or insect behavioral studies of A. tubercularis where a higher level of precision is required, whereas, for pest management programs, a 15% level would be acceptable. Furthermore, the distribution, different mango cultivars, and sampling protocol presented here could be used as a tool for future research on pest management methods for this pest.
Mutation Induction for Improvement of Banana (Musa Spp). "Berangan Cv. Intan-...paperpublications3
Abstract: In vitro mutation induction by using gamma ray at 20, 30, 40 and 60Gy was used to generate variability in triploid banana "Berangan cv. Intan (AAA), so as to provide the opportunity to select plants with desirable characters such as early fruiting and short stature. Mutation frequency increased with increased dosage whereas, survival and capacity to regenerate decreased with increased doses. Time to initiation varied from 4-8 weeks for gamma-irradiated materials compared to 2-3 weeks in the control. It appeared that the higher the dose, the longer it took for shoot initiation. The exposure of shoot-tip meristem pieces to radiation doses produced wide variation in growth and morphogenetic performance. Mutagenic treatments induced 2 to 3- fold increases in variability in both quantitative and qualitative traits at different stages, in vitro; at nursery and field. For the field-grown plants; the proportion varied from 2.9% for the control plants to 16.8% for 60 Gy and 20.1% for 40 Gy-treatments, while for treatments at 20 and 30 Gy variations was at 18% and 19.2%, respectively. The frequency of variants was highest in 40 Gy followed by 30 Gy and 20 Gy, while it was very low in 60 Gy except for plant stature (dwarfism or stunted growth). Earliness to flowering variants were recorded at 20, 30 and 40 Gy at low frequencies (0.6%, 0.7% and 1.7%) respectively, while none was observed for 60 Gy treatments. As in vitro mutation induction could create genetic variability as well as many undesirable variants, it is highly desirable to integrate in vitro mutation with a selection system that can screen for large mutagen treated population. The useful variants recorded for earliness to flowering were selected for 30 and 40 Gy treatments. 40 Gy showed high frequency in earliness as compared with 20 and 30 Gy., which came to flowering as early as 6 – 6.5 months compared to 7-8 months for control. The useful dwarf, which considered as desirable traits, showed a balance of height and girth.
AUTHORED BY: JOHANNA ELSENSOHN AND KELLY SEARS
By 2050, the world’s population is estimated to exceed 9 billion people. A challenge to this rising food demand is that crops will have to be grown on the same or less land as today. Additionally, global climate change is causing considerable uncertainty in the ability of the current food production system to adapt to an unknown future.
To address these issues sustainably, scientists from many disciplines have been investigating ways to increase crop yields and prepare for a changing climate. Considerable effort has focused on enhancing the traits of the crop plants themselves, to enhance their growth, make them resistant to disease, or tolerant to environmental stressors like drought or high salinity conditions. Conversely, a growing area of research is looking at how microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, influence these plant characteristics.
The relationship between plants and microorganisms is well known. However, researchers are still working to understand the full complexity and extent of interactions between the two groups. We have seen that microbes are important for plant nutrient acquisition, plant growth and protection against disease. Certain types of bacteria are commercially available and used to increase yields and decrease fertilizer use (Farrar et al. 2014).
Relative toxicity of selected insecticides against adult whitefly, t. vaporar...Sachin U.S
The present experiment was conducted to assess relative toxicity of selected insecticides against whitefly in the Entomology laboratory at College of Horticulture, Mudigere during the year 2014-2015. Among the eleven treatments, imidachloprid, thiamethoxam and cyantraniliprole were highly toxic to adults which recorded 100 per cent mortality, four days after treatment. Cyantraniliprole recorded the highest adult mortality comparatively early than imidachloprid and thiamethoxam. Fipronil 80% WG, recorded 100 percent mortality five days after treatment which was followed by emamectin benzoate 5% SG at sixth day after treatment and recorded as next best treatments under laboratory condition against whitefly. Acephate 75% SP and azadirhactin 10000 ppm recorded highest level of mortality (100%) at seventh and eighth day after treatment, respectively which was followed by triazophos 40% EC, spinosad 480% SC and buprofezin 25% SC at eleventh day after treatment. Considering the result, cyantraniliprole, thiamethoxam and imidacloprid were recommended for effective control of sucking pests in cotton ecosystem.
Holons, Holarchies and Holonic Networks : The Ghost in the Production Machine, by Piero Mella, P a v i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s, 2009 . Official Link: http://www.paviauniversitypress.it/scientifica/download/Mella-sito_2010-01-23.pdf
Genetics Materials for Experimental Class of Mendel’s 3rd Law Using Dihybrid ...Premier Publishers
Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment was included in biology education in high school in many countries. Gregor Mendel performed a dihybrid cross by using two true-breeding peas having homozygous dominant or recessive alleles for each trait in a plant: one with yellow round seeds (YYRR) and one with green wrinkled seeds (yyrr). Mendel obtained the F2 phenotypic ratio 9: 3: 3: 1 of the yellow round: green round: yellow wrinkled: green wrinkled seed plants. In this study, we performed dihybrid crosses using lettuce cultivars having homozygous dominant and recessive alleles for each trait in a plant: one with green oak leaf (rrOO) and other plants with red lobed leaf (RRoo). We obtained the F2 phenotypic ratio the same as Mendel’s experiment result, i.e. 9: 3: 3: 1 of red oak: green oak: red lobed: green lobed leaf plants. The results of this experiment and Mendel’s experiment result of a dihybrid cross can be used to explain that the alleles of two different genes are sorted into gametes independently of one another. Lettuce crossing techniques and experimental methods used in this study are suitable for biological experiments in high school.
Chemical and ecological control methods for Epitrix spp.GJESM Publication
Very little information exists in regards to the control options available for potato flea beetles, Epitrix spp. This short review covers both chemical and ecological options currently available for control of Epitrix spp. Synthetic pyrethroids are the weapon of choice for the beetles. However, the impetus in integrated pest management is
to do timely (early-season) applications with something harsh which will give long-term protection at a time when there are not a lot of beneficials in the field. Finding the balance for control of Epitrix spp. is proving difficult.
Examining the spatial distribution pattern and optimum sample size for monito...AI Publications
The white mango scale insect, Aulacaspis tubercularis (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) is one of the most destructive pests of mango trees in Egypt. The main objective of the present work is to estimate the spatial distribution pattern and minimum sample size for monitoring populations of A. tubercularis on six different cultivars of mango through the two successive years of 2017/2018 and 2018/2019 at Esna district, Luxor Governorate, Egypt. Data on the indices of distribution and Taylor’s and Iwao’s regression analyses indicate significant aggregation behaviour during each year in all the tested cultivars of mango trees, that may be caused by environmental heterogeneity. The regression models of Taylor’s power law (b) and Iwao’s patchiness (β) were both significantly >1, indicating that A. tubercularis had an aggregation distribution with a negative binomial distribution during each year in all the tested mango cultivars. The Iwao regression coefficients were used to determine the optimum sample size required to estimate populations at three fixed precision levels. The optimum size decreased with increased density in all levels of precision (5, 10 and 15%) in all tested mango cultivars. These can be deployed to develop a sampling plan to estimate the population density accurately. Results suggesting that the optimum sample size was flexible and the precision levels of 5 and 10% were suitable for ecological or insect behavioral studies of A. tubercularis where a higher level of precision is required, whereas, for pest management programs, a 15% level would be acceptable. Furthermore, the distribution, different mango cultivars, and sampling protocol presented here could be used as a tool for future research on pest management methods for this pest.
Mutation Induction for Improvement of Banana (Musa Spp). "Berangan Cv. Intan-...paperpublications3
Abstract: In vitro mutation induction by using gamma ray at 20, 30, 40 and 60Gy was used to generate variability in triploid banana "Berangan cv. Intan (AAA), so as to provide the opportunity to select plants with desirable characters such as early fruiting and short stature. Mutation frequency increased with increased dosage whereas, survival and capacity to regenerate decreased with increased doses. Time to initiation varied from 4-8 weeks for gamma-irradiated materials compared to 2-3 weeks in the control. It appeared that the higher the dose, the longer it took for shoot initiation. The exposure of shoot-tip meristem pieces to radiation doses produced wide variation in growth and morphogenetic performance. Mutagenic treatments induced 2 to 3- fold increases in variability in both quantitative and qualitative traits at different stages, in vitro; at nursery and field. For the field-grown plants; the proportion varied from 2.9% for the control plants to 16.8% for 60 Gy and 20.1% for 40 Gy-treatments, while for treatments at 20 and 30 Gy variations was at 18% and 19.2%, respectively. The frequency of variants was highest in 40 Gy followed by 30 Gy and 20 Gy, while it was very low in 60 Gy except for plant stature (dwarfism or stunted growth). Earliness to flowering variants were recorded at 20, 30 and 40 Gy at low frequencies (0.6%, 0.7% and 1.7%) respectively, while none was observed for 60 Gy treatments. As in vitro mutation induction could create genetic variability as well as many undesirable variants, it is highly desirable to integrate in vitro mutation with a selection system that can screen for large mutagen treated population. The useful variants recorded for earliness to flowering were selected for 30 and 40 Gy treatments. 40 Gy showed high frequency in earliness as compared with 20 and 30 Gy., which came to flowering as early as 6 – 6.5 months compared to 7-8 months for control. The useful dwarf, which considered as desirable traits, showed a balance of height and girth.
AUTHORED BY: JOHANNA ELSENSOHN AND KELLY SEARS
By 2050, the world’s population is estimated to exceed 9 billion people. A challenge to this rising food demand is that crops will have to be grown on the same or less land as today. Additionally, global climate change is causing considerable uncertainty in the ability of the current food production system to adapt to an unknown future.
To address these issues sustainably, scientists from many disciplines have been investigating ways to increase crop yields and prepare for a changing climate. Considerable effort has focused on enhancing the traits of the crop plants themselves, to enhance their growth, make them resistant to disease, or tolerant to environmental stressors like drought or high salinity conditions. Conversely, a growing area of research is looking at how microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, influence these plant characteristics.
The relationship between plants and microorganisms is well known. However, researchers are still working to understand the full complexity and extent of interactions between the two groups. We have seen that microbes are important for plant nutrient acquisition, plant growth and protection against disease. Certain types of bacteria are commercially available and used to increase yields and decrease fertilizer use (Farrar et al. 2014).
Relative toxicity of selected insecticides against adult whitefly, t. vaporar...Sachin U.S
The present experiment was conducted to assess relative toxicity of selected insecticides against whitefly in the Entomology laboratory at College of Horticulture, Mudigere during the year 2014-2015. Among the eleven treatments, imidachloprid, thiamethoxam and cyantraniliprole were highly toxic to adults which recorded 100 per cent mortality, four days after treatment. Cyantraniliprole recorded the highest adult mortality comparatively early than imidachloprid and thiamethoxam. Fipronil 80% WG, recorded 100 percent mortality five days after treatment which was followed by emamectin benzoate 5% SG at sixth day after treatment and recorded as next best treatments under laboratory condition against whitefly. Acephate 75% SP and azadirhactin 10000 ppm recorded highest level of mortality (100%) at seventh and eighth day after treatment, respectively which was followed by triazophos 40% EC, spinosad 480% SC and buprofezin 25% SC at eleventh day after treatment. Considering the result, cyantraniliprole, thiamethoxam and imidacloprid were recommended for effective control of sucking pests in cotton ecosystem.
Holons, Holarchies and Holonic Networks : The Ghost in the Production Machine, by Piero Mella, P a v i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s, 2009 . Official Link: http://www.paviauniversitypress.it/scientifica/download/Mella-sito_2010-01-23.pdf
SUR LA VOIE RAPIDE - Guide de l’innovation à l'intention des petites et moyen...CollectiveKnowledge
Excellent guide développé et diffusé par l'Agence de promotion économique du Canada atlantique. Une bonne introduction à l'innovation et au développement de produits. Complet et bien structuré. Comprend une section sur les brevets canadiens.
Why is it important to study reactions norms to understand phenotypi.pdfarrowmobile
Why is it important to study reactions norms to understand phenotypic plasticity?
Solution
Ans:
Phenotypic plasticity, the capacity of a single genotype to exhibit variable phenotypes in
different environments, is common in insects and is often highly adaptive. Phenotypic plasticity
is important because it expands the existing “genocentric” evolutionary theory, producing an
encompassing paradigm to explain life on earth. Plasticity was once considered “noise” but is
now widely recognized as potentially adaptive under a wide array of circumstances. As with any
major shift in scientific thinking, phenotypic plasticity engenders new ideas, causing us to ask
new questions and test hypotheses that would not otherwise be examined, leading us to
productive new scientific insights.
Phenotypic plasticity is counterbalance to mutation driven evolution: It is not surprising that
during the first half of the 20th Century, scientists, flushed with excitement about Mendelian
genetics, viewed evolution primarily as a mutational process. However, this bias largely ignored
an important reality of evolution – that natural selection selects not among genotypes, but among
phenotypes. Thus, the phenotype, and variation among phenotypes, plays a major role in
evolution. And, because the environment in which an individual develops determines its
phenotype, the environment also assumes a greater role in evolution, and may, in fact, produce
more viable phenotypic variation than do mutations. This is because mutations are not only rare,
but usually deleterious. In contrast, a single environmental factor may alter the phenotypes of an
entire population, providing natural selection with access to perhaps thousands of
environmentally altered individuals, as opposed to a single mutant individual. In addition,
mutations generally arise randomly with no correlation to specific environments, whereas new
environmentally induced phenotypes are both directional and highly correlated with the specific
new environment, allowing new environments to immediately produce and select among new
phenotypes.
Including phenotypic plasticity produces a better model: As suggested above, the inclusion of
phenotypic plasticity can result in a better model than mutation-allelic substitution alone in
explaining the production of organismal diversity. For example, the initial evolution of warning
color (aposematism), starting as a rare mutation is problematic because conspicuous prey should
be quickly found and removed by predators (Lindström et al. 2001). In contrast, evolution of
aposematism is easily explained by phenotypic plasticity (Sword 2002). Likewise, for
development, phenotypic plasticity explains the evolution of allometry and exaggerated
morphologies (Emlen and Nijhout 2000, Shingleton et al. 2007). For physiology, phenotypic
plasticity explains adaptive, beneficial plasticities such as acclimation and response to exercise
(Swallow et al. 2005), quite well. In ecology, it aids our un.
BIOL 101 Comprehensive Final Exam – Essay Portion U.docxAASTHA76
BIOL 101
Comprehensive Final Exam – Essay Portion
University of Maryland University College
Directions: Please complete the AnswerSheet file electronically and submit it via Assignments by March 6th
at 11:59 PM ET. Save your AnswerSheet in the following format: “LastName FINAL” (e.g., SmithFINAL).
Sources: You may use any electronic or print source from BIOL 101. When appropriate, you may use the
internet to locate additional supporting evidence (look for questions requiring it). AS ALWAYS, BE SURE TO
CITE ANY EXTERNAL RESOURCES YOU USE NEXT TO THE APPROPRIATE QUESTION.
Note: you may not consult any “living” resource in or out of this class, so do not seek assistance from your
peers or any other person. All essays will be run through the anti-plagiarism website, TurnItIn.com, and any
plagiarized material will be given a zero.
This exam is worth 200 points or 20% of your total grade. This section of the exam is essay, which is worth
100 pts (or half of the total points for the final exam). The other half of the final exam is a series of multiple-
choice questions, which is a separate link in our LEO classroom. Read the directions carefully below—you
have some choice in the Essay section. If you have any questions, e-mail me.
SHORT ESSAY QUESTIONS:
Complete all three. Answers should not exceed 1-2 paragraphs for each question. Worth 10 points each.
1. A population of grasshoppers in the Kansas prairie has two color phenotypes, green and brown.
Typically, the prairie receives adequate water to maintain healthy, green grass. Assume a bird that
eats grasshoppers moves into the prairie. How will this affect natural selection of the grasshoppers?
How might this change in a drought year?
2. Using material from this class, support the following statement with at least five pieces of evidence: a
plant-based (or vegetarian) diet is good for your health and the planet. Be sure to cite any external
evidence you use.
3. DNA and RNA are similar yet distinct components of the cell. Describe three differences between
RNA and DNA with respect to their chemical composition and structure. Provide a detailed
description of each characteristic you chose in your response.
ESSAY QUESTIONS:
Pick FIVE to answer—ONE FROM EACH PAIR. Each answer should be approximately 3-4 paragraphs in
length—maximum. Worth 14 points each.
4. Molecules of life and Cells (PICK A OR B TO ANSWER)
A. Pick three animal organelles and compare each one to a department or feature in a grocery or
department store. In other words, the organelles in a cell are analogous to various machines
and/or features in a store.
B. List the four “large molecules of life.” Identify their composition and structure, and describe one
function they perform in the cell.
5. Combining Micro and Macro concepts (PICK A OR B TO ANSWER)
A. Water is crucial for life as we know it. One of the most important char ...
2[Unit VI and VII, Body Section You will find the body pa.docxrobert345678
2
[Unit VI and VII, Body Section: You will find the body paragraphs on pp. 7–9, located in the blue outlined section. The body section should be placed in the paper after the Introduction and Literature Review.]
S
ave the Bees: The Negative Effects of Neonicotinoids on Bee Populations
Tamika Diggs
Columbia Southern University
EH 1020 English Composition II
Dr. Renee Reynolds
January 5, 2021
Save the Bees: The Negative Effects of Pesticides on Bee Populations
The argument concerning whether a ban should be placed on pesticides has been a source of contention since the publishing of Rachel Carson’s groundbreaking book
Silent Spring in 1962
. In her book, Carson (1962) highlights the dangers of pesticide use by describing the effects of dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) on birds of prey including peregrine falcons, osprey, and bald eagles. DDT has since been banned, but many pesticides are still being used today. Proponents for banning pesticides acknowledge that while they may present a short-term solution to issues such as insect infestations, the long-term effects of pesticide exposure cannot be ignored. On the other hand, those in favor of pesticide use argue that the benefits often outweigh the risks, as pesticides are responsible for maximizing crop yields while also reducing the risk of disease in humans and livestock. Within the last 20 years, beekeepers have begun to witness record losses in their bee populations. The phenomenon is known as colony collapse disorder (CCD), and beekeepers affected by CCD have reported losses as high as 50–90%, sometimes within a matter of weeks (Kluser et al., 2010). Research has pointed to pesticide usage, specifically neonicotinoids (neonics), as a potential cause of CCD. According to research, neonicotinoids are used in agriculture to kill pests such as aphids and grubs but are indirectly impacting bees (Pesticide Action Network, 2017). Bees are responsible for pollinating most of the world’s crops, therefore many are advocating for the ban of neonics. However, the opposing side argues that the research naming neonics as the culprit of sudden bee deaths is weak, and that neonics are safe for use. Also, government entities like the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are concerned about the negative impact a pesticide ban would have on disease control. In addition, the economic impact on farmers due to a loss in crop yields resulting from a pesticide ban would be costly. While there would be an initial cost to explore alternative methods, continuing to expose key pollinators to harmful pesticides should not continue. Therefore, neonicotinoids should not be used due to their harmful effects on bees. Instead, alternatives such as integrated pest management (IPM), should be utilized.
Review of Literature
In order to better understand the controversy concerning neonicotinoid use and its effects on bee populations, it is necessary to revie.
Abstract— After the II Word War, the chemical based industrial revolution generated a wide and global contamination due to the release in the environment of thousand of compounds without an adequate knowledge of their environmental biotransformation and their toxic effect on the living matter. Recently, it has been found that several of these compounds and/or their relative by-products are persistent environmental contaminants associated with undesirable long-term effects. At present many questions have to be clarified with particular reference to lipophilic polyhalogenated compounds, such as polychloro-dibenzo-dioxins (PCDD), polychloro-dibenzo-furans (PCDF) and polychloro-biphenyls (PCB). These compounds accumulate up the food chain and humans can reach relative high concentration in their body with a consequent risk for health. In this paper we discuss the some basic features of both biological and toxicological aspects related to the dioxins exposure.
Insights of allelopathic, insecticidal and repellent potential of an invasive...Innspub Net
Sphaeranthus suaveolens is a weed from the family Asteraceae, it grows abundantly in wet areas and is most common in rice fields. The extracts from plants closely related to S. suaveolens have been reported to have allelopathic, insecticidal, antifeedant, repellent, and other biological activities. Currently, the use of synthetic chemicals to control weeds and insect pests raises several concerns related to the environment and human health. Extracts from plants with pesticidal properties can offer the best and an environmentally friendly alternative. Some of these extracts have been extensively tested to assess their applications as valuable natural resources in sustainable agriculture. This review article, therefore, explores the potential of S. suaveolens extracts in controlling insect pests and managing weeds by smallholder farmers.
Similar to Chemical information transfer between plants: back to the future (20)
Excellent paper presented at the Proceedings IGLC-21, July 2013, Fortaleza, Brazil by Dan Fauchier and Thaís da C. L. Alves .Observation of fifteen teams on nine projects utilizing Last Planner® System. Demonstrate how participation in LPS teaches-by-doing foundational lean behaviors. Three main sets of behaviors related to or promoted by the LPS that were identified: Building social networks, Addressing multiple needs in a dynamic environment, and Treating projects as production systems.
Materialism has become synonymous with consumerism – wasteful, debt-fuelled and ultimately unsatisfying. Yet, inescapably, we are part of the material world. How, then, can we develop a healthy connection to it? This pamphlet argues for a ‘New Materialism,’ in which we grow a more deeply pleasurable, and also respectful relationship with the world of ‘things’.
GUIDE D’ÉVALUATION DE PROJET À L’INTENTION DES ORGANISMES SANS BUT LUCRATIFCollectiveKnowledge
GUIDE D’ÉVALUATION DE PROJET À L’INTENTION DES ORGANISMES SANS BUT LUCRATIF - Méthodes et étapes fondamentales pour procéder à l’évaluation de projets - Publication d'Imagine Canada
Insights and Trends: Current Portfolio, Programme, and Project Management ...CollectiveKnowledge
2012 PWC's third global survey on the current state of project management. New study is starting now and will be release somewhere this year (2014). Meanwhile, this is only 2 years old, so quite relevant. A total of 1,524 respondents from 38 countries and within 34 industries shared their insights
A selection of verses from the book 'The Experience of Insight' by Joseph Goldstein. This is a marvelous introduction to insight meditation with plenty of beautiful and very inspiring drawings
Digital Sustainability Conversations How Local Governments can Engage Resid...CollectiveKnowledge
This guidebook provides case studies and a step-by-step guide to support local government digital engagement efforts.
Funding for the guidebook was provided by the Urban Sustainability Directors Network (USDN) Urban Sustainability Innovation (USI) Fund with funds provided by the Summit Foundation, the Surdna Foundation, and The Home Depot Foundation.
Texte de Guy Théraulaz, Directeur de recherches au CNRS, Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition Animale, CNRS UMR 5169, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse. Paru dans Le Courrier de la Nature n° 250 - Spécial Fourmis 2009
WRI’s brand new “Food Service Playbook for Promoting Sustainable Food Choices” gives food service operators the very latest strategies for creating dining environments that empower consumers to choose sustainable, plant-rich dishes. This research builds off our first guide for food service, now with industry experience and insights from nearly 350 academic trials.
UNDERSTANDING WHAT GREEN WASHING IS!.pdfJulietMogola
Many companies today use green washing to lure the public into thinking they are conserving the environment but in real sense they are doing more harm. There have been such several cases from very big companies here in Kenya and also globally. This ranges from various sectors from manufacturing and goes to consumer products. Educating people on greenwashing will enable people to make better choices based on their analysis and not on what they see on marketing sites.
"Understanding the Carbon Cycle: Processes, Human Impacts, and Strategies for...MMariSelvam4
The carbon cycle is a critical component of Earth's environmental system, governing the movement and transformation of carbon through various reservoirs, including the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms. This complex cycle involves several key processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and carbon sequestration, each contributing to the regulation of carbon levels on the planet.
Human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion and deforestation, have significantly altered the natural carbon cycle, leading to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and driving climate change. Understanding the intricacies of the carbon cycle is essential for assessing the impacts of these changes and developing effective mitigation strategies.
By studying the carbon cycle, scientists can identify carbon sources and sinks, measure carbon fluxes, and predict future trends. This knowledge is crucial for crafting policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions, enhancing carbon storage, and promoting sustainable practices. The carbon cycle's interplay with climate systems, ecosystems, and human activities underscores its importance in maintaining a stable and healthy planet.
In-depth exploration of the carbon cycle reveals the delicate balance required to sustain life and the urgent need to address anthropogenic influences. Through research, education, and policy, we can work towards restoring equilibrium in the carbon cycle and ensuring a sustainable future for generations to come.
Willie Nelson Net Worth: A Journey Through Music, Movies, and Business Venturesgreendigital
Willie Nelson is a name that resonates within the world of music and entertainment. Known for his unique voice, and masterful guitar skills. and an extraordinary career spanning several decades. Nelson has become a legend in the country music scene. But, his influence extends far beyond the realm of music. with ventures in acting, writing, activism, and business. This comprehensive article delves into Willie Nelson net worth. exploring the various facets of his career that have contributed to his large fortune.
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Introduction
Willie Nelson net worth is a testament to his enduring influence and success in many fields. Born on April 29, 1933, in Abbott, Texas. Nelson's journey from a humble beginning to becoming one of the most iconic figures in American music is nothing short of inspirational. His net worth, which estimated to be around $25 million as of 2024. reflects a career that is as diverse as it is prolific.
Early Life and Musical Beginnings
Humble Origins
Willie Hugh Nelson was born during the Great Depression. a time of significant economic hardship in the United States. Raised by his grandparents. Nelson found solace and inspiration in music from an early age. His grandmother taught him to play the guitar. setting the stage for what would become an illustrious career.
First Steps in Music
Nelson's initial foray into the music industry was fraught with challenges. He moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue his dreams, but success did not come . Working as a songwriter, Nelson penned hits for other artists. which helped him gain a foothold in the competitive music scene. His songwriting skills contributed to his early earnings. laying the foundation for his net worth.
Rise to Stardom
Breakthrough Albums
The 1970s marked a turning point in Willie Nelson's career. His albums "Shotgun Willie" (1973), "Red Headed Stranger" (1975). and "Stardust" (1978) received critical acclaim and commercial success. These albums not only solidified his position in the country music genre. but also introduced his music to a broader audience. The success of these albums played a crucial role in boosting Willie Nelson net worth.
Iconic Songs
Willie Nelson net worth is also attributed to his extensive catalog of hit songs. Tracks like "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain," "On the Road Again," and "Always on My Mind" have become timeless classics. These songs have not only earned Nelson large royalties but have also ensured his continued relevance in the music industry.
Acting and Film Career
Hollywood Ventures
In addition to his music career, Willie Nelson has also made a mark in Hollywood. His distinctive personality and on-screen presence have landed him roles in several films and television shows. Notable appearances include roles in "The Electric Horseman" (1979), "Honeysuckle Rose" (1980), and "Barbarosa" (1982). These acting gigs have added a significant amount to Willie Nelson net worth.
Television Appearances
Nelson's char
Artificial Reefs by Kuddle Life Foundation - May 2024punit537210
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One of the key areas we work in is Artificial Reefs. This presentation captures our journey so far and our learnings. We hope you get as excited about marine conservation and artificial reefs as we are.
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Climate Change All over the World .pptxsairaanwer024
Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the average weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It encompasses both global warming driven by human emissions of greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns. While climate change is a natural phenomenon, human activities, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, have accelerated its pace and intensity
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Characterization and the Kinetics of drying at the drying oven and with micro...Open Access Research Paper
The objective of this work is to contribute to valorization de Nephelium lappaceum by the characterization of kinetics of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum. The seeds were dehydrated until a constant mass respectively in a drying oven and a microwawe oven. The temperatures and the powers of drying are respectively: 50, 60 and 70°C and 140, 280 and 420 W. The results show that the curves of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum do not present a phase of constant kinetics. The coefficients of diffusion vary between 2.09.10-8 to 2.98. 10-8m-2/s in the interval of 50°C at 70°C and between 4.83×10-07 at 9.04×10-07 m-8/s for the powers going of 140 W with 420 W the relation between Arrhenius and a value of energy of activation of 16.49 kJ. mol-1 expressed the effect of the temperature on effective diffusivity.
Characterization and the Kinetics of drying at the drying oven and with micro...
Chemical information transfer between plants: back to the future
1. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 29 (2001) 981–994
Chemical information transfer between plants:
back to the future
Marcel Dickea,
*, Jan Bruinb
a
Laboratory of Entomology, Department of Plant Sciences, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 8031,
NL-6700 EH Wageningen, The Netherlands
b
Section Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam,
P.O. Box 94084, NL-1090 GB Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Received 9 March 2001; accepted 19 April 2001
Abstract
Chemical information conveyance between organisms has been well established for a wide
range of organisms including protozoa, invertebrates, vertebrates and plant-parasitic plants.
During the past 20 years, various studies have addressed whether chemical information
conveyance also occurs between damaged and undamaged plants and many interesting pieces
of evidence have been presented. To date, this research field has been restricted to the question
whether and how plants (in general) are involved in plant-to-plant communication. However,
apart from mechanistic questions, evolutionary questions should be addressed asking why
plants do (or do not) exploit their neighbour’s information and whether their strategy is
affected by e.g. environmental conditions or previous experience. Recent progress in the
field of chemical information conveyance between damaged and undamaged plants
warrants an intensified study of this exciting topic in chemical ecology. r 2001 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
All organisms are under selective pressure to maximize reproductive success. To
exploit the prevailing environmental conditions to their full extent, organisms can
take advantage of information. An important form of information consists of
chemical cues. It has been well established that chemical information plays an
essential role in the ecology of such diverse organisms as protozoa (Kuhlmann et al.,
*Corresponding author. Fax: +31-317-484821.
E-mail address: marcel.dicke@users.ento.wau.nl (M. Dicke).
0305-1978/01/$ - see front matter r 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 0 5 - 1 9 7 8 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 4 5 - X
2. 1999), crustaceans (Tollrian and Dodson, 1999), insects (Card!e and Bell, 1995;
Roitberg and Isman, 1992), and vertebrates (Kats and Dill, 1998; Tollrian and
Harvell, 1999). Likewise, there is a rich literature on the emission of chemical
information by plants and its use by arthropods (Schoonhoven et al., 1998;
Chadwick and Goode, 1999), by fungi (Nagashi and Douds, 1999) and by plant-
parasitic plants (Estabrook and Yoder, 1998). In addition, allelopathic effects of
plant compounds on neighbouring plants have been amply documented (Pellisier
and Souto, 1999; Mallik and Romeo, 2000). The role of chemical information in
interactions between damaged and undamaged plants, however, remained con-
troversial ever since the first scientific publications appeared in the early 1980s
(Baldwin and Schultz, 1983; Rhoades, 1983; Fowler and Lawton, 1985). Some
studies found no evidence for transfer of information between damaged and
undamaged plants (Myers and Willams, 1984; Williams and Myers, 1984; Fowler
and Lawton, 1985; Lin et al., 1990; Preston et al., 1999). Many others presented
evidence supporting the hypothesis of information conveyance between damaged
and undamaged plants (Rhoades, 1983; Haukioja et al., 1985; Rhoades, 1985;
Zeringue, 1987; Dicke et al., 1990; Farmer and Ryan, 1990; Bruin et al., 1992;
Shulaev et al., 1997; Arimura et al., 2000; Dolch and Tscharntke, 2000; Karban et al.,
2000) and several stimulating reviews have been published in the past five years
(Bruin et al., 1995; Shonle and Bergelson, 1995; Karban and Baldwin, 1997).
Yet, studies on plant-to-plant communication are often received with scepticism.
The major issues raised by critics are, in random order: (1) data suffer from statistical
flaws such as pseudoreplication, (2) the dose of the chemical cues applied in
experiments was unrealistically high, (3) the mechanism is unknown or alternative
mechanisms may explain the data, (4) ubiquitous cues cannot be meaningful
information in interactions between damaged and undamaged plants, and (5)
experiments under realistic field conditions are lacking (Fowler and Lawton, 1985;
Firn and Jones, 1995; Karban and Baldwin, 1997). Although related to very different
aspects of experimental studies, each of these issues is important and should be
considered in studies on information conveyance between damaged and undamaged
plants. They should stimulate scientists to improve their experimental protocols, to
investigate alternative mechanisms, to determine costs and benefits, and to assess the
impact on population dynamicsFin short they should stimulate continual
investigation of a phenomenon with good potential. After all, there is abundant
evidence that chemical information from damaged plants is available to undamaged
plants.
2. Plants ‘talk’: characteristics of volatiles from damaged plants
In the past two decades it has been well documented that plants respond to
damage and herbivory with the emission of a bouquet of volatiles (see e.g.
Takabayashi and Dicke, 1996; Chadwick and Goode, 1999; Dicke and Vet, 1999;
Sabelis et al., 1999 for reviews). These volatiles are usually emitted in considerable
quantities and the bouquet is often dominated by compounds that are not emitted
M. Dicke, J. Bruin / Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 29 (2001) 981–994982
3. when the plant is undamaged or mechanically damaged (Boland et al., 1999; Dicke,
1999b). In other cases only minor qualitative differences exist in the composition of
the blends from mechanically damaged and herbivore-damaged plants (Dicke, 1999b).
The blends emitted by herbivore-damaged plants usually contain fatty-acid derivatives
and terpenoids, but also nitrogenous compounds, sulphur containing compounds and
phenolics such as methyl salicylate are frequently found (Turlings et al., 1995; de
Moraes et al., 1998; Boland et al., 1999; Dicke, 1999b). The composition of the blend
emitted by damaged plants is specific for the plant species and the herbivore that
damages the plant (Takabayashi and Dicke, 1996; de Moraes et al., 1998; Du et al.,
1998; Turlings et al., 1998; Dicke, 1999a). It has been well documented that the
volatiles emitted by herbivore-damaged plants attract carnivorous enemies of the
herbivores (e.g. Turlings et al., 1995; Takabayashi and Dicke, 1996; Dicke and Vet,
1999; Sabelis et al., 1999) and this can benefit the plant in terms of seed production
(Van Loon et al., 2000). However, the information is available to all organisms
downwind from the infested plant, including downwind plants.
3. Why would plants ‘listen’?
In discussions of communication between plants the emphasis is often placed on
the benefits to the emitter. However, given that chemical information from damaged
plants is available, the important question is: do downwind neighbours exploit this
information to their own benefit? After all, the wind that transfers the information
from damaged to undamaged plants can also transport attackers such as pathogens
and small herbivores such as mites and insects. The mere presence of damage-related
plant compounds implies the vicinity of these attackers, and thus an increased risk of
injury to undamaged neighbouring plants. The information available can be specific
for the plant-attacking species, which potentially allows plants to discriminate
between attackers with different degrees of risk. However, to date it remains
unknown whether plants are capable of such discrimination. If not, this will be a
constraint for the strategy of the receiving plant.
Plants cannot run away when they are informed that their environment changes
into an enemy-dense space, but they could induce a defence. There is ample evidence
for inducible defences in plants (Karban and Baldwin, 1997) and several theories
describe why and when plants should employ inducible defences rather than
constitutive defences (Agrawal and Karban, 1999). One of the potential costs of
inducible defence is the time it takes to initiate the defenceFit may simply become
effective too late. A response to early information on the presence of attackers, such
as volatiles from an upwind infested neighbour, could reduce this cost.
4. Past evidence
Various groups have published data that support the hypothesis that chemical
information conveyance occurs between damaged and undamaged plants, although
M. Dicke, J. Bruin / Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 29 (2001) 981–994 983
4. shortcomings may still be present (Table 1). Some critics will say that not a single
study has met all criteria needed to support the hypothesis for a single system.
Several studies have enclosed plants in small airtight bell jars or other types of
containers for considerable periods of time (e.g. Farmer and Ryan, 1990; Shulaev
et al., 1997; Arimura et al., 2000; Birkett et al., 2000). Under such conditions, plants
rapidly deplete the available CO2, and are forced to photosynthesize below their CO2
compensation point which causes all kinds of stress (Demeter et al., 1995; Nilsen and
Orcutt, 1996; Zobayed et al., 1999). Therefore, conclusions from such studies should
be viewed with caution.
Some studies provide carefully designed laboratory studies but have not shown the
phenomenon in the field. Zeringue (1987) nicely showed that cotton leaves produce
terpenoids after exposure to microbe-filtered air from Aspergillus flavus-infested
cotton leaves. These laboratory experiments meet many criteria to prove that
volatiles from infested plants can affect their downwind neighbours, but a field
analysis still needs to be done. Similarly, a well-performed laboratory study shows
that volatiles from sagebrush can induce proteinase inhibitors in tomato plants and
that the synthetic for one of these volatiles, i.e. methyl jasmonate, has the same effect
(Farmer and Ryan, 1990). However, this study lacks ecological reality because
tomato and sagebrush do not co-occur in the field. A recent field study shows that
undamaged wild tobacco plants next to damaged sagebrush experience reduced
feeding damage by naturally occurring herbivores and methyl jasmonate from
sagebrush seems to be involved (Karban et al., 2000). Blocking soil contact did not
affect the result, but blocking contact through the air did. The latter paper is a good
example of how this field should be developed: by taking published papers as a
starting point to design new experiments that pay attention to perceived
shortcomings. It will provide important building blocks for investigations on the
responses of plants to chemical information from damaged neighbours.
5. Variation in plant responses
An important question is whether we expect to find information conveyance
between damaged and undamaged plants for all plant species. And if plants of a
certain species exhibit the ability, a relevant question is whether individuals of that
species should always respond to information from damaged neighbours (Bruin
et al., 1995). Such questions are common in other fields related to phenotypic
plasticity such as learning in insects (Papaj and Prokopy, 1989; Vet et al., 1995). Can
we identify categories of plants that are more likely and categories that are less likely
to employ information conveyance between wounded and unwounded plants? For
instance, perennial plants may be exposed much more frequently to herbivores than
annuals and annuals are thought to be under strong selection to grow quickly at the
expense of investing in defence (Herms and Mattson, 1992). Therefore, it may be
hypothesized that phenotypic plasticity in responses towards chemical information
from neighbours occurs more frequently among herbaceous plants than trees. An
even more interesting question is whether individual plants show variation in the
M. Dicke, J. Bruin / Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 29 (2001) 981–994984
5. Table 1
Studies published before 2001 that have presented evidence in favour of the hypothesis that chemical information from damaged plants affects undamaged
neighbours
System
investigated
Field/
laboratory
study
Evidence presented Main weakness Next step needed Reference
Sitka willow
Malacosoma
californicum
pluviale
(caterpillar)
Field Foliage from plants in the
neighbourhood of caterpillar
damaged plants has lower
food quality for caterpillars
than foliage from distant
control plants. Soil communication
excluded in one experiment.
Pseudoreplication. An
entomopathogen may
explain the results.
Make replications. Repeat
with mechanically damaged
trees to avoid the entomopathogen
problem (see Haukioja et al.,
1985). Or investigate whether
pathogens are present and assess
how they affect the caterpillars
Rhoades (1983)
Sitka willow
Hyphantria cunea
(caterpillar)
Field Foliage from plants in the
neighbourhood of caterpillar
damaged plants has lower
food quality for caterpillars than
foliage from distant control plants.
Pseudoreplication.
Mechanism unknown.
Investigate mechanism. Rhoades (1983)
Poplar
Sugar maple
Mechanical
damage
Laboratory Increased phenolic levels in
plants exposed to volatiles from
damaged conspecifics in the
same room.
One room for treatment
and one room for control.
Pseudoreplication.
Increase number of replicates
(rooms). Analyse volatiles and
investigate which of the them
are involved.
Baldwin and Schultz
(1983)
Mountain birch
Epirrita autumnata
(caterpillar)
Field Growth, survival and
reproduction of caterpillars fed
on field-collected leaves is
positively correlated with distance
of tree from closest tree defoliated
in previous year.
Mechanism unknown. Investigate mechanism and
variation in plant response.
Haukioja et al.
(1985)
Cotton
Aspergillus flavus
(fungus)
Laboratory Increased concentration of terpe-
noids in leaves exposed to
microbe-filtered air from fungus-
infected leaves. No effect of
exposure to volatiles from liquid
fungus culture or mechanically
damaged leaves.
Detached leaves were
used instead of whole
plants.
Use plants instead of detached
leaves. Laboratory experiments
on variation in plant response.
Field experiments.
Zeringue (1987)
Barley
Erisyphe graminis
f.sp. hordei
Laboratory Barley seedlings placed in the
same container as pruned
barley seedlings had increased
Pseudoreplication and
mechanism unknown.
Increase number of replicates
and elucidate mechanism.
Fujiwara et al.
(1987)
M.Dicke,J.Bruin/BiochemicalSystematicsandEcology29(2001)981–994985
6. Table 1 (continued)
System
investigated
Field/
laboratory
study
Evidence presented Main weakness Next step needed Reference
(fungus) resistance to powdery mildew
compared to seedlings incubated
with undamaged seedlings.
Sagebrush
Tomato
Methyl
jasmonate
Laboratory Induction of proteinase
inhibitors in tomato plants
exposed to sagebrush branches
or synthetic methyl jasmonate
in small containers.
Laboratory study on an
artificial system.
Field study with naturally
co-occurring plants
(see Karban et al., 2000).
Farmer and Ryan
(1990)
Lima bean
T. urticae
(herbivorous mite)
P. persimilis
(carnivorous mite)
Laboratory Exposure of plants to volatiles
from spider mite-infested
conspecifics leads to attraction
of predatory mites that prey on
spider mites.
Only results from two
replicates published,
although data from four
replicates are available by
now (Bruin et al.,
unpublished data). Results
may be explained by
adsorption of predator
attractants on receiving
plants.
Demonstrate that volatiles
from infested plants affect
gene expression in exposed
uninfested plants
(see Arimura et al., 2000).
Dicke et al. (1990)
Cotton
T. urticae
(herbivorous mite)
P. persimilis
(carnivorous mite)
Laboratory Exposure of plants to volatiles
from spider mite-infested
conspecifics leads to (a) reduced
reproductive success of spider
mites and (b) attraction of
predatory mites that prey on
spider mites.
In (a): Direct effect of
volatiles from infested
plant may affect spider
mite feeding behaviour on
downwind plants and
consequently reproductive
success. In (b): Volatiles
from infested plants may
have been adsorbed onto
receiving plants.
Demonstrate that volatiles from
infested plants affect gene
expression in exposed uninfested
plants (see Arimura et al., 2000).
Bruin et al. (1992)
Lima bean
Cucumber
T. urticae (herbivor-
ous mite)
P. persimilis
(carnivorous mite)
Laboratory Exposure of undamaged cucumber
plants to volatiles from spider-mite
infested Lima bean plants resulted
in attraction of predatory mites
that prey on spider mites.
Only two replicates. Increase number of replicates. Oudejans and Bruin
(1995)
M.Dicke,J.Bruin/BiochemicalSystematicsandEcology29(2001)981–994986
7. Tobacco
Tobacco
Mosaic Virus
Methyl salicylate
Laboratory Exposure of undamaged tobacco
plant to volatiles from TMV-
infected tobacco plant results
in induction of PR-1 gene
expression and reduction in lesion
diameter after infection with
TMV. Exposure to mock-
infected plants has no effects.
Separate experiments to
investigate the role of methyl
salicylate.
Only two replicates of
communication experiment.
Experiments with methyl
salicylate use very
high doses.
Increase number of replicates. Shulaev et al. (1997)
Lima bean
T. urticae
(herbivorous mite)
Laboratory Confinement of spider-mite
infested leaves in the same
container as uninfested leaves
results in expression of several
defensive genes (PAL, FPS,
LOX and PR-genes).
Detached leaves were
used.
Use plants instead of
detached leaves.
Field experiments.
Arimura et al. (2000)
Nicotiana attenuata
Grasshoppers
Noctuid moths
Field Wild tobacco plants with clipped
sagebrush neighbours had
increased levels of polyphenol
oxidase and reduced levels of leaf
damage by grasshoppers and
cutworms relative to control
plants with unclipped sagebrush
neighbours.
Tobacco plants
transplanted to proximity
of sagebrush.
Establish the exact
involvement of methyl
jasmonate.
Karban et al. (2000)
Vicia faba
(Z)-jasmone
Aphidius ervi
(parasitoid)
Laboratory
and field
Exposure of faba bean plants
to (Z)-jasmone results in the
induction of gene expression
and the emission of the terpene
(E)-b-ocimene and in attraction
of the parasitoid.
High dose of (Z)-jasmone
applied compared to
emission rate. Experiments
using the natural odour
source (aphid-infested faba
bean plants) should be
carried out.
Use aphid-infested plants and
natural dose of (Z)-jasmone.
Extend field study to
incorporate natural transfer
of (Z)-jasmone from infested
to uninfested plants.
Birkett et al. (2000)
Alnus glutinosa
Agelastica alni
(herbivorous beetle)
Field Manual defoliation of 20% of
foliage of individual trees results
in reduced herbivory in neighbouring
trees. The effect wanes with
distance from defoliated tree
and with time since defoliation.
Mechanism unknown. Elucidate mechanism. Dolch and
Tscharntke (2000)
M.Dicke,J.Bruin/BiochemicalSystematicsandEcology29(2001)981–994987
8. expression of induced responses to chemical information from injured neighbours
and what causes this variation. For instance, nutrient availability may affect plant
investments in defence relative to investments in growth (Herms and Mattson, 1992),
age may determine whether an annual plant still invests in defence or only in
reproduction, or previous experiences with attackers may affect the strength of the
plant’s response. Furthermore, the role of plant-to-plant communication through
chemicals is often investigated for interactions between conspecifics (but see Farmer
and Ryan, 1990; Oudejans and Bruin, 1995; Karban et al., 2000). However, there is
no good argument why plants would not be able to exploit chemical information
from heterospecific damaged plants. The topic of strategies of plant responses to
chemical information will be exciting for those systems where the plant’s response
has been demonstrated, but not less for those systems where the plant’s response was
not found. Thinking in terms of individual plant strategies may help in following up
studies that did not find a plant response.
6. Above versus below-ground transfer of information
Most research on interactions between damaged and undamaged plants addresses
the role of plant volatiles (Bruin et al., 1995; Shonle and Bergelson, 1995; Karban
and Baldwin, 1997) and specific experiments have been designed to exclude below-
ground communication (Zeringue, 1987; Farmer and Ryan, 1990; Bruin et al., 1992;
Karban et al., 2000). However, interactions between plants and other organisms may
also be mediated by chemical information in root exudates (Estabrook and Yoder,
1998). One study on information conveyance between damaged and undamaged
plants may be explained by below-ground effects (Haukioja et al., 1985). Although
interesting in itself, the medium of communication is of course not the main topic if
one asks whether communication between damaged and undamaged plants occurs at
all and how this affects the ecology of plant–attacker interactions. In fact, the
underground transfer of information may be facilitated by root networks and by
mycorrhizal connections that may transport nutrients (Simard et al., 1997) and
potentially also elicitors of defence over considerable distances.
7. Comparison with research on the use of chemical information by animal receivers
In the study of chemical information transfer between plants, much can be learned
from research on chemical information in interactions between animals. Optimal
foraging theory assumes that animals are omniscient and take optimal decisions
accordingly (Stephens and Krebs, 1986). Although this assumption has often been
criticized as being unrealistic, there is growing evidence that animals exploit many
sources of information to adjust their behavioural decisions (e.g., Milinski, 1990;
Janssen et al., 1997; Tollrian and Harvell, 1999; Dicke and Van Loon, 2000). This
includes information on resources, competitors and natural enemies. Research on
the role of chemical information in interactions between animals has bloomed during
M. Dicke, J. Bruin / Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 29 (2001) 981–994988
9. the past decennia. The roles of alarm pheromones and predator-produced
kairomones have been well-studied (Pickett et al., 1992; Kats and Dill, 1998;
Tollrian and Harvell, 1999). Recurring elements in studies on chemical information
conveyance between animals are (1) behavioural data on pheromone emission, e.g.
on exposure of glands; (2) behavioural data on response to pheromones, where in the
experimental design the receiver is usually deprived of other sensory modalities, such
as vision or hearing; (3) chemical analysis of the information conveying compounds;
(4) electrophysiological data on perception of identified compounds; (5) confirma-
tion of laboratory data in the field (Shorey, 1976; Roitberg and Isman, 1992; Card!e
and Bell, 1995). Subsequently, variation in the production of and response to animal
pheromones can be studied.
Analogous to the reasoning for animals, plants should also be expected to be
omniscient about prevailing conditions, notwithstanding the fact that they lack a
nervous system. And the evidence for plants being informed about their environment
is accumulating. For instance, plants can exploit chemical elicitors from their
attackers (Mattiacci et al., 1995; Alborn et al., 1997), chemical cues from their
resources (Estabrook and Yoder, 1998), or visual signals from their neighbouring
competitors (Ballar!e, 1999). With regard to infochemicals that mediate plant–plant
interactions, it seems that research cannot provide component (1) of evidence
generated for information conveyance between animals. Still, an analysis of
dynamics of stomata opening and gland activities might reveal interesting data.
Although it will be very interesting to study behavioural responses of plants to
volatile compounds (cf. component 2), research on information transfer between
plants is more likely to provide evidence on physiological responses in the receiving
plant. Electrophysiological investigations of plant responses to volatiles from
neighbours (cf. component 4) may seem to be unrealistic (but see Wildon et al.,
1992). Plant pheromone studies should supply data on (a) the emission of volatiles
from damaged plants, (b) the physiological response of plants in experiments where
the transfer of other information or agents (pathogens for instance) is excluded and
where plants do not suffer from other stresses, (c) the identity of the compounds
transferring information, (d) the effect on herbivores and their natural enemies and
plant fitness, and (e) the existence of the phenomenon in the field. Of course, a single
study does not have to present all these data together. Just as in research on chemical
information conveyance between animals, studies can complement each other. Once
evidence for plant-to-plant communication has been found, it becomes feasible to
investigate to what extent plants are informed about local conditions and what
strategies they can follow (Karban et al., 1999).
8. Contributions to this special issue
Considering the importance of chemical information in the ecology of protozoa,
invertebrate and vertebrate animals (Roitberg and Isman, 1992; Card!e and Bell,
1995; Kats and Dill, 1998; Kuhlmann et al., 1999; Tollrian and Harvell, 1999) and
plant-parasitic plants (Estabrook and Yoder, 1998), it is important to investigate
M. Dicke, J. Bruin / Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 29 (2001) 981–994 989
10. whether and how plants can perceive chemicals from damaged neighbours. At
present the research field of plant-to-plant communication is mostly involved in such
mechanistic issues. However, evolutionary questions should also be addressed, so as
to better understand plant strategies, which may in turn have a stimulating effect on
subsequent mechanistic studies. This special issue brings together new experimental
evidence on information transfer between plants. All contributors have been asked
to address the following questions:
1. Describe (new) experimental evidence on information transfer from wounded to
unwounded plants. What were the incentives to study plant–plant communication
in this system?
2. How strong is the evidence in favour of information transfer in ‘‘your’’ system?
Discuss why alternative options cannot explain the results.
3. What are the most important questions to be answered next?
4. Do you consider plant–plant interactions to be important in nature?
The authors provide important new building blocks for the further development of
the research field of plant-to-plant communication. For two systems for which
support for chemical information transfer between plants in the field has been
recently published (Dolch and Tscharntke, 2000; Karban et al., 2000) additional data
are presented. New evidence on communication in the field between sagebrush and
wild tobacco and assessment of the potential role of cis-methyl jasmonate is
presented (Karban, 2001; Preston et al., 2001). Field data on communication
between alder trees (Dolch and Tscharntke, 2000) are followed up by laboratory
investigations on the underlying mechanism (Tscharntke et al., 2001). Additional
data on gene expression in lima bean plants exposed to individual volatiles from
herbivore-infested neighbouring plants are presented (Arimura et al., 2001).
Furthermore, information is presented on belowground communication among
aphid-infested and uninfested faba bean plants (Chamberlain et al., 2001) and
among spider-mite infested and uninfested lima bean plants (Dicke and Dijkman,
2001). Finally new avenues for research in this exciting field are identified (Bruin and
Dicke, 2001).
This special issue is meant to provide an up-to-date account of this exciting
research field and to stimulate the initiation of new research projects. These
hopefully are not only restricted to mechanistic, but also to evolutionary questions.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Ian T. Baldwin, Erkki Haukioja, Arne Janssen, Rick Karban,
John Pickett, Jack C. Schultz, and Teja Tscharntke for constructive comments on a
previous version of the manuscript. MD was partially supported by the
Uyttenboogaart-Eliasen Foundation, Amsterdam.
M. Dicke, J. Bruin / Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 29 (2001) 981–994990
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