Chapter 8 Thought and
Language
8.1 The Organization of Knowledge
Concepts and Categories 315
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Priming and Semantic Networks
318
Module 8.1a Quiz 319
Memory, Culture, and Categories 319
Module 8.1b Quiz 323
Module 8.1 Summary 323
8.2 Problem Solving, Judgment, and Decision Making
Defining and Solving Problems 325
Module 8.2a Quiz 328
Judgment and Decision Making 328
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Maximizing and Satisficing in
Complex Decisions 332
Module 8.2b Quiz 334
Module 8.2 Summary 335
8.3 Language and Communication
What Is Language? 337
Module 8.3a Quiz 341
The Development of Language 341
Module 8.3b Quiz 344
Genes, Evolution, and Language 344
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Genes and Language 344
Module 8.3c Quiz 348
Module 8.3 Summary 348
Module 8.1 The Organization of
Knowledge
Dmitry Vereshchagin/Fotolia
Learning Objectives
Know . . . the key terminology associated with concepts and categories.
Understand . . . theories of how people organize their knowledge about
the world.
Understand . . . how experience and culture can shape the way we
organize our knowledge.
Apply . . . your knowledge to identify prototypical examples.
8.1a
8.1b
8.1c
8.1d
When Edward regained consciousness in the hospital, his family
immediately noticed that something was wrong. The most obvious
problem was that he had difficulty recognizing faces, a relatively common
disorder known as prosopagosia. As the doctors performed more testing,
it became apparent that Edward had other cognitive problems as well.
Edward had difficulty recognizing objects—but not all objects. Instead, he
couldn’t distinguish between different vegetables even though he could
use language to describe their appearance. His ability to recognize most
other types of objects seemed normal.
Neurological patients like Edward may seem unrelated to your own life.
However, for specific categories of visual information to be lost, they must
have been stored in similar areas of the brain before brain damage
occurred. Therefore, these cases give us some insight into how the brain
stores and organizes the information that we have encoded into memory.
Focus Questions
1. How do people form easily recognizable categories from complex
information?
2. How does culture influence the ways in which we categorize
information?
Each of us has amassed a tremendous amount of knowledge in the course of
our lifetime. Indeed, it is impossible to put a number on just how many facts each
of us knows. Imagine trying to record everything you ever learned about the
world—how many books could you fill? Instead of asking how much we know,
psychologists are interested in how we keep track of it all. In this module, we will
explore what those processes are like and how they work. We will start by
learning about the key terminology before presenting theories about how
Analyze . . . the claim that the language we speak determines how we
t ...
Here are some key takeaways on creative teaching in an online setting based on our discussion:
- Creative teaching involves recognizing, encouraging, and appreciating students' contributions to make the learning experience more engaging and fun. It keeps students interested and motivated to learn.
- In an online setting, teachers can use technology like Kahoot, Padlet, and Empatico to make lessons interactive. Platforms like Kahoot allow for game-based quizzes while Padlet acts as a digital notice board where students and teachers can share content. Empatico facilitates global connections between classrooms.
- Parts of an engaging online lesson include an introduction to review concepts and motivate students, the main lesson content with clear procedures
Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation A Roadmap from Beginning.docxskevin488
Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation: A Roadmap from Beginning to End
http://methods.sagepub.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/book/completing-your-qualitative-dissertation
Literature Reviews, Conceptual Frameworks, and Theoretical Frameworks: Terms, Functions, and Distinctions
http://journals.sagepub.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/doi/10.1177/1534484309332617
User: m.louidort7094
Password: Claire89
Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Theoretical Framework
https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/theoreticalframework
file:///C:/Users/marce/AppData/Local/Temp/Temp1_Desjardins,%20F.%20J.%20(2010,%20July%2019).%20Theoretical%20framework%20[Video%20file].html%20(1).zip/Desjardins,%20F.%20J.%20(2010,%20July%2019).%20Theoretical%20framework%20[Video%20file].html
User: m.louidort7094
Password: Claire89
Research Skills for Psychology Majors: Everything You Need to Know to Get Started
Theories and Models in
Psychology
Why We Care About Theories
The goal of science is to develop and test theories. Science does a lot of other
things that don’t seem like they have anything to do with theory development, but
the bottom line is producing good theories.
Scientists and philosophers argue about what a theory really is, and what a good
theory looks like. Some of the formal definitions include:
“A set of principles that explains and predicts many, but not all, observed
relationships within a given domain of inquiry” (Stangor, 1998, p. 30).
“A formalized set of concepts that organizes observations and inferences
and predicts and explains phenomena” (Graziano & Raulin, 2000, p. 37).
There are many more definitions, but they generally come down to these basic
parts:
1. explain nature
2. predict events
3. tell us what to look for and how to look
4. tell us what our data mean
Theories explain why things are the way they are. Why does water become “hard”
at 0ºC? Chemical theories explain why compounds change state: what they are
made of (atoms, molecules, etc.) and how they respond to change in energy (tem-
perature). Why do people become racially prejudiced? Social psychology proposes
a dozen theories to explain various aspects of this complex event, for example, it
seems to reflect a cognitive bias that produces negatively valanced thoughts about
others for whom we have poorly articulated cognitive schemata. “Why?” is the
scientist’s mantra, and when you stop asking Why? it’s time to pack it in and turn
on the TV.
Good theories go beyond just answering Why? to being able to predict events
given the necessary information. A theory that explains why ice forms but can’t
predict when it will form has a problem. Psychological theories are better at
explaining why than at making predictions, in part because behavior is multiply de-
termined: it is the result of many complicated intersecting and interacting factors.
Ice is not as simple as it seems at first, either: how about predicting the formation
of ice from dirty water? salty water? .
This document provides an overview of artificial intelligence including definitions of key concepts like intelligence, knowledge, learning, and understanding. It then discusses the major branches of AI such as robotics, vision systems, natural language processing, learning systems, neural networks, and expert systems. The history of AI achievements like Robocop, Deep Blue, and the DARPA Grand Challenge are also summarized. Finally, some current applications of AI like driverless trains, burglary alarm systems, and automatic grading systems are briefly mentioned.
Examples Of A Cause And Effect Essay. Cause and effect essay tipsAnita Walker
2 Cause and Effect Essay Examples That Will Cause a Stir. Cause and Effect Essay Examples of Writing | by Sample Essay | Medium. Cause and Effect Essay Examples | YourDictionary. Amazing Cause And Effect Essay Examples ~ Thatsnotus. How To Write A Cause And Effect Essay | Essay Writing. How To Write A Cause And Effect Essay - unugtp. ️ Cause topics. Cause and Effect Essay Topics. 2019-01-12.
A Defence Of Teaching General Thinking SkillsLiz Adams
This document summarizes and defends the position that general thinking skills can exist and be taught. It presents three main counterarguments to criticisms of general thinking skills: 1) A priori arguments against general thinking skills contain logical flaws similar to Zeno's paradox and do not consider how skills are acquired through learning. 2) Domains of knowledge may overlap, allowing for shared thinking skills. 3) Experts apply detailed knowledge, but gaining this expertise requires general thinking skills during the learning process. The document concludes that further empirical study is still warranted to investigate thinking skills approaches and their potential to facilitate learning.
The Importance Of Homework E. Online assignment writing service.Jennifer Nulton
The document provides instructions for creating an account and submitting assignment requests on the HelpWriting.net website. Users first create an account by providing a password and email. They then complete a form with assignment details, sources, and deadline. Writers bid on the request and the user selects a writer. After receiving the paper, the user can request revisions if needed. The site aims to provide original, high-quality content with refunds for plagiarized work.
Bringing Reading and Writing into the Biology ClassroomWesley McCammon
The presenters argue that integrating English II concepts into the biology classroom benefits both subjects by reinforcing common academic language and increasing students' vocabulary and writing skills. They provide examples of using quotes to prompt essays explaining scientific concepts and position papers analyzing biology-related decisions to address objectives in both the science and English frameworks. The presenters encourage collaboration between English and science teachers to jointly develop assignments that teach cross-curricular content and skills.
This document summarizes different theories of how knowledge is organized in memory. It discusses declarative versus procedural knowledge, with declarative being "knowing that" facts and procedural being "knowing how" to perform skills. Concepts, categories, networks and schemas are reviewed as ways to organize declarative knowledge. Prototype and exemplar theories are described as alternatives to defining categories solely based on necessary features. The ACT-R model integrates propositional networks to represent declarative knowledge and production systems for procedural knowledge.
Here are some key takeaways on creative teaching in an online setting based on our discussion:
- Creative teaching involves recognizing, encouraging, and appreciating students' contributions to make the learning experience more engaging and fun. It keeps students interested and motivated to learn.
- In an online setting, teachers can use technology like Kahoot, Padlet, and Empatico to make lessons interactive. Platforms like Kahoot allow for game-based quizzes while Padlet acts as a digital notice board where students and teachers can share content. Empatico facilitates global connections between classrooms.
- Parts of an engaging online lesson include an introduction to review concepts and motivate students, the main lesson content with clear procedures
Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation A Roadmap from Beginning.docxskevin488
Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation: A Roadmap from Beginning to End
http://methods.sagepub.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/book/completing-your-qualitative-dissertation
Literature Reviews, Conceptual Frameworks, and Theoretical Frameworks: Terms, Functions, and Distinctions
http://journals.sagepub.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/doi/10.1177/1534484309332617
User: m.louidort7094
Password: Claire89
Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Theoretical Framework
https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/theoreticalframework
file:///C:/Users/marce/AppData/Local/Temp/Temp1_Desjardins,%20F.%20J.%20(2010,%20July%2019).%20Theoretical%20framework%20[Video%20file].html%20(1).zip/Desjardins,%20F.%20J.%20(2010,%20July%2019).%20Theoretical%20framework%20[Video%20file].html
User: m.louidort7094
Password: Claire89
Research Skills for Psychology Majors: Everything You Need to Know to Get Started
Theories and Models in
Psychology
Why We Care About Theories
The goal of science is to develop and test theories. Science does a lot of other
things that don’t seem like they have anything to do with theory development, but
the bottom line is producing good theories.
Scientists and philosophers argue about what a theory really is, and what a good
theory looks like. Some of the formal definitions include:
“A set of principles that explains and predicts many, but not all, observed
relationships within a given domain of inquiry” (Stangor, 1998, p. 30).
“A formalized set of concepts that organizes observations and inferences
and predicts and explains phenomena” (Graziano & Raulin, 2000, p. 37).
There are many more definitions, but they generally come down to these basic
parts:
1. explain nature
2. predict events
3. tell us what to look for and how to look
4. tell us what our data mean
Theories explain why things are the way they are. Why does water become “hard”
at 0ºC? Chemical theories explain why compounds change state: what they are
made of (atoms, molecules, etc.) and how they respond to change in energy (tem-
perature). Why do people become racially prejudiced? Social psychology proposes
a dozen theories to explain various aspects of this complex event, for example, it
seems to reflect a cognitive bias that produces negatively valanced thoughts about
others for whom we have poorly articulated cognitive schemata. “Why?” is the
scientist’s mantra, and when you stop asking Why? it’s time to pack it in and turn
on the TV.
Good theories go beyond just answering Why? to being able to predict events
given the necessary information. A theory that explains why ice forms but can’t
predict when it will form has a problem. Psychological theories are better at
explaining why than at making predictions, in part because behavior is multiply de-
termined: it is the result of many complicated intersecting and interacting factors.
Ice is not as simple as it seems at first, either: how about predicting the formation
of ice from dirty water? salty water? .
This document provides an overview of artificial intelligence including definitions of key concepts like intelligence, knowledge, learning, and understanding. It then discusses the major branches of AI such as robotics, vision systems, natural language processing, learning systems, neural networks, and expert systems. The history of AI achievements like Robocop, Deep Blue, and the DARPA Grand Challenge are also summarized. Finally, some current applications of AI like driverless trains, burglary alarm systems, and automatic grading systems are briefly mentioned.
Examples Of A Cause And Effect Essay. Cause and effect essay tipsAnita Walker
2 Cause and Effect Essay Examples That Will Cause a Stir. Cause and Effect Essay Examples of Writing | by Sample Essay | Medium. Cause and Effect Essay Examples | YourDictionary. Amazing Cause And Effect Essay Examples ~ Thatsnotus. How To Write A Cause And Effect Essay | Essay Writing. How To Write A Cause And Effect Essay - unugtp. ️ Cause topics. Cause and Effect Essay Topics. 2019-01-12.
A Defence Of Teaching General Thinking SkillsLiz Adams
This document summarizes and defends the position that general thinking skills can exist and be taught. It presents three main counterarguments to criticisms of general thinking skills: 1) A priori arguments against general thinking skills contain logical flaws similar to Zeno's paradox and do not consider how skills are acquired through learning. 2) Domains of knowledge may overlap, allowing for shared thinking skills. 3) Experts apply detailed knowledge, but gaining this expertise requires general thinking skills during the learning process. The document concludes that further empirical study is still warranted to investigate thinking skills approaches and their potential to facilitate learning.
The Importance Of Homework E. Online assignment writing service.Jennifer Nulton
The document provides instructions for creating an account and submitting assignment requests on the HelpWriting.net website. Users first create an account by providing a password and email. They then complete a form with assignment details, sources, and deadline. Writers bid on the request and the user selects a writer. After receiving the paper, the user can request revisions if needed. The site aims to provide original, high-quality content with refunds for plagiarized work.
Bringing Reading and Writing into the Biology ClassroomWesley McCammon
The presenters argue that integrating English II concepts into the biology classroom benefits both subjects by reinforcing common academic language and increasing students' vocabulary and writing skills. They provide examples of using quotes to prompt essays explaining scientific concepts and position papers analyzing biology-related decisions to address objectives in both the science and English frameworks. The presenters encourage collaboration between English and science teachers to jointly develop assignments that teach cross-curricular content and skills.
This document summarizes different theories of how knowledge is organized in memory. It discusses declarative versus procedural knowledge, with declarative being "knowing that" facts and procedural being "knowing how" to perform skills. Concepts, categories, networks and schemas are reviewed as ways to organize declarative knowledge. Prototype and exemplar theories are described as alternatives to defining categories solely based on necessary features. The ACT-R model integrates propositional networks to represent declarative knowledge and production systems for procedural knowledge.
Why the "hard" problem of consciousness is easy and the "easy" problem hard....Aaron Sloman
The "hard" problem of concsiousness can be shown to be a non-problem because it is formulated using a seriously defective concept (the concept of "phenomenal consciousness" defined so as to rule out cognitive functionality and causal powers).
So the hard problem is an example of a well known type of philosophical problem that needs to be dissolved (fairly easily) rather than solved. For other examples, and a brief introduction to conceptual analysis, see http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/research/projects/cogaff/misc/varieties-of-atheism.html
In contrast, the so-called "easy" problem requires detailed analysis of very complex and subtle features of perceptual processes, introspective processes and other mental processes, sometimes labelled "access consciousness": these have cognitive functions, but their complexity (especially the way details change as the environment changes or the perceiver moves) is considerable and very hard to characterise.
"Access consciousness" is complex also because it takes many different forms, since what individuals are conscious of and what uses being conscious of things can be put to, can vary hugely, from simple life forms, through many other animals and human infants, to sophisticated adult humans,
Finding ways of modelling these aspects of consciousness, and explaining how they arise out of physical mechanisms, requires major advances in the science of information processing systems -- including computer science and neuroscience.
There are empirical facts about introspection that have generated theories of consciousness but some of the empirical facts go unnoticed by philosophers.
The notion of a virtual machine is introduced briefly and illustrated using Conway's "Game of life" and other examples of virtual machinery that explain how contents of consciousness can have causal powers and can have intentionality (be able to refer to other things).
The beginnings of a research program are presented, showing how more examples can be collected and how notions of virtual machinery may need to be developed to cope with all the phenomena.
Scientific Method is a process used to build and organize knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the natural world. It involves making observations, asking questions, formulating hypotheses, making predictions, conducting experiments, and analyzing the results. While science is constantly evolving as new discoveries are made, the scientific method helps ensure research is objective, evidence-based, and peer-reviewed.
The scientific method is important because it allows for a systematic process of exploring the natural world to build understanding. By making detailed observations and asking questions, researchers can form hypotheses to explain phenomena. Experiments are then designed to test these hypotheses, either supporting or dis
The document discusses two models of memory: the multi-store model and the working memory model. The multi-store model proposes that memory consists of three stores - sensory store, short-term store, and long-term store. Information moves from sensory to short-term to long-term storage. The working memory model proposes that working memory consists of a central executive and two slave systems - the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. It suggests working memory works independently of long-term memory. Both models attempt to explain the cognitive processes involved in memory but the working memory model is considered more accurate as it is supported by evidence from brain damaged patients.
Guiding principles in the Selection and Use of Teaching StrategiesMary Jane Hugo
1. The document discusses 10 principles of effective teaching strategies based on brain research, including using visual aids, songs and rhymes, hands-on activities, and integrated interdisciplinary approaches.
2. Some examples provided are using graphic organizers to visually represent concepts, teaching with mnemonics like rhymes and jingles, and having students actively participate through activities like peer teaching.
3. The document emphasizes that teaching methods should consider objectives, content, students, teachers, and policies to be most effective.
Knowledge from different areas and disciplines can be represented as maps of various territories. While maps in some areas like the natural sciences aim to accurately depict physical realities, maps in other areas like the arts have more flexibility in their representations. Different maps can exist for the same territory, with some seen as more accurate than others or covering a broader scope. The ongoing development of knowledge involves improving, updating, and expanding existing maps.
The document discusses the steps involved in requesting and receiving writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. The 5 steps are: 1) Create an account with a password and email; 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline; 3) Review bids from writers and choose one; 4) Receive the paper and authorize payment if satisfied; 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction and receive a refund if plagiarized. The process aims to match clients with qualified writers and provide original, high-quality content.
The document provides guidance on elucidating concepts through definition, explication, and clarification. It discusses definition techniques like formal definition using genus and differentia, extended definition using synonyms, etymology, examples, and negation. Explication is explained as a deductive process of refining a general concept and testing it through close reading to uncover deeper meaning. Clarification strategies include explaining cause and effect relationships and using theories to make ideas clearer and avoid misconceptions. The overall aim is to define key terms, explain complex ideas, and clarify points to enhance understanding.
The document discusses effective strategies for explanation. It notes that explanations serve to make things understandable, clarify ideas, and provide context. Evidence supports teacher-led instruction, as students with less prior knowledge need more guidance. Effective explanations use strong subject knowledge, credibility, concise design, concepts supported by examples, metaphor, storytelling, and chances to elaborate. Concepts should be taught through concrete examples to connect to prior knowledge. Stories are memorable ways to inspire action.
The Multi Store Model Of Memory And Research Into...Lindsey Campbell
The multi-store model of memory proposes that memory can be divided into three distinct parts: the sensory store, short-term store, and long-term store. According to this model, data is first encountered by the sensory store and then processed into the short-term store if given attention, and finally into the long-term store if rehearsed. Research such as Murdock's serial position effect study provides support for this model. The working memory model examines how information is temporarily stored and manipulated to perform tasks. Working memory allows for the immediate recall of information through rehearsal. Luck and Vogel's change detection experiment found that the capacity of short-term memory is around 3-4 items.
JOINT PROFFESIONAL TRAINNING SUPPORT AND INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE.docxFadareAdedamolaAdejo
This document provides an overview of research methodology. It defines research and describes the characteristics and types of research such as applied research and experimental research. It discusses who researchers are and where research problems originate from, such as interviews, personal experiences, and relevant literature. The document outlines how researchers should go about solving problems, including identifying the problem, diagnosing causes, identifying solutions, and evaluating outcomes. It also lists sources where researchers can find information, such as the internet, libraries, books, newspapers, and experts. Finally, it describes how a researcher knows a problem is solved, including defining the problem, identifying solutions, and determining relationships between variables.
This document presents a study that examined the effect of typicality and organization on word recall. It aimed to analyze memory recall based on how typical the presented information was and how it was organized. It was hypothesized that more typical information and information presented in an organized/chunked format would have higher recall than less typical or randomly presented information. The study involved 203 participants who were shown word lists under different conditions of typicality and organization and asked to recall the words. Results were expected to show better recall for more typical and chunked/organized information, and an interaction between typicality and organization.
This document provides instructions for an upcoming topic presentation assignment. It informs students that the topic schedule and assigned readings have been posted. Students must communicate with their fellow presenters to ensure different aspects of the topic are covered without duplicating each other's work. For their presentation, students must find at least two additional readings on their topic and construct a discussion question. They are responsible for moderating the online discussion and summarizing it for the class. The document outlines the goals and requirements for a successful presentation.
my professor ask me this question what should be answer(your resea.docxJinElias52
my professor ask me this question what should be answer(
your research does a very good job of explaining the topic and the changes in FASB. How did you plan to incorporate your reading from the Daniels, Radebaugh, and Sullivan text?
Daniels, J., Radebaugh, L., and Sullivan, D. (2015). International Business: Environments and Operations 15e. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN: 13:978-0-13-345723-0.
i want only answer this question
.
My assignment is to create a 12-page argumentativepersuasive rese.docxJinElias52
My assignment is to create a 12-page argumentative/persuasive research paper given one of the following option:
Argue for or against a business decision, organizational plan, business philosophy, policy decision, or concept related to the class. On Corporate Social Responsibility
.
Myths in Neolithic Cultures Around the Globe Please respond to th.docxJinElias52
Myths in Neolithic Cultures Around the Globe"
Please respond to the following,
using sources under the Explore heading as the basis of your response
:
Describe the functions of ancient myths, using examples from two (2) different neolithic cultures, and comment on whether myth is inherently fictional. Using modern examples, discuss ways modern belief systems, secular or religious, function for modern cultures in a similar fashion.
Explore
Neolithic societies and myths
Chapter 1 (pp. 6-8. 18-23, 29), myths in prehistory and early cultures
Ancient myths in regions around the globe at
http://www.windows2universe.org/mythology/worldmap_new.html
and
http://www.pantheon.org/areas/mythology/
.
.
Myths in Neolithic Cultures Around the GlobePlease respond to .docxJinElias52
"Myths in Neolithic Cultures Around the Globe"
Please respond to the following,
using sources under the Explore heading as the basis of your response
:
Describe the functions of ancient myths, using examples from two (2) different neolithic cultures, and comment on whether myth is inherently fictional. Using modern examples, discuss ways modern belief systems, secular or religious, function for modern cultures in a similar fashion.
Explore
Neolithic societies and myths
Ancient myths in regions around the globe at
http://www.windows2universe.org/mythology/worldmap_new.html
and
http://www.pantheon.org/areas/mythology/
.
.
Mycobacterium tuberculosisYou must review the contents of your n.docxJinElias52
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
You must review the contents of your news article and discuss what type of microorganism it is, if the organism is in nature or is used in industry or causes disease. If it causes disease you must discuss transmission, increasing incidence, factors contributing to the spread of the organism, lab culturing, etc.
300-400 words
.
My TopicI would like to do my case application on Helen Keller’s.docxJinElias52
My Topic:
"I would like to do my case application on Helen Keller’s fight with learning disability. I chose Helen Keller because she is one of the most important personality and the first person without hearing or sight to earn a BA. Her story is narrated in the movie “The Miracle Worker.”
For additional details, please refer to the Milestone Two Rubric document and the Final Project Document in the Assignment Guidelines and Rubrics section of the course.
.
My topic is the terms a Congress person serves and debate on adding .docxJinElias52
My topic is the terms a Congress person serves and debate on adding limitations to how long a person can be in Congress.
The Pros and Cons of the unlimited terms in congress
Do members of congress to support position people of the state they represent therefore should be able to change and if it will benefit.
How to Add limitations on the term served by congress
Follow the directions below for the completion of the Annotated Bibliography assignment for Unit II.
Purpose: The purpose of the annotated bibliography is to summarize the sources that you have gathered to support your research proposal project. These summaries help you to think about the complex arguments presented in your sources. Description: In this assignment, you will create an annotated bibliography consisting of seven sources. Each entry will consist of a reference list citation, a summary of the source’s information, and a one-sentence assessment. Each annotation should be between 150 to 200 words. If an entry is shorter than 150 words, it is likely you have not fully developed your summary, and this lack of development can severely impact your grade for this assignment.
.
My topic is anywhere, anytime information work, which means tele-wor.docxJinElias52
My topic is anywhere, anytime information work, which means tele-work, and we choose ( AT&T toggle)
I've done all the questions but i need more detail , deep answers .
1- write an introduction about ( anywhere, anytime information work) in details and conclusion about the company and application
2-write a brief explanation about the company it self ( AT&T)
3- plagiarism not accepted
4- use simple words
5- make it 12 or 11 pages
.
My topic for module-2 reaction paper was on news, data, and other me.docxJinElias52
My topic for module-2 reaction paper was on news, data, and other media means of delivering information to the public. When gathering all the information and reflecting on my personal experience when watching, reading or listening to the news outlets was very addicting. To see news clips from the wars past or deployments after the fact was real-time history for most of us (me), yet our families, friends and other members not physically at that location waiting to hear something can be very overwhelming. My question is the methods and absorbing of news
: Are citizens informed about terrorism and is it overwhelming?
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Why the "hard" problem of consciousness is easy and the "easy" problem hard....Aaron Sloman
The "hard" problem of concsiousness can be shown to be a non-problem because it is formulated using a seriously defective concept (the concept of "phenomenal consciousness" defined so as to rule out cognitive functionality and causal powers).
So the hard problem is an example of a well known type of philosophical problem that needs to be dissolved (fairly easily) rather than solved. For other examples, and a brief introduction to conceptual analysis, see http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/research/projects/cogaff/misc/varieties-of-atheism.html
In contrast, the so-called "easy" problem requires detailed analysis of very complex and subtle features of perceptual processes, introspective processes and other mental processes, sometimes labelled "access consciousness": these have cognitive functions, but their complexity (especially the way details change as the environment changes or the perceiver moves) is considerable and very hard to characterise.
"Access consciousness" is complex also because it takes many different forms, since what individuals are conscious of and what uses being conscious of things can be put to, can vary hugely, from simple life forms, through many other animals and human infants, to sophisticated adult humans,
Finding ways of modelling these aspects of consciousness, and explaining how they arise out of physical mechanisms, requires major advances in the science of information processing systems -- including computer science and neuroscience.
There are empirical facts about introspection that have generated theories of consciousness but some of the empirical facts go unnoticed by philosophers.
The notion of a virtual machine is introduced briefly and illustrated using Conway's "Game of life" and other examples of virtual machinery that explain how contents of consciousness can have causal powers and can have intentionality (be able to refer to other things).
The beginnings of a research program are presented, showing how more examples can be collected and how notions of virtual machinery may need to be developed to cope with all the phenomena.
Scientific Method is a process used to build and organize knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the natural world. It involves making observations, asking questions, formulating hypotheses, making predictions, conducting experiments, and analyzing the results. While science is constantly evolving as new discoveries are made, the scientific method helps ensure research is objective, evidence-based, and peer-reviewed.
The scientific method is important because it allows for a systematic process of exploring the natural world to build understanding. By making detailed observations and asking questions, researchers can form hypotheses to explain phenomena. Experiments are then designed to test these hypotheses, either supporting or dis
The document discusses two models of memory: the multi-store model and the working memory model. The multi-store model proposes that memory consists of three stores - sensory store, short-term store, and long-term store. Information moves from sensory to short-term to long-term storage. The working memory model proposes that working memory consists of a central executive and two slave systems - the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. It suggests working memory works independently of long-term memory. Both models attempt to explain the cognitive processes involved in memory but the working memory model is considered more accurate as it is supported by evidence from brain damaged patients.
Guiding principles in the Selection and Use of Teaching StrategiesMary Jane Hugo
1. The document discusses 10 principles of effective teaching strategies based on brain research, including using visual aids, songs and rhymes, hands-on activities, and integrated interdisciplinary approaches.
2. Some examples provided are using graphic organizers to visually represent concepts, teaching with mnemonics like rhymes and jingles, and having students actively participate through activities like peer teaching.
3. The document emphasizes that teaching methods should consider objectives, content, students, teachers, and policies to be most effective.
Knowledge from different areas and disciplines can be represented as maps of various territories. While maps in some areas like the natural sciences aim to accurately depict physical realities, maps in other areas like the arts have more flexibility in their representations. Different maps can exist for the same territory, with some seen as more accurate than others or covering a broader scope. The ongoing development of knowledge involves improving, updating, and expanding existing maps.
The document discusses the steps involved in requesting and receiving writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. The 5 steps are: 1) Create an account with a password and email; 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline; 3) Review bids from writers and choose one; 4) Receive the paper and authorize payment if satisfied; 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction and receive a refund if plagiarized. The process aims to match clients with qualified writers and provide original, high-quality content.
The document provides guidance on elucidating concepts through definition, explication, and clarification. It discusses definition techniques like formal definition using genus and differentia, extended definition using synonyms, etymology, examples, and negation. Explication is explained as a deductive process of refining a general concept and testing it through close reading to uncover deeper meaning. Clarification strategies include explaining cause and effect relationships and using theories to make ideas clearer and avoid misconceptions. The overall aim is to define key terms, explain complex ideas, and clarify points to enhance understanding.
The document discusses effective strategies for explanation. It notes that explanations serve to make things understandable, clarify ideas, and provide context. Evidence supports teacher-led instruction, as students with less prior knowledge need more guidance. Effective explanations use strong subject knowledge, credibility, concise design, concepts supported by examples, metaphor, storytelling, and chances to elaborate. Concepts should be taught through concrete examples to connect to prior knowledge. Stories are memorable ways to inspire action.
The Multi Store Model Of Memory And Research Into...Lindsey Campbell
The multi-store model of memory proposes that memory can be divided into three distinct parts: the sensory store, short-term store, and long-term store. According to this model, data is first encountered by the sensory store and then processed into the short-term store if given attention, and finally into the long-term store if rehearsed. Research such as Murdock's serial position effect study provides support for this model. The working memory model examines how information is temporarily stored and manipulated to perform tasks. Working memory allows for the immediate recall of information through rehearsal. Luck and Vogel's change detection experiment found that the capacity of short-term memory is around 3-4 items.
JOINT PROFFESIONAL TRAINNING SUPPORT AND INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE.docxFadareAdedamolaAdejo
This document provides an overview of research methodology. It defines research and describes the characteristics and types of research such as applied research and experimental research. It discusses who researchers are and where research problems originate from, such as interviews, personal experiences, and relevant literature. The document outlines how researchers should go about solving problems, including identifying the problem, diagnosing causes, identifying solutions, and evaluating outcomes. It also lists sources where researchers can find information, such as the internet, libraries, books, newspapers, and experts. Finally, it describes how a researcher knows a problem is solved, including defining the problem, identifying solutions, and determining relationships between variables.
This document presents a study that examined the effect of typicality and organization on word recall. It aimed to analyze memory recall based on how typical the presented information was and how it was organized. It was hypothesized that more typical information and information presented in an organized/chunked format would have higher recall than less typical or randomly presented information. The study involved 203 participants who were shown word lists under different conditions of typicality and organization and asked to recall the words. Results were expected to show better recall for more typical and chunked/organized information, and an interaction between typicality and organization.
This document provides instructions for an upcoming topic presentation assignment. It informs students that the topic schedule and assigned readings have been posted. Students must communicate with their fellow presenters to ensure different aspects of the topic are covered without duplicating each other's work. For their presentation, students must find at least two additional readings on their topic and construct a discussion question. They are responsible for moderating the online discussion and summarizing it for the class. The document outlines the goals and requirements for a successful presentation.
Similar to Chapter 8 Thought andLanguage8.1 The Organization of (13)
my professor ask me this question what should be answer(your resea.docxJinElias52
my professor ask me this question what should be answer(
your research does a very good job of explaining the topic and the changes in FASB. How did you plan to incorporate your reading from the Daniels, Radebaugh, and Sullivan text?
Daniels, J., Radebaugh, L., and Sullivan, D. (2015). International Business: Environments and Operations 15e. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN: 13:978-0-13-345723-0.
i want only answer this question
.
My assignment is to create a 12-page argumentativepersuasive rese.docxJinElias52
My assignment is to create a 12-page argumentative/persuasive research paper given one of the following option:
Argue for or against a business decision, organizational plan, business philosophy, policy decision, or concept related to the class. On Corporate Social Responsibility
.
Myths in Neolithic Cultures Around the Globe Please respond to th.docxJinElias52
Myths in Neolithic Cultures Around the Globe"
Please respond to the following,
using sources under the Explore heading as the basis of your response
:
Describe the functions of ancient myths, using examples from two (2) different neolithic cultures, and comment on whether myth is inherently fictional. Using modern examples, discuss ways modern belief systems, secular or religious, function for modern cultures in a similar fashion.
Explore
Neolithic societies and myths
Chapter 1 (pp. 6-8. 18-23, 29), myths in prehistory and early cultures
Ancient myths in regions around the globe at
http://www.windows2universe.org/mythology/worldmap_new.html
and
http://www.pantheon.org/areas/mythology/
.
.
Myths in Neolithic Cultures Around the GlobePlease respond to .docxJinElias52
"Myths in Neolithic Cultures Around the Globe"
Please respond to the following,
using sources under the Explore heading as the basis of your response
:
Describe the functions of ancient myths, using examples from two (2) different neolithic cultures, and comment on whether myth is inherently fictional. Using modern examples, discuss ways modern belief systems, secular or religious, function for modern cultures in a similar fashion.
Explore
Neolithic societies and myths
Ancient myths in regions around the globe at
http://www.windows2universe.org/mythology/worldmap_new.html
and
http://www.pantheon.org/areas/mythology/
.
.
Mycobacterium tuberculosisYou must review the contents of your n.docxJinElias52
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
You must review the contents of your news article and discuss what type of microorganism it is, if the organism is in nature or is used in industry or causes disease. If it causes disease you must discuss transmission, increasing incidence, factors contributing to the spread of the organism, lab culturing, etc.
300-400 words
.
My TopicI would like to do my case application on Helen Keller’s.docxJinElias52
My Topic:
"I would like to do my case application on Helen Keller’s fight with learning disability. I chose Helen Keller because she is one of the most important personality and the first person without hearing or sight to earn a BA. Her story is narrated in the movie “The Miracle Worker.”
For additional details, please refer to the Milestone Two Rubric document and the Final Project Document in the Assignment Guidelines and Rubrics section of the course.
.
My topic is the terms a Congress person serves and debate on adding .docxJinElias52
My topic is the terms a Congress person serves and debate on adding limitations to how long a person can be in Congress.
The Pros and Cons of the unlimited terms in congress
Do members of congress to support position people of the state they represent therefore should be able to change and if it will benefit.
How to Add limitations on the term served by congress
Follow the directions below for the completion of the Annotated Bibliography assignment for Unit II.
Purpose: The purpose of the annotated bibliography is to summarize the sources that you have gathered to support your research proposal project. These summaries help you to think about the complex arguments presented in your sources. Description: In this assignment, you will create an annotated bibliography consisting of seven sources. Each entry will consist of a reference list citation, a summary of the source’s information, and a one-sentence assessment. Each annotation should be between 150 to 200 words. If an entry is shorter than 150 words, it is likely you have not fully developed your summary, and this lack of development can severely impact your grade for this assignment.
.
My topic is anywhere, anytime information work, which means tele-wor.docxJinElias52
My topic is anywhere, anytime information work, which means tele-work, and we choose ( AT&T toggle)
I've done all the questions but i need more detail , deep answers .
1- write an introduction about ( anywhere, anytime information work) in details and conclusion about the company and application
2-write a brief explanation about the company it self ( AT&T)
3- plagiarism not accepted
4- use simple words
5- make it 12 or 11 pages
.
My topic for module-2 reaction paper was on news, data, and other me.docxJinElias52
My topic for module-2 reaction paper was on news, data, and other media means of delivering information to the public. When gathering all the information and reflecting on my personal experience when watching, reading or listening to the news outlets was very addicting. To see news clips from the wars past or deployments after the fact was real-time history for most of us (me), yet our families, friends and other members not physically at that location waiting to hear something can be very overwhelming. My question is the methods and absorbing of news
: Are citizens informed about terrorism and is it overwhelming?
.
My Topic for the paper I would like to do my case application on He.docxJinElias52
My Topic for the paper: I would like to do my case application on Helen Keller’s fight with learning disability. I chose Helen Keller because she is one of the most important personality and the first person without hearing or sight to earn a BA. Her story is narrated in the movie “The Miracle Worker.”
.
n a 2 page paper, written in APA format using proper spellinggramma.docxJinElias52
n a 2 page paper, written in APA format using proper spelling/grammar, address the following:
Briefly explain Piaget's and Erikson's theories of development. Who had a better theory of human development: Erikson or Piaget? Please offer detail to explain your choice.
What tips would you give to someone who has just suffered a major loss, now that you know the stages of grief?
.
My research proposal is on fall prevention WRTG 394 s.docxJinElias52
My research proposal is on fall prevention
WRTG 394 students,
Your next writing assignment will be a
memo to your instructor for the final report.
Steps to Take in Completing this Assignment:
•
Identify the decision-maker or group of decision-makers to whom you will write your final report
• Describe the specific problem you are attempting to address.
• Prepare some primary research for your report.
• Write a memo to your instructor using the template provided below.
The Role of this Assignment for your Research Report:
This assignment is designed to help you put together the final paper in WRTG 394.
Remember, your final paper in WRTG 394 will be a report in which you do the following:
•
define a problem in your workplace or community persuasively and accurately
•
propose a solution or solutions to the problem or issue
Previous assignments in the class pointed out some sample topics for the report:
• a report to your manager at work suggesting that more teleworking options be given to employees at your workplace
• a report to your supervisor at work suggesting that email be used less frequently for communication and that another application be used to improve communication.
• a report to your manager at work suggesting that your office become paperless
• a report to the board of directors at your townhouse community to argue that the playground area in your community should be renovated
• a report to the manager of your unit at work noting that recycling facilities in the workplace should be improved
For writing assignment #2, you completed a background and synthesis of the literature on your topic.
For this writing assignment, you are going to identify the specific needs in your workplace or community that will be identified for your final report.
Examples of Primary Research for Specific Topics:
•
If you write a report to your manager at work suggesting that more teleworking options be given to employees at your workplace, you cannot simply prepare a report on teleworking. You must show that teleworking will
solve a specific problem or problems in your organization
.
•
If you write a a report to your supervisor at work suggesting that email be used less frequently for communication and that another application be used to improve communication, you cannot simply prepare a report on the benefits of social media in the workplace. You must
show that your specific office has problems in communicating by email and indicate the benefits of using alternative communication systems for your workplace environment
.
•
If you write a report to your manager at work suggesting that your office become paperless, you cannot simply prepare a report on the benefits of a paperless office. You must
show that your specific office can go paperless and indicate the benefits of your specific office going paperless
.
•
If you write a report to the board of directo.
My portion of the group assignment Must be done by Wednesday even.docxJinElias52
My portion of the group assignment:
Must be done by Wednesday evening
•
EFE Matrix; -
•
SWOT (TOWS) analysis; -
•
IFE Matrix; -
•
A list of alternative strategies, giving advantages and disadvantages for each; -
Walt Disney Company, p. 441, Case 8 (photos of pages upladed)
.
my project is about construcation houses for poor poeple in Denver .docxJinElias52
The project is about constructing affordable housing for low-income people in Denver. It is a 30-page document. The goal is to produce a 10-page project notebook by assigning different knowledge areas to team members and combining their work to demonstrate synergy between the areas.
my name is abdullah aljedanii am from saudi arabia i graduate fr.docxJinElias52
Abdullah Aljedani is from Saudi Arabia and graduated from DHBAN high school in 2013. He went to the USA to study English and apply to university. He wants to apply for civil engineering and needs a 500 word letter within 24 hours explaining what he has done since high school.
My hypothesis Being disconnected from social media (texting, Facebo.docxJinElias52
My hypothesis: Being disconnected from social media (texting, Facebook, cell phone use, etc) causes stress in teenagers.
It is my belief partly based on observation (I teach HS students) that we have created a society where even the slightest communication is cause for a teenager’s engagement with his/her electronic device. Being constantly connected to others, or at least knowing that is an option appears to give them some peace of mind and perhaps helps them feel less alone. This worries me because I fear they will be unable to engage in experiences on their own without that constant connection to others. This behavior doesn’t allow for self-reflection, meditation, or other important moments designed to focus the attention inward. In other words, a fear of being alone. On the other hand, teenagers can reach out to others as never before, which is great in many cases.
I would choose the Experimental Research method for the following experiment, being careful to adhere to its two components: 1) that there is a random assignment of participants. I would stress that this should be a double-blind experiment so I do not influence its outcome; and 2) a manipulation of an independent variable.
My experiment: After taking a base level of stress indicators (heart rate, blood pressure, brain waves, perspiration levels, etc) I would randomly assign two separate groups of HS students to spend 2 days camping in the wilderness. I would set up several exciting events to take place such as river rafting, hunting, building a shelter for the night, etc. One group would have their cell phones with them (assuming there is a cell phone connection in this remote area), the second group would not. The first group could contact whomever they chose during the events and during a down time say, at night. The second group would not have cell phones to be able to do this. I would somehow monitor both group’s stress levels while out in the wilderness.
Summary: Because I would want to avoid the Correlation/Causation Fallacy, I would need to not know which students were which in this experiment. And I foresee some challenges that might not be avoidable and might skew this idea. There could be variables such as a student who is naturally highly stressed in the wilderness and his anxiety could spike giving my experiment the expected result but for the wrong reason. Not to mention the difficulty of setting up this experiment in the first place.
Personal note: Thinking about this idea has caused me to think in a more scientific way about the results of all experiments I learn about. The Correlation/Causation issue is one I fall victim to a lot. I like to think that I am an objective observer, but so far in this course, I am not so sure of that anymore. At the same time that I hate to have my thinking challenged in this way, I also feel excited that I am thinking on a deeper level than I ever have.
How would you select the groups at random? Would you use a number system? Perha.
My group is the Los Angeles Rams. We are looking to be sponsors with.docxJinElias52
My group is the Los Angeles Rams. We are looking to be sponsors with Dunkin' Donuts.Attached is an example of the Portland Timbers and a sponsorship with Chevrolet. On the bottom of the excel document you can see there are 4 different tabs. The tabs I need done are Research and Activity.
Thank you.
.
My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still;My father .docxJinElias52
My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still;
My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will;
The ship is anchor'd safe and sound, its voyage closed and done;
From fearful trip, the victor ship, comes in with object won;
Exult, O shores, and ring, O bells!
But I, with mournful tread,
Walk the deck my Captain lies,
Fallen cold and dead.
Examine the imagery in the stanza in bold. What is the significance of the two different images?
The speaker does not feel the joy everyone else is experiencing.
The speaker does not feel the misery everyone else is experiencing.
The speaker does not want anyone to know how unhappy he truly is.
The speaker does not want anyone to know how happy he truly is.
.
My character is Phoenix Jackson from the story A Worn PathMLA Form.docxJinElias52
My character is Phoenix Jackson from the story A Worn Path
MLA Format. 1200 words
Must have
Identify the type of character it is dealing with (A single character could be two or thres types.
Describe the character
Discuss the conflict in the story particularly in regards to the character's place in it.
Due tomorrow by 3pm
.
My assignment is to write an original essay of four to fivr parargra.docxJinElias52
My assignment is to write an original essay of four to fivr parargraphs describing a person I admire. My chocie is Lional Messi he is a famous soccer player. I need a hook in the introduction and three body paragraphs. First paragraphs about his childhoods secound paragraphs about join Barcalona fc third parargraph about change of the soccer history and a conclusion. I needed for secound English language person I don't want to too perfect.
.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
Physiology and chemistry of skin and pigmentation, hairs, scalp, lips and nail, Cleansing cream, Lotions, Face powders, Face packs, Lipsticks, Bath products, soaps and baby product,
Preparation and standardization of the following : Tonic, Bleaches, Dentifrices and Mouth washes & Tooth Pastes, Cosmetics for Nails.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Assessment and Planning in Educational technology.pptxKavitha Krishnan
In an education system, it is understood that assessment is only for the students, but on the other hand, the Assessment of teachers is also an important aspect of the education system that ensures teachers are providing high-quality instruction to students. The assessment process can be used to provide feedback and support for professional development, to inform decisions about teacher retention or promotion, or to evaluate teacher effectiveness for accountability purposes.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Chapter 8 Thought andLanguage8.1 The Organization of
1. Chapter 8 Thought and
Language
8.1 The Organization of Knowledge
Concepts and Categories 315
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Priming and Semantic
Networks
318
Module 8.1a Quiz 319
Memory, Culture, and Categories 319
Module 8.1b Quiz 323
Module 8.1 Summary 323
8.2 Problem Solving, Judgment, and Decision Making
Defining and Solving Problems 325
Module 8.2a Quiz 328
Judgment and Decision Making 328
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Maximizing and
Satisficing in
Complex Decisions 332
Module 8.2b Quiz 334
2. Module 8.2 Summary 335
8.3 Language and Communication
What Is Language? 337
Module 8.3a Quiz 341
The Development of Language 341
Module 8.3b Quiz 344
Genes, Evolution, and Language 344
Working the Scientific Literacy Model: Genes and Language
344
Module 8.3c Quiz 348
Module 8.3 Summary 348
Module 8.1 The Organization of
Knowledge
Dmitry Vereshchagin/Fotolia
Learning Objectives
Know . . . the key terminology associated with concepts and
categories.
Understand . . . theories of how people organize their
3. knowledge about
the world.
Understand . . . how experience and culture can shape the way
we
organize our knowledge.
Apply . . . your knowledge to identify prototypical examples.
8.1a
8.1b
8.1c
8.1d
When Edward regained consciousness in the hospital, his family
immediately noticed that something was wrong. The most
obvious
problem was that he had difficulty recognizing faces, a
relatively common
disorder known as prosopagosia. As the doctors performed more
testing,
it became apparent that Edward had other cognitive problems as
well.
Edward had difficulty recognizing objects—but not all objects.
Instead, he
couldn’t distinguish between different vegetables even though
he could
use language to describe their appearance. His ability to
recognize most
other types of objects seemed normal.
Neurological patients like Edward may seem unrelated to your
own life.
However, for specific categories of visual information to be
4. lost, they must
have been stored in similar areas of the brain before brain
damage
occurred. Therefore, these cases give us some insight into how
the brain
stores and organizes the information that we have encoded into
memory.
Focus Questions
1. How do people form easily recognizable categories from
complex
information?
2. How does culture influence the ways in which we categorize
information?
Each of us has amassed a tremendous amount of knowledge in
the course of
our lifetime. Indeed, it is impossible to put a number on just
how many facts each
of us knows. Imagine trying to record everything you ever
learned about the
world—how many books could you fill? Instead of asking how
much we know,
psychologists are interested in how we keep track of it all. In
this module, we will
explore what those processes are like and how they work. We
will start by
learning about the key terminology before presenting theories
about how
Analyze . . . the claim that the language we speak determines
how we
think.
5. 8.1e
knowledge is stored over the long term.
Concepts and Categories
A concept is the mental representation of an object, event, or
idea. Although
it seems as though different concepts should be distinct from
each other, there
are actually very few independent concepts. You do not have
just one concept
for chair, one for table, and one for sofa. Instead, each of these
concepts can be
divided into smaller groups with more precise labels, such as
arm chair or coffee
table. Similarly, all of these items can be lumped together under
the single label,
furniture. Psychologists use the term categories to refer to
these clusters of
interrelated concepts. We form these groups using a process
called
categorization.
Classical Categories: Definitions and Rules
Categorization is difficult to define in that it involves elements
of perception
(Chapter 4 ), memory (Chapter 7 ), and “higher-order”
processes like
decision making (Module 8.2 ) and language (Module 8.3 ). The
earliest
6. approach to the study of categories is referred to as classical
categorization ; this theory claims that objects or events are
categorized
according to a certain set of rules or by a specific set of
features—something
similar to a dictionary definition (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999;
Rouder & Ratcliffe,
2006). Definitions do a fine job of explaining how people
categorize items, at
least in certain situations. For example, a triangle can be
defined as “a figure
(usually, a plane rectilinear figure) having three angles and
three sides” (Oxford
English Dictionary, 2011). Using this definition, you should
find it easy to
categorize the triangles in Figure 8.1 .
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8. which category. One of the major problems we confront in this
process is graded
membership —the observation that some concepts appear to
make better
category members than others. For example, see if the definition
in Table 8.1
fits your definition of bird and then categorize the items in the
table.
Table 8.1 Categorizing Objects According to the Definition of
Bird
Definition: “Any of the class Aves of warm-blooded, egg-
laying, feathered vertebrates
with forelimbs modified to form wings.” (American Heritage
Dictionary, 2016)
Now categorize a set of items by answering yes or no regarding
the truth of the
following sentences.
1. A sparrow is a bird.
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2. An apple is a bird.
3. A penguin is a bird.
Ideally, you said yes to the sparrow and penguin, and no to the
apple. But did
you notice any difference in how you responded to the sparrow
and penguin?
Psychologists have researched classical categorization using a
behavioural
measure known as the sentence-verification technique, in which
volunteers wait
for a sentence to appear in front of them on a computer screen
and respond as
quickly as they can with a yes or no answer to statements such
as “A sparrow is
a bird,” or, “A penguin is a bird.” The choice the participant
makes, as well as her
reaction time to respond, is measured by the researcher.
Sentence-verification
shows us that some members of a category are recognized faster
than others
(Olson et al., 2004; Rosch & Mervis, 1975). In other words,
subjects almost
always answer “yes” faster to sparrow than to penguin. This
seems to go against
a classical, rule-based categorization system because both
sparrows and
penguins are equally good fits for the definition, but sparrows
are somehow
10. perceived as being more bird-like than penguins. Thus, a
modern approach to
categorization must explain how “best examples” influence how
we categorize
items.
Prototypes: Categorization by Comparison
When you hear the word bird, what mental image comes to
mind? Does it
resemble an ostrich? Or is your image closer to a robin,
sparrow, or blue jay?
The likely image that comes to mind when you imagine a bird is
what
psychologists call a prototype (see Figure 8.2 ). Prototypes are
mental
representations of an average category member (Rosch, 1973).
If you took an
average of the three most familiar birds, you would get a
prototypical bird.
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Figure 8.2 A Prototypical Bird
Left: chatursunil/Shutterstock; centre: Al Mueller/Shutterstock;
right:
Leo/Shutterstock
Prototypes allow for classification by resemblance. When you
encounter a little
creature you have never seen before, its basic shape—maybe
just its silhouette
—can be compared to your prototype of a bird. A match will
then be made and
you can classify the creature as a bird. Notice how different this
process is from
classical categorization: No rules or definitions are involved,
just a set of
similarities in overall shape and function.
The main advantage of prototypes is that they help explain why
some category
members make better examples than others. Ostriches are birds
just as much as
blue jays are, but they do not resemble the rest of the family
very well. In other
words, blue jays are closer to the prototypical bird.
Now that you have read about categories based on a set of rules
or
characteristics (classical categories) and as a general
comparison based on
resemblances (prototypes), you might wonder which approach is
correct.
12. Research says that we can follow either approach—the choice
really depends on
how complicated a category or a specific example might be. If
there are a few
major distinctions between items, we use resemblance; if there
are
complications, we switch to rules (Feldman, 2003; Rouder &
Ratcliff, 2004,
2006). For example, in the case of seeing a bat dart by, your
first impression
might be “bird” because it resembles a bird. But if you
investigated further, you
will see that a bat fits the classical description of a mammal,
not a bird. In other
words, it has hair, gives live birth rather than laying eggs, and
so on.
Networks and Hierarchies
Classical categorization and prototypes only explain part of how
we organize
information. Each concept that we learn about has similarities
to other concepts.
A sparrow has physical similarities to a bat (e.g., size and
shape); a sparrow will
have even more in common with a robin because they are both
birds (e.g., size,
shape, laying eggs, etc.). These connections among ideas can be
represented in
a network diagram known as a semantic network , an
interconnected set of
nodes (or concepts) and the links that join them to form a
13. category (see Figure
8.3 ). Nodes are circles that represent concepts, and links
connect them
together to represent the structure of a category as well as the
relationships
among different categories (Collins & Loftus, 1975). In these
networks, similar
items have more, and stronger, connections than unrelated
items.
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Figure 8.3 A Semantic Network Diagram for the Category
“Animal”
The nodes include the basic-level categories, Bird and Fish.
14. Another node
represents the broader category of Animal, while the lowest
three nodes
represent the more specific categories of Robin, Emu, and
Trout.
Source: Based on Collins, A. M., & Quillian, M. R. (1969).
Retrieval time from semantic memory. Journal of Verbal
Learning
and Verbal Behavior, 8, 240–248.
Something you may notice about Figure 8.3 is that it is
arranged in a
hierarchy—that is, it consists of a structure moving from
general to very specific.
This organization is important because different levels of the
category are useful
in different situations. The most frequently used level, in both
thought and
language, is the basic-level category, which is located in the
middle row of the
diagram (where birds and fish are) (Johnson & Mervis, 1997;
Rosch et al.,
1976). A number of qualities make the basic-level category
unique:
Basic-level categories are the terms used most often in
conversation.
They are the easiest to pronounce.
They are the level at which prototypes exist.
They are the level at which most thinking occurs.
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16. generally used
when someone is uncertain about an object or when he or she
wishes to group
together a number of different examples from the basic-level
category (e.g.,
birds, cats, dogs). In contrast, when the speaker identifies a
subordinate-level
category like robin, it suggests that there is something special
about this
particular type of bird. It may also indicate that the speaker has
expert-level
knowledge of the basic category and that using the more
specific level is
necessary to get her point across in the intended way.
In order to demonstrate the usefulness of semantic networks in
our attempt to
explain how we organize knowledge, complete this easy test
based on the
animal network in Figure 8.3 . If you were asked to react to
dozens of
sentences, and the following two sentences were included
among them, which
do you think you would mark as “true” the fastest?
A robin is a bird.
A robin is an animal.
As you can see in the network diagram, robin and bird are
closer together; in
fact, to connect robin to animal, you must first go through bird.
Sure enough,
17. people regard the sentence “A robin is a bird” as a true
statement faster than “A
robin is an animal.”
Now consider another set of examples. Which trait do you think
you would verify
faster?
A robin has wings.
A robin eats.
Using the connecting lines as we did before, we can predict that
it would be the
first statement about wings. As research shows, our guess would
be correct.
These results demonstrate that how concepts are arranged in
semantic networks
can influence how quickly we can access information about
them.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model Priming
and Semantic Networks
The thousands of concepts and categories in long-term memory
are not isolated, but connected in a number of ways. What are
the consequences of forming all the connections in semantic
networks?
What do we know about semantic networks?
In your daily life, you notice the connections within semantic
networks anytime you encounter one aspect of a category and
other related concepts seem to come to mind. Hearing the word
“fruit,” for example, might lead you to think of an apple, and
the
apple may lead you to think of a computer, which may lead you
18. to
think of a paper that is due tomorrow. These associations
illustrate the concept of priming —the activation of individual
concepts in long-term memory. Interestingly, research has
shown
that priming can also occur without your awareness; “fruit” may
not have brought the image of a watermelon to mind, but the
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concept of a watermelon may have been primed nonetheless.
How can science explain priming effects?
Psychologists can test for priming through reaction time
measurements, such as those in the sentence verification tasks
discussed earlier or through a method called the lexical decision
task. With the lexical decision method, a volunteer sits at a
computer and stares at a focal point. Next, a string of letters
flashes on the screen. The volunteer responds yes or no as
quickly as possible to indicate whether the letters spell a word
(see Figure 8.4 ). Using this method, a volunteer should
respond faster that “apple” is a word if it follows the word
“fruit”
(which is semantically related) than if it follows the word “bus”
(which is not semantically related).
Figure 8.4 A Lexical Decision Task
19. In a lexical decision task, an individual watches a computer
screen as strings of letters are presented. The participant must
respond as quickly as possible to indicate whether the letters
spell a word (e.g., “desk”) or are a non-word (e.g., “sekd”).
Given that lexical decision tasks are highly controlled
experiments, we might wonder if they have any impact outside
of
the laboratory. One test by Jennifer Coane suggests that priming
does occur in everyday life (Coane & Balota, 2009). Coane’s
research team invited volunteers to participate in lexical
decision
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tasks about holidays at different times of the year. The words
they chose were based on the holiday season at that time. Sure
enough, without any laboratory priming, words such as
“nutcracker” and “reindeer” showed priming effects at times
when
they were congruent (or “in season”) in December, relative to
other times of the year (see Figure 8.5 ). Similarly, words like
“leprechaun” and “shamrock” showed a priming effect during
the
month of March. Because the researchers did not instigate the
priming, it must have been the holiday spirit at work:
Decorations
and advertisements may serve as constant primes.
Figure 8.5 Priming Affects the Speed of
20. Responses on a Lexical Decision Task
Average response times were faster when the holiday-themed
words were congruent (in season), as represented by the blue
bars. This finding is consistent for both the first half and the
second half of the list of words.
Source: Republished with permission of Springer, from Priming
the Holiday Spirit: Persistent
Activation due to Extraexperimental Experiences Fig. 1,
Pg.1126, Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16
(6), 1124–1128, 2009. Permission conveyed through Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc.
Can we critically evaluate this information?
Priming influences thought and behaviour, but is certainly not
all-
powerful. In fact, it can be very weak at times. Because the
strength of priming can vary a great deal, some published
experiments have been very difficult to replicate—an important
criterion of quality research. So, while most psychologists agree
that priming is an important area of research, there have been
very open debates at academic conferences and in peer-
reviewed journals about the best way to conduct the research
and how to interpret the results (Cesario, 2014; Klatzky &
Creswell, 2014).
Why is this relevant?
Advertisers know all too well that priming is more than just a
curiosity; it can be used in a controlled way to promote specific
21. behaviours. For example, cigarette advertising is not allowed on
television stations, but large tobacco companies can sponsor
anti-smoking ads. Why would a company advertise against its
own product? Researchers brought a group of smokers into the
lab to complete a study on television programming and subtly
included a specific type of advertisement between segments
(they did not reveal the true purpose of the study until after it
was
completed). Their participants were four times as likely to light
up
after watching a tobacco-company anti-smoking ad than if they
saw the control group ad about supporting a youth sports league
(Harris et al., 2013). It would appear that while the verbal
message is “don’t smoke,” the images actually prime the
behaviour. Fortunately, more healthful behaviours have been
promoted through priming; for example, carefully designed
primes have been shown to reduce mindless snacking (Papies &
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23. of categorization that notes some items make better category
members
than others.
A. basic-level categorization
B. prototyping
C. priming
D. graded membership
Memory, Culture, and Categories
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In the first part of this module, we examined how we group
together concepts to
form categories. However, it is important to remember that
these processes are
based, at least in part, on our experiences. In this section of the
module, we
examine the role of experience—both in terms of memory
processes and cultural
influences—on our ability to organize our vast stores of
information.
24. Categorization and Experience
People integrate new stimuli into categories based on what they
have
experienced before (Jacoby & Brooks, 1984). When we
encounter a new item,
we select its category by retrieving the item(s) that are most
similar to it from
memory (Brooks, 1978). Normally, these procedures lead to fast
and accurate
categorization. If you see an animal with wings and a beak, you
can easily
retrieve from memory a bird that you previously saw; doing so
will lead you to
infer that this new object is a bird, even if it is a type of bird
that you might not
have encountered before.
However, there are also times when our reliance on previ ously
experienced
items can lead us astray. In a series of studies with medical
students and
practising physicians, Geoffrey Norman and colleagues at
McMaster University
found that recent exposure to an example from one category can
bias how
people diagnose new cases (Leblanc et al., 2001; Norman,
Brooks, et al.,
1989; Norman, Rosenthal, et a., 1989). In one experiment,
medical students
were taught to diagnose different skin conditions using written
rules as well as
photographs of these diseases. Some of the photographs were
25. typical examples
of that disorder whereas other photographs were unusual cases
that resembled
other disorders. When tested later, the participants were more
likely to rely on
the previously viewed photographs than they were on the rules
(a fact that would
surprise most medical schools); in fact, the unusual photographs
viewed during
training even led to wrong diagnoses for test items that were
textbook examples
of that disorder (Allen et al., 1992)! This shows the power that
our memory can
have on how we take in and organize new information. As an
aside, expert
physicians were accurate over 90% of the time in most studies,
so you can still
trust your doctor.
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27. (Warrington &
McCarthy, 1983; Warrington & Shallice, 1979). Because these
problems were
isolated to certain categories, these patients were diagnosed as
having a
disorder known as category specific visual agnosia (or CSVA).
Early attempts to find a pattern in these patients’ deficits
focused on the
distinction between living and non-living categories (see Figure
8.6 ). Several
patients with CSVA had difficulties identifying fruits,
vegetables, and/or animals
but were still able to accurately identify members of categories
such as tools and
furniture (Arguin et al., 1996; Bunn et al., 1998). However,
although CSVA has
been observed in a number of patients, researchers also noted
that it would be
physically impossible for our brains to have specialized regions
for every
category we have encountered. There simply isn’t enough space
for this to
occur. Instead, they proposed that evolutionary pressures led to
the development
of specialized circuits in the brain for a small group of
categories that were
important for our survival. These categories included animals,
fruits and
28. vegetables, members of our own species, and possibly tools
(Caramazza &
Mahon, 2003). Few, if any, other categories involve such
specialized memory
storage. This theory can explain most, but not all, of the
problems observed in
the patients tested thus far. It is also in agreement with brain-
imaging studies
showing that different parts of the temporal lobes are active
when people view
items from different categories including animals, tools, and
people (Martin et
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al., 1996). Thus, although different people will vary in terms of
the exact location
that these categories are stored, it does appear that some
categories are stored
separately from others.
Figure 8.6 Naming Errors for a CSVA Patient
Patients with CSVA have problems identifying members of
specific categories.
When asked to identify the object depicted by different line
drawings, patient E.
W. showed a marked impairment for the recognition of animals.
Her ability to
name items from other categories demonstrated that her overall
perceptual
abilities were preserved.
Source: Based on data from Caramazza, A., & Mahon, B. Z.
(2003). The organization of conceptual knowledge: the evidence
from category-specific semantic deficits. Trends in Cognitive
Sciences, 7 (8), 354–361.
Biopsychosocial Perspectives Culture and
Categorical Thinking
Animals, relatives, household appliances, colours, and other
entities all
fall into categories. However, people from different cultures
might differ in
how they categorize such objects. In North America, cows ar e
sometimes
referred to as “livestock” or “food animals,” whereas in India,
30. where cows
are regarded as sacred, neither category would apply.
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In addition, how objects are related to each other differs
considerably
across cultures. Which of the two photos in Figure 8.7 a do you
think
someone from North America took? Researchers asked both
American
and Japanese university students to take a picture of someone,
from
whatever angle or degree of focus they chose. American
students were
more likely to take close-up pictures, whereas Japanese students
typically included surrounding objects (Nisbett & Masuda,
2003). When
asked which two objects go together in Figure 8.7 b, American
college
students tend to group cows with chickens—because both are
animals.
In contrast, Japanese students coupled cows with grass, because
grass
is what cows eat (Gutchess et al., 2010; Nisbett & Masuda,
2003).
These examples demonstrate cross-cultural differences in
perceiving
how objects are related to their environments. People raised in
North
32. (Park &
Huang, 2010). Figure 8.8 reveals differences in brain activity
when
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Westerners and East Asians view photos of objects, such as an
animal,
against a background of grass and trees. Areas of the brain
devoted to
processing both objects (lateral parts of the occipital lobes) and
background (the parahippocampal gyrus, an area underneath the
hippocampus) become activated when Westerners view these
photos,
whereas only areas devoted to background processes become
activated
in East Asians (Goh et al., 2007). These findings demonstrate
that a
complete understanding of how humans categorize objects
requires
application of the biopsychosocial model.
Figure 8.8 Brain Activity Varies by Culture
Brain regions that are involved in object recognition and
processing are
activated differently in people from Western and Eastern
cultures. Brain
33. regions that are involved in processing individual objects are
more highly
activated when Westerners view focal objects against
background
scenery, whereas people from East Asian countries appear to
attend to
background scenery more closely than focal objects.
Source: Park, D. C. & Huang, C.-M. (2010). Culture wires the
brain: A cognitive neuroscience perspective.
Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5 (4), 391–400.
Reprinted by permission of SAGE Publications.
Myths in Mind How Many Words for Snow?
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Cultural differences in how people think and categorize items
have led to
the idea of linguistic relativity (or the Whorfian hypothesis )—
the
theory that the language we use determines how we understand
(and
categorize) the world. One often-cited example is about the
Inuit in
Canada’s Arctic regions, who are thought to have many words
for snow,
each with a different meaning. For example, aput means snow
that is on
the ground, and gana means falling snow. This observation,
34. which was
made in the early 19th century by anthropologist Franz Boas,
was often
repeated and exaggerated, with claims that Inuit people had
dozens of
words for different types of snow. With so many words for
snow, it was
thought that perhaps the Inuit people perceive snow differently
than
someone who does not live near it almost year-round. Scholars
used the
example to argue that language determines how people
categorize the
world.
Research tells us that we must be careful in over-generalizing
the
influence of language on categorization. The reality is that the
Inuit seem
to categorize snow the same way a person from the rest of
Canada does.
Someone from balmy Winnipeg can tell the difference between
falling
snow, blowing snow, sticky snow, drifting snow, and “oh-sweet-
God-it’s-
snowing-in-May-snow,” just as well as an Inuit who lives with
snow for
most of the year (Martin, 1986). Therefore, we see that the
linguistic
relativity hypothesis is incorrect in this case: The difference in
vocabulary
for snow does not lead to differences in perception.
Categories and Culture
35. The human brain is wired to perceive similarities and
differences and, as we
learned from prototypes, the end result of this tendency is to
categorize items
based on these comparisons as well as on our previous
experiences with
members of different categories. However, our natural
inclination to do so
interacts with our cultural experiences; how we categorize
objects depends to a
great extent on what we have learned about those objects from
others in our
culture.
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Various researchers have explored the relationships between
culture and
categorization by studying basic-level categories among people
from different
cultural backgrounds. For example, researchers have asked
individuals from
traditional villages in Central America to identify a variety of
plants and animals
that are extremely relevant to their diet, medicine, safety, and
other aspects of
their lives. Not surprisingly, these individuals referred to plants
and animals at a
36. more specific level than North American university students
would (Bailenson et
al., 2002; Berlin, 1974). Thus, categorization is based—at least
to some extent
—on cultural learning. Psychologists have also discovered that
cultural factors
influence not just how we categorize individual objects, but al so
how objects in
our world relate to one another.
Although culture and memory both clearly affect how we
describe and categorize
our world, we do need to remember to critically analyze the
results of these
studies. Specifically, as our world becomes more Westernized,
it is possible—
even likely—that these cultural differences will decrease. These
results, then, tell
us about cultural differences at a given time. As you saw in the
Myths in Mind
feature above, we should also exercise caution when reading
about another form
of cultural influences on categorization—linguistic relativity.
Module 8.1b Quiz:
Memory, Culture, and Categories
Know . . .
1. The idea that our language influences how we understand the
world is
referred to as .
A. the context specificity hypothesis
37. B. sentence verification
C. the Whorfian hypothesis
D. priming
Understand . . .
2. A neurologist noticed that a patient with temporal-lobe
damage seemed
to have problems naming specific categories of objects. Based
upon
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what you read in this module, which classes of objects are most
likely to
be affected by this damage?
A. Animals and tools
B. Household objects that he would use quite frequently
C. Fruits and vegetables
D. Related items such as animals and hunting weapons
Apply . . .
3. Janice, a medical school student, looked at her grandmother’s
38. hospital
chart. Although her grandmother appeared to have problems
with her
intestines, Janice thought the pattern of the lab results
resembled those
of a patient with lupus she had seen in the clinic earlier that
week. Janice
is showing an example of
A. how memory for a previous example can influence
categorization
decisions.
B. how people rely on prototypes to categorize objects and
events.
C. how we rely on a set of rules to categorize objects.
D. how we are able to quickly categorize examples from
specific
categories.
Analyze . . .
4. Research on linguistic relativity suggests that
A. language has a complete control over how people categorize
the
world.
B. language can have some effects on categorization, but the
effects
are limited.
C. language has no effect on categorization.
D. researchers have not addressed this question.
39. Module 8.1 Summary
categories
Know . . . the key terminology associated with concepts and
categories.
8.1a
classical categorization
concept
graded membership
linguistic relativity (Whorfian hypothesis)
priming
prototypes
semantic network
Certain objects and events are more likely to be associated in
clusters. The
priming effect demonstrates this phenomenon; for example,
hearing the word
“fruit” makes it more likely that you will think of “apple” than,
say, “table.” More
specifically, we organize our knowledge about the world
through semantic
networks, which arrange categories from general to specific
levels. Usually we
think in terms of basic-level categories, but under some
40. circumstances we can
be either more or less specific. Studies of people with brain
damage suggest that
the neural representations of members of evolutionarily
important categories are
stored together in the brain. These studies also show us that our
previous
experience with a category can influence how we categorize and
store new
stimuli in the brain.
One of many possible examples of this influence was discussed.
Specifically,
ideas of how objects relate to one another differ between people
from North
America and people from Eastern Asia. People from North
America (and
Westerners in general) tend to focus on individual, focal objects
in a scene,
whereas people from Japan tend to focus on how objects are
interrelated.
Understand . . . theories of how people organize their
knowledge
about the world.
8.1b
Understand . . . how experience and culture can shape the way
we
organize our knowledge.
8.1c
41. Apply Activity
Try the following questions for practice.
1. What is the best example for the category of fish: a
hammerhead shark, a
trout, or an eel?
2. What do you consider to be a prototypical sport? Why?
3. Some categories are created spontaneously, yet still have
prototypes.
For example, what might be a prototypical object for the
category “what
to save if your house is on fire”?
Researchers have shown that language can influence the way we
think, but it
cannot entirely shape how we perceive the world. For example,
people can
perceive visual and tactile differences between different types
of snow even if
they don’t have unique words for each type.
Apply . . . your knowledge to identify prototypical
examples.8.1d
Analyze . . . the claim that the language we speak determines
how
we think.
8.1e
Module 8.2 Problem Solving,
Judgment, and Decision
42. Making
Polaris/Newscom
Learning Objectives
Ki-Suck Han was about to die. He had just been shoved onto the
subway’s tracks and was desperately scrambling to climb back
onto the
station’s platform as the subway train rushed toward him. If you
were a
few metres away from Mr. Han, what would you have done?
What factors
would have influenced your actions?
In this case, the person on the platform was R. Umar Abbasi, a
freelance
photographer working for The New York Post. Mr. Abbasi did
not put
down his camera and run to help Mr. Han. Instead, he took a
well-framed
photograph that captured the terrifying scene. The photograph
was
published on the front page of the Post and was immediately
condemned
by people who were upset that the photographer didn’t try to
save Mr.
Han’s life (and that the Post used the photograph to make
money). In a
statement released to other media outlets, the Post claimed that
Mr.
Abbasi felt that he wasn’t strong enough to lift the man and
instead tried
to use his camera’s flash to signal the driver. According to this
43. explanation, Mr. Abbasi analyzed the situation and selected a
course of
action that he felt would be most helpful. Regardless of whether
you
believe this account, it does illustrate an important point:
Reasoning and
decision making can be performed in a number of ways and can
be
influenced by a number of factors. That is why we don’t all
respond the
same way to the same situation.
Know . . . the key terminology of problem solving and decision
making.
Understand . . . the characteristics that problems have in
common.
Understand . . . how obstacles to problem solving are often self-
imposed.
Apply . . . your knowledge to determine if you tend to be a
maximizer or a
satisficer.
Analyze . . . whether human thought is primarily logical or
intuitive.
8.2a
8.2b
8.2c
8.2d
8.2e
Focus Questions
1. How do people make decisions and solve problems?
44. 2. How can having multiple options lead people to be
dissatisfied
with their decisions?
In other modules of this text, you have read about how we learn
and remember
new information (Modules 7.1 and 7.2 ) and how we organize
our
knowledge of different concepts (Module 8.1 ). This module
will focus on how
we use this information to help us solve problems and make
decisions. Although
it may seem like such “higher-order cognitive abilities” are
distinct from memory
and categorization, they are actually a wonderful example of
how the different
topics within the field of psychology relate to each other. When
we try to solve a
problem or decide between alternatives, we are actually drawing
on our
knowledge of different concepts and using that information to
try to imagine
different possible outcomes (Green et al., 2006). How well we
perform these
tasks depends on a number of factors including our problem-
solving strategies
and the type of information available to us.
Defining and Solving Problems
You are certainly familiar with the general concept of a
problem, but in
45. psychological terminology, problem solving means
accomplishing a goal
when the solution or the path to the solution is not clear
(Leighton & Sternberg,
2003; Robertson, 2001). Indeed, many of the problems that we
face in life
contain obstacles that interfere with our ability to reach our
goals. The challenge,
then, is to find a technique or strategy that will allow us to
overcome these
obstacles. As you will see, there are a number of options that
people use for this
purpose—although none of them are perfect.
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47. example. Suppose you are trying to figure out where you have
left your phone.
You’ve tried the trick of calling yourself using a landline
phone, but you couldn’t
hear it ringing. So, it’s not in your house. A logical approach
might involve
making of list of the places you’ve been in the last 24 hours and
then retracing
your steps until you (hopefully) find your phone. An intuitive
approach might
involve thinking about previous times you’ve lost your phone or
wallet and using
these experiences to guide your search (e.g., “I’m always
forgetting my phone at
Dan’s place, so I should look there first”).
When we think logically, we rely on algorithms , problem-
solving strategies
based on a series of rules. As such, they are very logical and
follow a set of
steps, usually in a pre-set order. Computers are very good at
using algorithms
because they can follow a preprogrammed set of steps and
perform thousands
of operations every second. People, however, are not always so
rule-bound. We
tend to rely on intuition to find strategies and solutions that
seem like a good fit
for the problem. These are called heuristics , problem-solving
strategies that
stem from prior experiences and provide an educated guess as to
what is the
most likely solution. Heuristics are often quite efficient; these
48. “rules of thumb” are
usually accurate and allow us to find solutions and to make
decisions quickly. In
the example of trying to figure out where you left your phone,
you are more likely
to put your phone down at a friend’s house than on the bus, so
that increases the
likelihood that your phone is still sitting on his coffee table.
Calling your friend to
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ask about your phone is much simpler than retracing your steps
from class to the
gym to the grocery store, and so on.
49. The overall goal of both algorithms and heuristics is to find an
accurate solution
as efficiently as possible. In many situations, heuristics allow
us to solve
problems quite rapidly. However, the trade-off is that these
shortcuts can
occasionally lead to incorrect solutions, a topic we will return
to later in this
module.
Of course, different problems call for different approaches. In
fact, in some
cases, it might be useful to start off with one type of problem-
solving and then
switch to another. Think about how you might play the
children’s word-game
known as hangman, shown in Figure 8.9 . Here, the goal state is
to spell a
word. In the initial state, you have none of the letters or other
clues to guide you.
So, your obstacles are to overcome (i.e., fill in) blanks without
guessing the
wrong letters. How would you go about achieving this goal?
Figure 8.9 Problem Solving in Hangman
In a game of hangman, your job is to guess the letters in the
word represented
by the four blanks to the left. If you get a letter right, your
opponent will put it in
the correct blank. If you guess an incorrect letter, your
opponent will draw a body
part on the stick figure. The goal is to guess the word before the
entire body is
drawn.
50. On one hand, an algorithm might go like this: Guess the letter
A, then B, then C,
and so on through the alphabet until you lose or until the word
is spelled.
However, this would not be a very successful approach. An
alternative algorithm
would be to find out how frequently each letter occurs in the
alphabet and then
guess the letters in that order until the game ends with you
winning or losing. So,
you would start out by selecting E, then A, and so on. On the
other hand, a
heuristic might be useful. For example, if you discover the last
letter is G, you
might guess that the next-to-last letter is N, because you know
that many words
end with -ing. Using a heuristic here would save you time and
usually lead to an
accurate solution.
As you can see, some problems (such as the hangman game) can
be
approached with either algorithms or heuristics. In other words,
most people start
out a game like hangman with an algorithm: Guess the most
frequent letters until
a recognizable pattern emerges, such as -ing, or the letters -oug
(which are often
followed by h, as in tough or cough) appear. At that point, you
might switch to
heuristics and guess which letters would be most likely to fit in
51. the spaces.
Cognitive Obstacles
Using algorithms or heuristics will often allow you to
eventually solve a problem;
however, there are times when the problem-solving rules and
strategies that you
have established might actually get in the way of problem
solving. The nine-dot
problem (Figure 8.10 ; Maier, 1930) is a good example of such a
cognitive
obstacle. The goal of this problem is to connect all nine dots
using only four
straight lines and without lifting your pen or pencil off the
paper. Try solving the
nine-dot problem before you read further.
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Figure 8.10 The Nine-Dot Problem
Connect all nine dots using only four straight lines and without
lifting your pen or
pencil (Maier, 1930). The solution to the problem can be seen in
Figure 8.11 .
Source: Maier, N. F. (1930). Reasoning in humans. I. On
direction. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 10 (2), 115–143.
American Psychological Association.
52. Figure 8.11 One
Solution
to the Nine-Dot Problem
In this case, the tendency is to see the outer edge of dots as a
boundary, and to
assume that one cannot go past that boundary. However, if you
are willing to
extend some of the lines beyond the dots, it is actually quite a
simple puzzle to
complete.
Here is something to think about when solving this problem:
Most people impose
limitations on where the lines can go, even though those limits
are not a part of
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53. the rules. Specifically, people often assume that a line cannot
extend beyond the
dots. As you can see in Figure 8.11 , breaking these rules is
necessary in
order to find a solution to the problem.
Having a routine solution available for a problem generally
allows us to solve that
problem with less effort than we would use if we encountered it
for the first time.
This efficiency saves us time and effort. Sometimes, however,
routines may
impose cognitive barriers that impede solving a problem if
circumstances change
so that the routine solution no longer works. A mental set is a
cognitive
obstacle that occurs when an individual attempts to apply a
routine solution to
what is actually a new type of problem. Figure 8.12 presents a
problem that
often elicits a mental set. The answer appears at the bottom of
the figure, but
make your guess before you check it. Did you get it right? If
54. not, then you
probably succumbed to a mental set.
Figure 8.12 The Five-Daughter Problem
Maria’s father has five daughters: Lala, Lela, Lila, and Lola.
What is the fifth
daughter’s name?
The fifth daughter’s name is Maria.
Mental sets can occur in many different situations. For instance,
a person may
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experience functional fixedness , which occurs when an
individual identifies
an object or technique that could potentially solve a problem,
but can think of
only its most obvious function. Functional fixedness can be
illustrated with a
55. classic thought problem: Figure 8.13 shows two strings hanging
from a
ceiling. Imagine you are asked to tie the strings together.
However, once you
grab a string, you cannot let go of it until both are tied together.
The problem is,
unless you have extraordinarily long arms, you cannot reach the
second string
while you are holding on to the first one (Maier, 1931). So how
would you solve
the problem? Figure 8.16 offers one possible answer and an
explanation of
what makes this problem challenging.
Figure 8.13 The Two-String Problem
Imagine you are standing between two strings and need to tie
them together.
The only problem is that you cannot reach both strings at the
same time (Maier,
1931). In the room with you is a table, a piece of paper, a pair
of pliers, and a ball
of cotton. What do you do? For a solution, see Figure 8.16 .