Chapter 5 Program Evaluation and Research Techniques
Charlene R. Weir
Evaluation of health information technology (health IT) programs and projects can range from simple user satisfaction for a new menu or full-scale analysis of usage, cost, compliance, patient outcomes, and observation of usage to data about patient's rate of improvement.
Objectives
At the completion of this chapter the reader will be prepared to:
1.Identify the main components of program evaluation
2.Discuss the differences between formative and summative evaluation
3.Apply the three levels of theory relevant to program evaluation
4.Discriminate program evaluation from program planning and research
5.Synthesize the core components of program evaluation with the unique characteristics of informatics interventions
Key Terms
Evaluation, 72
Formative evaluation, 73
Logic model, 79
Program evaluation, 73
Summative evaluation, 73
Abstract
Evaluation is an essential component in the life cycle of all health IT applications and the key to successful translation of these applications into clinical settings. In planning an evaluation the central questions regarding purpose, scope, and focus of the system must be asked. This chapter focuses on the larger principles of program evaluation with the goal of informing health IT evaluations in clinical settings. The reader is expected to gain sufficient background in health IT evaluation to lead or participate in program evaluation for applications or systems.
Formative evaluation and summative evaluation are discussed. Three levels of theory are presented, including scientific theory, implementation models, and program theory (logic models). Specific scientific theories include social cognitive theories, diffusion of innovation, cognitive engineering theories, and information theory. Four implementation models are reviewed: PRECEDE-PROCEED, PARiHS, RE-AIM, and quality improvement. Program theory models are discussed, with an emphasis on logic models.
A review of methods and tools is presented. Relevant research designs are presented for health IT evaluations, including time series, multiple baseline, and regression discontinuity. Methods of data collection specific to health IT evaluations, including ethnographic observation, interviews, and surveys, are then reviewed.
Introduction
The outcome of evaluation is information that is both useful at the program level and generalizable enough to contribute to the building of science. In the applied sciences, such as informatics, evaluation is critical to the growth of both the specialty and the science. In this chapter program evaluation is defined as the “systematic collection of information about the activities, characteristics, and results of programs to make judgments about the program, improve or further develop program effectiveness, inform decisions about future programming, and/or increase understanding.”1 Health IT interventions are nearly always embedded in ...
Developing comprehensive health promotion - MedCrave Online PublishingMedCrave
As the global prevalence of obesity and chronic diseases continues to rise, the need for effective health promotion programs is imperative. Whilst research into effectiveness of health promotion programs is needed to improve population health outcomes, translation of these research findings into policy and practice is crucial. Translation requires not only efficacy data around what to implement, but also information on how to implement it.
http://medcraveonline.com/MOJPH/MOJPH-02-00007.pdf
School of ManagementProgram EvaluationMPA 513Week 3.docxanhlodge
School of Management
Program Evaluation
MPA 513
Week 3
School of Management
Policy in the NewsReview Needs Assessment / StakeholdersProcess EvaluationsExercise:Performance MonitoringExercise: City Stat exampleQuestions and Conclusions
Class Overview and Objectives
*
School of Management
In the News
Public Administration
Evaluation in the News
*
School of Management
Logic Models
Stakeholders
Review
*
School of Management
Involving StakeholdersGain broader perspective, avoid blind spots, try to ensure utilization of resultsKey stakeholders:Those served or affected by activityThose involved in program operationsThose in a position to make decisions about the activityFor a manageable process, the list of stakeholders must be narrowed to primary intended users
School of Management
Evaluating Internal Processes
“Now that this is the law of the land, let’s hope we can get our government to carry it out.” John F. Kennedy
School of Management
What is a Process Evaluation?
Process (formative) evaluations are aimed at enhancing your program by understanding it more fully, and whether it is functioning as intended.
Process evaluations study what is being done, and for whom these services are provided
*
Evaluators often distinguish between process/implementation/formative vs. outcome/impact/summative evaluations.
School of Management
Process vs. Outcome Evaluation
Process (Formative) – program managers, front-line staff, program designers, evaluation professionals and other internal and external entities focused on wanting to know why the program (or class of programs) is or is not working and what sort of program adaptations are appropriate.
Outcome (Summative) measures – legislators, accounting entities, interest groups, other levels of government, and other external entities focused on accountability or accreditation.
Evaluators often distinguish between: process or implementation (formative) vs. outcome or impact (summative):
*
School of Management
Illustration of Process Evaluation
Formative
Evaluation
Research
Examines
Inside The
Program
At “The
Process”
(1)Jablonski, J.R. Total Quality Management. Technical Management Consortium Albuquerque, NM.
*
School of Management
Organization Change and Process EvaluationProcess evaluation supports a program administrator’s desire to correct program deficiencies.Problem-solving orientation is different from evaluations that are more outcome-focused.Process intervention model provides a framework for planned organizational change.
“We are interested not so much in whether X causes Y as in the question , if Y is not happening, what is wrong with X.” –Sylvia et al, p.70
* Sylvia, Sylvia, and Gunn. 1997. Program Planning and Evaluation for the Public Manager. Waveland Press.
*
School of Management
Activities
Inputs
Outputs
Intermediate Effects/ Outcomes
Short-term Effects/ Outcomes
Long-term Effects/
Outcomes
Context
Assumptions
Stage of Develo.
CHAPTER SIXTEENUnderstanding Context Evaluation and MeasuremeJinElias52
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
Understanding Context: Evaluation and Measurement in Not-for-Profit Sectors
Dale C. Brandenburg
Many individuals associated with community agencies, health care, public workforce development, and similar not-for-profit organizations view program evaluation akin to a visit to the dentist’s office. It’s painful, but at some point it cannot be avoided. A major reason for this perspective is that evaluation is seen as taking money away from program activities that perform good for others, that is, intruding on valuable resources that are intended for delivering the “real” services of the organization (Kopczynski & Pritchard, 2004). A major reason for this logic is that since there are limited funds available to serve the public good, why must a portion of program delivery be allocated to something other than serving people in need? This is not an unreasonable point and one that program managers in not-for-profits face on a continuing basis.
The focus of evaluation in not-for-profit organization has shifted in recent years from administrative data to outcome measurement, impact evaluation, and sustainability (Aspen Institute, 2000), thus a shift from short-term to long-term effects of interventions. Evaluators in the not-for-profit sector view their world as the combination of technical knowledge, communication skills, and political savvy that can make or break the utility and value of the program under consideration. Evaluation in not-for-profit settings tends to value the importance of teamwork, collaboration, and generally working together. This chapter is meant to provide a glimpse at a minor portion of the evaluation efforts that take place in the not-for-profit sector. It excludes, for example, the efforts in public education, but does provide some context for workforce development efforts.
CONTRAST OF CONTEXTS
Evaluation in not-for-profit settings tends to have different criteria for the judgment of its worth than is typically found in corporate and similar settings. Such criteria are likely to include the following:
How useful is the evaluation?
Is the evaluation feasible and practical?
Does the evaluation hold high ethical principles?
Does the evaluation measure the right things, and is it accurate?
Using criteria such as the above seems a far cry from concepts of return on investment that are of vital importance in the profit sector. Even the cause of transfer of training can sometimes be of secondary importance to assuring that the program is described accurately. Another difference is the pressure of time. Programs offered by not-for-profit organizations, such as an alcohol recovery program, take a long time to see the effects and, by the time results are viewable, the organization has moved on to the next program. Instead we often see that evaluation is relegated to measuring the countable, the numbers of people who have completed the program, rather than the life-changing impact that decreased alcohol abuse has on ...
Developing comprehensive health promotion - MedCrave Online PublishingMedCrave
As the global prevalence of obesity and chronic diseases continues to rise, the need for effective health promotion programs is imperative. Whilst research into effectiveness of health promotion programs is needed to improve population health outcomes, translation of these research findings into policy and practice is crucial. Translation requires not only efficacy data around what to implement, but also information on how to implement it.
http://medcraveonline.com/MOJPH/MOJPH-02-00007.pdf
School of ManagementProgram EvaluationMPA 513Week 3.docxanhlodge
School of Management
Program Evaluation
MPA 513
Week 3
School of Management
Policy in the NewsReview Needs Assessment / StakeholdersProcess EvaluationsExercise:Performance MonitoringExercise: City Stat exampleQuestions and Conclusions
Class Overview and Objectives
*
School of Management
In the News
Public Administration
Evaluation in the News
*
School of Management
Logic Models
Stakeholders
Review
*
School of Management
Involving StakeholdersGain broader perspective, avoid blind spots, try to ensure utilization of resultsKey stakeholders:Those served or affected by activityThose involved in program operationsThose in a position to make decisions about the activityFor a manageable process, the list of stakeholders must be narrowed to primary intended users
School of Management
Evaluating Internal Processes
“Now that this is the law of the land, let’s hope we can get our government to carry it out.” John F. Kennedy
School of Management
What is a Process Evaluation?
Process (formative) evaluations are aimed at enhancing your program by understanding it more fully, and whether it is functioning as intended.
Process evaluations study what is being done, and for whom these services are provided
*
Evaluators often distinguish between process/implementation/formative vs. outcome/impact/summative evaluations.
School of Management
Process vs. Outcome Evaluation
Process (Formative) – program managers, front-line staff, program designers, evaluation professionals and other internal and external entities focused on wanting to know why the program (or class of programs) is or is not working and what sort of program adaptations are appropriate.
Outcome (Summative) measures – legislators, accounting entities, interest groups, other levels of government, and other external entities focused on accountability or accreditation.
Evaluators often distinguish between: process or implementation (formative) vs. outcome or impact (summative):
*
School of Management
Illustration of Process Evaluation
Formative
Evaluation
Research
Examines
Inside The
Program
At “The
Process”
(1)Jablonski, J.R. Total Quality Management. Technical Management Consortium Albuquerque, NM.
*
School of Management
Organization Change and Process EvaluationProcess evaluation supports a program administrator’s desire to correct program deficiencies.Problem-solving orientation is different from evaluations that are more outcome-focused.Process intervention model provides a framework for planned organizational change.
“We are interested not so much in whether X causes Y as in the question , if Y is not happening, what is wrong with X.” –Sylvia et al, p.70
* Sylvia, Sylvia, and Gunn. 1997. Program Planning and Evaluation for the Public Manager. Waveland Press.
*
School of Management
Activities
Inputs
Outputs
Intermediate Effects/ Outcomes
Short-term Effects/ Outcomes
Long-term Effects/
Outcomes
Context
Assumptions
Stage of Develo.
CHAPTER SIXTEENUnderstanding Context Evaluation and MeasuremeJinElias52
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
Understanding Context: Evaluation and Measurement in Not-for-Profit Sectors
Dale C. Brandenburg
Many individuals associated with community agencies, health care, public workforce development, and similar not-for-profit organizations view program evaluation akin to a visit to the dentist’s office. It’s painful, but at some point it cannot be avoided. A major reason for this perspective is that evaluation is seen as taking money away from program activities that perform good for others, that is, intruding on valuable resources that are intended for delivering the “real” services of the organization (Kopczynski & Pritchard, 2004). A major reason for this logic is that since there are limited funds available to serve the public good, why must a portion of program delivery be allocated to something other than serving people in need? This is not an unreasonable point and one that program managers in not-for-profits face on a continuing basis.
The focus of evaluation in not-for-profit organization has shifted in recent years from administrative data to outcome measurement, impact evaluation, and sustainability (Aspen Institute, 2000), thus a shift from short-term to long-term effects of interventions. Evaluators in the not-for-profit sector view their world as the combination of technical knowledge, communication skills, and political savvy that can make or break the utility and value of the program under consideration. Evaluation in not-for-profit settings tends to value the importance of teamwork, collaboration, and generally working together. This chapter is meant to provide a glimpse at a minor portion of the evaluation efforts that take place in the not-for-profit sector. It excludes, for example, the efforts in public education, but does provide some context for workforce development efforts.
CONTRAST OF CONTEXTS
Evaluation in not-for-profit settings tends to have different criteria for the judgment of its worth than is typically found in corporate and similar settings. Such criteria are likely to include the following:
How useful is the evaluation?
Is the evaluation feasible and practical?
Does the evaluation hold high ethical principles?
Does the evaluation measure the right things, and is it accurate?
Using criteria such as the above seems a far cry from concepts of return on investment that are of vital importance in the profit sector. Even the cause of transfer of training can sometimes be of secondary importance to assuring that the program is described accurately. Another difference is the pressure of time. Programs offered by not-for-profit organizations, such as an alcohol recovery program, take a long time to see the effects and, by the time results are viewable, the organization has moved on to the next program. Instead we often see that evaluation is relegated to measuring the countable, the numbers of people who have completed the program, rather than the life-changing impact that decreased alcohol abuse has on ...
A textbook must provide, first and foremost, information to assist the reader in better understanding the topic. Second, it ought to provide the information in a way that can be easily accessed and digested, and it needs to be credible. Textbooks
that have gone through multiple editions continue to improve as a result of reviewers’ comments and readers’ feedback, and this one is no exception. Looking back over the efforts associated with this Fifth Edition, the old wedding custom of “something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue” comes to
mind. We have built upon the solid foundation of previous editions, but then added “something new.” It almost goes without saying that we have “borrowed” from others in that we both cite and quote examples of program evaluation studies
from the literature. “Something blue” . . . well, we’re not sure about that. Those who have used the Fourth Edition might be interested in knowing what has changed in this new edition. Based on reviewers’ comments we have:
• Created a new chapter to explain sampling.
• Incorporated new material on designing questionnaires.
• Overhauled the chapter on qualitative evaluation. It is now “Qualitative and Mixed Methods in Evaluation.”
• Reworked the “Formative and Process Evaluation” chapter with expanded coverage on developing logic models.
• Added new studies and references; new Internet sources of information.
• Included new examples of measurement instruments (scales) with a macro
focus.
• Inserted new checklists and guides (such as ways to minimize and monitor for potential fidelity problems—Chapter 13).
• Revised the chapter “Writing Evaluation Proposals, Reports, and Journal Articles” to give it less of an academic slant. There’s new material on writing
executive summaries and considerations in planning and writing evaluation
reports for agencies.
• Deleted the chapter on Goal Attainment Scalin
The field of program evaluation presents a diversity of images a.docxcherry686017
The field of program evaluation presents a diversity of images and claims about the nature and role of evaluation that confounds any attempt to construct a coher- ent account of its methods or confidently identify important new developments. We take the view that the overarching goal of the program evaluation enterprise is to contribute to the improvement of social conditions by providing scientifically credible information and balanced judgment to legitimate social agents about the effectiveness of interventions intended to produce social benefits. Because of its centrality in this perspective, this review focuses on outcome evaluation, that is, the assessment of the effects of interventions upon the populations they are intended to benefit. The coverage of this topic is concentrated on literature published within the last decade with particular attention to the period subsequent to the related reviews by Cook and Shadish (1994) on social experiments and Sechrest & Figueredo (1993) on program evaluation.
The word ‘evaluation’ has become increasingly used in the language of community, health and social services and programs. The growth of talk and practice of evaluation in these fields has often been promoted and encouraged by funders and commissioners of services and programs. Following the interest of funders, has been a growth in the study and practice of evaluation by community, health and social service practitioners and academics. When we consider why this move in evaluative thinking and practice has occurred, we can assume the position of the funder and simply answer, ‘...because we want to know if this program or service works’. Practitioners, specialists and academics in these fields have been called upon by governments and philanthropists to aid the development of effective evaluation. Over time, they have led their own thinking and practice independently. Evaluation in its simplest form is about understanding the effect and impact of a program, service, or indeed a whole organization. Evaluation as a practice is not so simple however, largely because in order to assess impact, we need to be very clear at the beginning what effect or difference we are trying to achieve.
The literature review begins with an overview of qualitative and quantitative research methods, followed by a description of key forms of evaluation. Health promotion evaluation and advocacy and policy evaluation will then be explored as two specific domains. These domains are not evaluation methodologies, but forms of evaluation that present unique requirements for effective community development evaluation. Following this discussion, the review will explore eight key evaluation methodologies: appreciative enquiry, empowerment evaluation, social capital,
social return on investment, outcomes based evaluation, performance dashboards and scorecards and developmental evaluation. Each of these sections will include specific methods, the values base of each methodo ...
This presentation has a vivid description of the basics of doing a program evaluation, with detailed explanation of the " Log Frame work " ( LFA) with practical example from the CLICS project. This presentation also includes the CDC framework for evaluation of program.
N.B: Kindly open the ppt in slide share mode to fully use all the animations wheresoever made.
A Good Program Can Improve Educational Outcomes.pdfnoblex1
We hope this guide helps practitioners and others strengthen programs designed to increase academic achievement, ultimately broadening access to higher education for youth and adults.
We believe that evaluation is a critical part of program design and is necessary for ongoing program improvement. Evaluation requires collecting reliable, current and compelling information to empower stakeholders to make better decisions about programs and organizational practices that directly affect students. A good evaluation is an effective way of gathering information that strengthens programs, identifies problems, and assesses the extent of change over time. A sound evaluation that prompts program improvement is also a positive sign to funders and other stakeholders, and can help to sustain their commitment to your program.
Theories of change are conceptual maps that show how and why program activities will achieve short-term, interim, and long-term outcomes. The underlying assumptions that promote, support, and sustain a program often seem self-evident to program planners. Consequently, they spend too little time clarifying those assumptions for implementers and participants. Explicit theories of change provoke continuous reflection and shared ownership of the work to be accomplished. Even the most experienced program planners sometimes make the mistake of thinking an innovative design will accomplish goals without checking the linkages among assumptions and plans.
Developing a theory of change is a team effort. The collective knowledge and experience of program staff, stakeholders, and participants contribute to formulating a clear, precise statement about how and why a program will work. Using a theory-based approach, program collaborators state what they are doing and why by working backwards from the outcomes they seek to the interventions they plan, and forward from interventions to desired outcomes. When defining a theory of change, program planners usually begin by deciding expected outcomes, aligning outcomes with goals, deciding on the best indicators to evaluate progress toward desired outcomes, and developing specific measures for evaluating results. The end product is a statement of the expected change that specifies how implementation, resources, and evaluation translate into desired outcomes.
Continuously evaluating a theory of change encourages program planners to keep an eye on their goals. Statements about how and why a program will work must be established using the knowledge of program staff, stakeholders, and participants. This statement represents the theory underlying the program plan and shows planners how resources and activities translate to desired improvements and outcomes. It also becomes a framework for program implementation and evaluation.
Source: https://ebookscheaper.com/2022/04/06/a-good-program-can-improve-educational-outcomes/
Process of Planning and EvaluationThe process of planning and ev.docxstilliegeorgiana
Process of Planning and Evaluation
The process of planning and evaluation is cyclical and their activities are interdependent. The activities happen in stages; the end of one activity or program leads to the next. The ideas, insights, and learning derived from a particular stage are likely to affect the decisions and activities of the next stage.
Despite this, the process of planning and evaluation is usually presented in a linear manner with sequential steps. The cycle is often affected by external influences. Planners and evaluators need to be flexible in responding to these influences
Health Program Models
Good health programs involve a good deal of effort and a well-developed model. These models provide direction and structure to the program to be built on. The models may not be used completely during the planning process, or various parts of the model may be combined to suit the program. There are some commonly used models in health program planning:
· Predisposing, Reinforcing, and Enabling Constructs in Educational Diagnosis and Evaluation (PRECEDE)-Policy, Regulatory, and Organizational Constructs in Educational and Environmental Development (PROCEED): Commonly known as the PRECEDE-PROCEED model, it is the most well-known model in this field because it is theoretically grounded and comprehensive. Planning, implementation, and evaluation are all combined in this model.
· The Model for Health Education Planning (MHEP) analyzes:
· Planning through six phases
· Content through three dimensions―subject matter, method, and process
· The Comprehensive Health Education Model (CHEM) consists of six major steps and several suggested procedures within each step.
· The Model for Health Education Planning and Resource Development (MHEPRD) is a less known model. The five major components of this model are―health education plans, demonstration programs, educational programs, research programs, and information and statistics. Each component represents the end result of the planning process. In this model, evaluation plays an integral part in each phase of the model.
Written Assignment 1: Quality of Simulation
Chapter 3 discusses methods to assess the quality of simulations. You learned about three different views of simulation quality.
Suppose you lead a task force that is developing a simulation to provide strategic planning recommendations for property use zoning for a county of 750,000 residents. The zoning board and county commissioners want a simulation that allows them to assess the impact of various zoning decisions based on a variety of dynamic factors, including age, race, education, and income status.
Submit a 2-page (double-spaced) paper addressing the following:
1. First, identify which of the three views discussed in the chapter that would provide the best quality assessment for the situation described above, and explain your decision.
2. Explain how would you ensure the highest level of accuracy with your simulation, and how w ...
Planning the Evaluation
Impact models
Types of inference and choice of design
Defining the indicators and obtaining the data
Carrying out the evaluation
Disseminating evaluation findings
Working in large-scale evaluations
SOCW 6311 wk 11 discussion 1 peer responses
Respond
to
at least two
colleagues’ by doing the following:
Respond to at least two colleagues by offering critiques of their analyses. Identify strengths in their analyses and strategies for presenting evaluation results to others.
Identify ways your colleagues might improve their presentations.
Identify potential needs or questions of the audience that they may not have considered.
Provide an additional strategy for overcoming the obstacles or challenges in communicating the content of the evaluation reports.
Name first and references after every person
Instructor wants lay out like this:
Respond to at least two colleagues ( 2 peers posts are provided) by doing all of the following:
Identify strengths of your colleagues’ analyses and areas in which the analyses could be improved.
Your response
Address his or her evaluation of the efficacy and applicability of the evidence-based practice,
Your response
[Evaluate] his or her identification of factors that could support or hinder the implementation of the evidence-based practice,
Your response
And [evaluate] his or her solution for mitigating those factors.
Your response
Offer additional insight to your colleagues by either identifying additional factors that may support or limit implementation of the evidence-based practice or an alternative solution for mitigating one of the limitations that your colleagues identified.
Your response
References
Your response
Peer 1: McKenna Bull
RE: Katie Otte Initial Post-Discussion 1 - Week 11
COLLAPSE
Top of Form
Identify strengths in their analyses and strategies for presenting evaluation results to others.
You provided an insightful analysis of this particular process evaluation, and it seems that you were able to design a comprehensive presentation guideline. I agree with your tactic to break the presentation up into categories, and the categories you have selected seem to address the major components of the program, the evaluation itself, and the findings of said evaluation. You also provided a great analysis and summary of the PATHS program. The purpose of the program is clear, and the overarching purpose of the evaluation was made clear in your synopsis as well.
Identify ways your colleagues might improve their presentations.
You addressed outcome measures very well, however, there may have been some lacking information in regards to overall evaluation methods as a whole. Addressing factors such as who was collecting the data, how they were trained, how their training or standing could limit potential bias, and similar information. This may be an important piece of information that could help to provide audience members with a better understanding of the evaluation processes as a whole.
Identify potential needs or questions of the audience that they may not have considered.
As mentioned by Law and Shek (2011), this program was designed and facilitated in Hong Kong, Chi.
The role of Monitoring and Evaluation in Improving Public Policies – Challeng...UNDP Policy Centre
IPC-IG's Research Coordinator, Fábio Veras Soares, presentation at the "International Conference on the
Institutionalization of Public Policies Evaluation", held in Rabat, on 5 October.
HCM 3305, Community Health 1 Course Learning Outcom.docxaryan532920
HCM 3305, Community Health 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VIII
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
3. Recognize effective organization and promotion of health programming for community health on a
global scale.
3.1. Assess the steps for organizing a community health program.
3.2. Identify steps needed to effectively evaluate the community health program.
Reading Assignment
Chapter 15:
Systems Thinking and Leadership in Community and Public Health
Unit Lesson
In this unit, we will discuss systems thinking and community health programming.
Community organizing is a process that involves the engagement of individuals, groups, and organizations.
Program planning is not required in community organizing; however, it is often times used. Program planning
is a process where a health intervention is planned to meet the needs within a population. Antiviolence
campaigns and stress management courses are examples of program planning (McKenzie, Pinger, & Kotecki,
2012).
When deciding which community health interventions to create, the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) uses Guide to Community Preventive Services (Community Guide). The Community Guide
is considered credible because it is based off the scientific systematic review process. The guide answers
many questions that are critical to community health on subjects such as
interventions that have worked/did not work,
populations in which the intervention worked/did not work,
cost of the intervention,
benefits/risks of the intervention, and
future research recommendations (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015).
Community health programs are intricate and are a key factor in disease prevention, improving health, and
increasing quality of life. Health status and behaviors are determined by personal, environmental, policy, and
organizational influences. Community health programming is targeted at reaching the goals of Healthy People
2010. Community health programs are generally held within healthcare settings; however, other settings are
becoming more popular. Programs are being held at schools, worksites, religious organizations, and within
communities (Healthy People 2020, 2015). There are instances where healthcare organizations are
collaborating with schools to offer health programs. For instance, nutrition and exercise programs are being
offered at an increased rate. Employers see the value of employee health. Therefore, many employers offer
incentives to employees who take part in employee wellness programs. It is not far fetched to hear about
employers checking cholesterol, blood pressure, quality of life, weight, BMI, and sometimes glucose. The
rationale is that healthy employees are less likely to call in sick with health-related conditions.
Community health professionals must identify their health issue, and then create specific and measurable
goals and objectives. ...
Program Evaluation Studies TK Logan and David Royse .docxstilliegeorgiana
Program Evaluation
Studies
TK Logan and David Royse
A
variety of programs have been developed to address social problems such
as drug addiction, homelessness, child abuse, domestic violence, illiteracy,
and poverty. The goals of these programs may include directly addressing
the problem origin or moderating the effects of these problems on indi-
viduals, families, and communities. Sometimes programs are developed
to prevent something from happening such as drug use, sexual assault, or crime.
These kinds of problems and programs to help people are often what allracts many
social workers to the profession; we want to be part of the mechanism through which
society provides assistance to those most in need. Despite low wages, bureaucratic red
tape, and routinely uncooperative clients, we tirelessly provide services tha t are invaluable
but also at various Limes may be or become insufficient or inappropriate. But without
conducting eva luation, we do not know whether our programs are helping or hurting,
that is, whether they only postpone the hunt for real solutions or truly construct new
futures for our clients. This chapter provides an overview of program evaluation in gen -
eral and outlines the primary considerations in designing program evaluations.
Evaluation can be done informally or formally. We are constantly, as consumers, infor-
mally evaluating products, services, and in formation. For example, we may choose not to
return to a store or an agency again if we did not evaluate the experience as pleasant.
Similarl y, we may mentally take note of unsolicited comments or anecdotes from clients and
draw conclusions about a program. Anecdotal and informal approaches such as these gen-
erally are not regarded as carrying scientific credibility. One reason is that decision biases
play a role in our "informal" evaluation. Specifically, vivid memories or strongly negative or
positive anecdotes will be overrepresented in our summaries of how things are evaluated.
This is why objective data are necessary to truly understand what is or is not working.
By contrast, formal evaluations systematically examine data from and about programs
and their outcomes so that better decisions can be made about the interventions designed
to address the related social problem. Thus, program evaluation involves the usc of social
research meLhodologies to appraise and improve the ways in which human services, poli-
ci~s, and programs are co nducted. Formal eva l.uation, by its very nature, is applied research.
Formal program evaluations attempt to answer the following general ques tion: Does
the p rogram work? Program evaluation may also address questions such as the following:
Do our clients get better? How does our success rate compare to those of other programs
or agencies? Can the same level of success be obtained through less expensive means?
221
222 PART II • QUANTITATIVE A PPROACHES: TYPES OF STUD IES
What is the expe ...
ENG315 Professional Scenarios
1. Saban is a top performing industrial equipment salesperson for D2D. After three years of working with his best client, he receives a text message from Pat (his direct manager) assigning him to a completely different account.
Pat has received complaints that Saban gets all of the good clients and is not a “team player.”
Saban responds to the message and asks for a meeting with Pat to discuss this change. Pat responds with another text message that reads: “Decision final. Everyone needs to get a chance to work with the best accounts so it is fair. Come by the office and pick up your new files.”
Moments later, Saban sends a text message to Karen, his regional manager and Pat’s boss. It simply reads, “We need to talk.”
2. Amber, Savannah, and Stephen work for Knowledge, Inc. (a consulting company). While on a conference call with Tim Rice Photography (an established client), the group discusses potential problems with a marketing campaign. Tim Rice, lead photographer and owner of Tim Rice Photography, is insistent the marketing is working and changes are not needed.
Amber reaches over to put Tim on “Mute” but accidently pushes a different button. She immediately says to Savannah and Stephen that the marketing campaign is not working and that “…Tim should stick to taking pretty pictures.”
Tim responds, “You know I can hear you, right?”
3. James shows up to work approximately five minutes late this morning, walks silently (but quickly) down the hallway and begins to punch in at the time clock located by the front desk.
Sarah, the front desk manager, says, "Good morning, James," but James ignores her, punches in, and heads into the shop to his workplace. Sarah rolls her eyes, picks up the phone, and dials the on-duty manager to alert her that James just arrived and should be reaching his desk any moment.
4. Paul works for the website division of SuperMega retail company. He receives an email late Friday afternoon that explains a new computer will launch at the end of next June and it will be in high demand with limited stock. Also contained in the three-page-message is that customers will be able to preorder the item 30 days before launch according to the production company. Paul is asked to create a landing page for consumers who are interested in learning more about the product.
By mistake, Paul sets up a preorder page for the product that afternoon (well in advance of the company authorized period) and late Friday evening consumers begin to preorder the product. Sharon, Vice President of Product Sales at SuperMega, learns of the error Saturday morning and calls Paul to arrange a meeting first thing Monday morning. Sharon explains to Paul on the phone that the company intends on canceling all of the preorders and Paul responds that the company should honor the preorders because it was not a consumer error. After a heated exchange, Paul hangs up on Sharon when she in.
ENG122 – Research Paper Peer Review InstructionsApply each of .docxchristinemaritza
ENG122 – Research Paper Peer Review Instructions
Apply each of the following questions to the paper you’ve selected to read. Provide thorough and thoughtful answers so the author can easily and appropriately revise.
Who is the main audience of this paper?
What is the main idea presented herein?
What information does the reader need to know about the idea for it to make sense?
Are examples clear and appropriate?
Is evidence or support for any claims provided?
Is the topic appropriate to the writing assignment? Does it need to be more general? More focused?
Are writer’s points organized in a logical way?
.
More Related Content
Similar to Chapter 5 Program Evaluation and Research TechniquesCharlene R. .docx
A textbook must provide, first and foremost, information to assist the reader in better understanding the topic. Second, it ought to provide the information in a way that can be easily accessed and digested, and it needs to be credible. Textbooks
that have gone through multiple editions continue to improve as a result of reviewers’ comments and readers’ feedback, and this one is no exception. Looking back over the efforts associated with this Fifth Edition, the old wedding custom of “something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue” comes to
mind. We have built upon the solid foundation of previous editions, but then added “something new.” It almost goes without saying that we have “borrowed” from others in that we both cite and quote examples of program evaluation studies
from the literature. “Something blue” . . . well, we’re not sure about that. Those who have used the Fourth Edition might be interested in knowing what has changed in this new edition. Based on reviewers’ comments we have:
• Created a new chapter to explain sampling.
• Incorporated new material on designing questionnaires.
• Overhauled the chapter on qualitative evaluation. It is now “Qualitative and Mixed Methods in Evaluation.”
• Reworked the “Formative and Process Evaluation” chapter with expanded coverage on developing logic models.
• Added new studies and references; new Internet sources of information.
• Included new examples of measurement instruments (scales) with a macro
focus.
• Inserted new checklists and guides (such as ways to minimize and monitor for potential fidelity problems—Chapter 13).
• Revised the chapter “Writing Evaluation Proposals, Reports, and Journal Articles” to give it less of an academic slant. There’s new material on writing
executive summaries and considerations in planning and writing evaluation
reports for agencies.
• Deleted the chapter on Goal Attainment Scalin
The field of program evaluation presents a diversity of images a.docxcherry686017
The field of program evaluation presents a diversity of images and claims about the nature and role of evaluation that confounds any attempt to construct a coher- ent account of its methods or confidently identify important new developments. We take the view that the overarching goal of the program evaluation enterprise is to contribute to the improvement of social conditions by providing scientifically credible information and balanced judgment to legitimate social agents about the effectiveness of interventions intended to produce social benefits. Because of its centrality in this perspective, this review focuses on outcome evaluation, that is, the assessment of the effects of interventions upon the populations they are intended to benefit. The coverage of this topic is concentrated on literature published within the last decade with particular attention to the period subsequent to the related reviews by Cook and Shadish (1994) on social experiments and Sechrest & Figueredo (1993) on program evaluation.
The word ‘evaluation’ has become increasingly used in the language of community, health and social services and programs. The growth of talk and practice of evaluation in these fields has often been promoted and encouraged by funders and commissioners of services and programs. Following the interest of funders, has been a growth in the study and practice of evaluation by community, health and social service practitioners and academics. When we consider why this move in evaluative thinking and practice has occurred, we can assume the position of the funder and simply answer, ‘...because we want to know if this program or service works’. Practitioners, specialists and academics in these fields have been called upon by governments and philanthropists to aid the development of effective evaluation. Over time, they have led their own thinking and practice independently. Evaluation in its simplest form is about understanding the effect and impact of a program, service, or indeed a whole organization. Evaluation as a practice is not so simple however, largely because in order to assess impact, we need to be very clear at the beginning what effect or difference we are trying to achieve.
The literature review begins with an overview of qualitative and quantitative research methods, followed by a description of key forms of evaluation. Health promotion evaluation and advocacy and policy evaluation will then be explored as two specific domains. These domains are not evaluation methodologies, but forms of evaluation that present unique requirements for effective community development evaluation. Following this discussion, the review will explore eight key evaluation methodologies: appreciative enquiry, empowerment evaluation, social capital,
social return on investment, outcomes based evaluation, performance dashboards and scorecards and developmental evaluation. Each of these sections will include specific methods, the values base of each methodo ...
This presentation has a vivid description of the basics of doing a program evaluation, with detailed explanation of the " Log Frame work " ( LFA) with practical example from the CLICS project. This presentation also includes the CDC framework for evaluation of program.
N.B: Kindly open the ppt in slide share mode to fully use all the animations wheresoever made.
A Good Program Can Improve Educational Outcomes.pdfnoblex1
We hope this guide helps practitioners and others strengthen programs designed to increase academic achievement, ultimately broadening access to higher education for youth and adults.
We believe that evaluation is a critical part of program design and is necessary for ongoing program improvement. Evaluation requires collecting reliable, current and compelling information to empower stakeholders to make better decisions about programs and organizational practices that directly affect students. A good evaluation is an effective way of gathering information that strengthens programs, identifies problems, and assesses the extent of change over time. A sound evaluation that prompts program improvement is also a positive sign to funders and other stakeholders, and can help to sustain their commitment to your program.
Theories of change are conceptual maps that show how and why program activities will achieve short-term, interim, and long-term outcomes. The underlying assumptions that promote, support, and sustain a program often seem self-evident to program planners. Consequently, they spend too little time clarifying those assumptions for implementers and participants. Explicit theories of change provoke continuous reflection and shared ownership of the work to be accomplished. Even the most experienced program planners sometimes make the mistake of thinking an innovative design will accomplish goals without checking the linkages among assumptions and plans.
Developing a theory of change is a team effort. The collective knowledge and experience of program staff, stakeholders, and participants contribute to formulating a clear, precise statement about how and why a program will work. Using a theory-based approach, program collaborators state what they are doing and why by working backwards from the outcomes they seek to the interventions they plan, and forward from interventions to desired outcomes. When defining a theory of change, program planners usually begin by deciding expected outcomes, aligning outcomes with goals, deciding on the best indicators to evaluate progress toward desired outcomes, and developing specific measures for evaluating results. The end product is a statement of the expected change that specifies how implementation, resources, and evaluation translate into desired outcomes.
Continuously evaluating a theory of change encourages program planners to keep an eye on their goals. Statements about how and why a program will work must be established using the knowledge of program staff, stakeholders, and participants. This statement represents the theory underlying the program plan and shows planners how resources and activities translate to desired improvements and outcomes. It also becomes a framework for program implementation and evaluation.
Source: https://ebookscheaper.com/2022/04/06/a-good-program-can-improve-educational-outcomes/
Process of Planning and EvaluationThe process of planning and ev.docxstilliegeorgiana
Process of Planning and Evaluation
The process of planning and evaluation is cyclical and their activities are interdependent. The activities happen in stages; the end of one activity or program leads to the next. The ideas, insights, and learning derived from a particular stage are likely to affect the decisions and activities of the next stage.
Despite this, the process of planning and evaluation is usually presented in a linear manner with sequential steps. The cycle is often affected by external influences. Planners and evaluators need to be flexible in responding to these influences
Health Program Models
Good health programs involve a good deal of effort and a well-developed model. These models provide direction and structure to the program to be built on. The models may not be used completely during the planning process, or various parts of the model may be combined to suit the program. There are some commonly used models in health program planning:
· Predisposing, Reinforcing, and Enabling Constructs in Educational Diagnosis and Evaluation (PRECEDE)-Policy, Regulatory, and Organizational Constructs in Educational and Environmental Development (PROCEED): Commonly known as the PRECEDE-PROCEED model, it is the most well-known model in this field because it is theoretically grounded and comprehensive. Planning, implementation, and evaluation are all combined in this model.
· The Model for Health Education Planning (MHEP) analyzes:
· Planning through six phases
· Content through three dimensions―subject matter, method, and process
· The Comprehensive Health Education Model (CHEM) consists of six major steps and several suggested procedures within each step.
· The Model for Health Education Planning and Resource Development (MHEPRD) is a less known model. The five major components of this model are―health education plans, demonstration programs, educational programs, research programs, and information and statistics. Each component represents the end result of the planning process. In this model, evaluation plays an integral part in each phase of the model.
Written Assignment 1: Quality of Simulation
Chapter 3 discusses methods to assess the quality of simulations. You learned about three different views of simulation quality.
Suppose you lead a task force that is developing a simulation to provide strategic planning recommendations for property use zoning for a county of 750,000 residents. The zoning board and county commissioners want a simulation that allows them to assess the impact of various zoning decisions based on a variety of dynamic factors, including age, race, education, and income status.
Submit a 2-page (double-spaced) paper addressing the following:
1. First, identify which of the three views discussed in the chapter that would provide the best quality assessment for the situation described above, and explain your decision.
2. Explain how would you ensure the highest level of accuracy with your simulation, and how w ...
Planning the Evaluation
Impact models
Types of inference and choice of design
Defining the indicators and obtaining the data
Carrying out the evaluation
Disseminating evaluation findings
Working in large-scale evaluations
SOCW 6311 wk 11 discussion 1 peer responses
Respond
to
at least two
colleagues’ by doing the following:
Respond to at least two colleagues by offering critiques of their analyses. Identify strengths in their analyses and strategies for presenting evaluation results to others.
Identify ways your colleagues might improve their presentations.
Identify potential needs or questions of the audience that they may not have considered.
Provide an additional strategy for overcoming the obstacles or challenges in communicating the content of the evaluation reports.
Name first and references after every person
Instructor wants lay out like this:
Respond to at least two colleagues ( 2 peers posts are provided) by doing all of the following:
Identify strengths of your colleagues’ analyses and areas in which the analyses could be improved.
Your response
Address his or her evaluation of the efficacy and applicability of the evidence-based practice,
Your response
[Evaluate] his or her identification of factors that could support or hinder the implementation of the evidence-based practice,
Your response
And [evaluate] his or her solution for mitigating those factors.
Your response
Offer additional insight to your colleagues by either identifying additional factors that may support or limit implementation of the evidence-based practice or an alternative solution for mitigating one of the limitations that your colleagues identified.
Your response
References
Your response
Peer 1: McKenna Bull
RE: Katie Otte Initial Post-Discussion 1 - Week 11
COLLAPSE
Top of Form
Identify strengths in their analyses and strategies for presenting evaluation results to others.
You provided an insightful analysis of this particular process evaluation, and it seems that you were able to design a comprehensive presentation guideline. I agree with your tactic to break the presentation up into categories, and the categories you have selected seem to address the major components of the program, the evaluation itself, and the findings of said evaluation. You also provided a great analysis and summary of the PATHS program. The purpose of the program is clear, and the overarching purpose of the evaluation was made clear in your synopsis as well.
Identify ways your colleagues might improve their presentations.
You addressed outcome measures very well, however, there may have been some lacking information in regards to overall evaluation methods as a whole. Addressing factors such as who was collecting the data, how they were trained, how their training or standing could limit potential bias, and similar information. This may be an important piece of information that could help to provide audience members with a better understanding of the evaluation processes as a whole.
Identify potential needs or questions of the audience that they may not have considered.
As mentioned by Law and Shek (2011), this program was designed and facilitated in Hong Kong, Chi.
The role of Monitoring and Evaluation in Improving Public Policies – Challeng...UNDP Policy Centre
IPC-IG's Research Coordinator, Fábio Veras Soares, presentation at the "International Conference on the
Institutionalization of Public Policies Evaluation", held in Rabat, on 5 October.
HCM 3305, Community Health 1 Course Learning Outcom.docxaryan532920
HCM 3305, Community Health 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VIII
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
3. Recognize effective organization and promotion of health programming for community health on a
global scale.
3.1. Assess the steps for organizing a community health program.
3.2. Identify steps needed to effectively evaluate the community health program.
Reading Assignment
Chapter 15:
Systems Thinking and Leadership in Community and Public Health
Unit Lesson
In this unit, we will discuss systems thinking and community health programming.
Community organizing is a process that involves the engagement of individuals, groups, and organizations.
Program planning is not required in community organizing; however, it is often times used. Program planning
is a process where a health intervention is planned to meet the needs within a population. Antiviolence
campaigns and stress management courses are examples of program planning (McKenzie, Pinger, & Kotecki,
2012).
When deciding which community health interventions to create, the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) uses Guide to Community Preventive Services (Community Guide). The Community Guide
is considered credible because it is based off the scientific systematic review process. The guide answers
many questions that are critical to community health on subjects such as
interventions that have worked/did not work,
populations in which the intervention worked/did not work,
cost of the intervention,
benefits/risks of the intervention, and
future research recommendations (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015).
Community health programs are intricate and are a key factor in disease prevention, improving health, and
increasing quality of life. Health status and behaviors are determined by personal, environmental, policy, and
organizational influences. Community health programming is targeted at reaching the goals of Healthy People
2010. Community health programs are generally held within healthcare settings; however, other settings are
becoming more popular. Programs are being held at schools, worksites, religious organizations, and within
communities (Healthy People 2020, 2015). There are instances where healthcare organizations are
collaborating with schools to offer health programs. For instance, nutrition and exercise programs are being
offered at an increased rate. Employers see the value of employee health. Therefore, many employers offer
incentives to employees who take part in employee wellness programs. It is not far fetched to hear about
employers checking cholesterol, blood pressure, quality of life, weight, BMI, and sometimes glucose. The
rationale is that healthy employees are less likely to call in sick with health-related conditions.
Community health professionals must identify their health issue, and then create specific and measurable
goals and objectives. ...
Program Evaluation Studies TK Logan and David Royse .docxstilliegeorgiana
Program Evaluation
Studies
TK Logan and David Royse
A
variety of programs have been developed to address social problems such
as drug addiction, homelessness, child abuse, domestic violence, illiteracy,
and poverty. The goals of these programs may include directly addressing
the problem origin or moderating the effects of these problems on indi-
viduals, families, and communities. Sometimes programs are developed
to prevent something from happening such as drug use, sexual assault, or crime.
These kinds of problems and programs to help people are often what allracts many
social workers to the profession; we want to be part of the mechanism through which
society provides assistance to those most in need. Despite low wages, bureaucratic red
tape, and routinely uncooperative clients, we tirelessly provide services tha t are invaluable
but also at various Limes may be or become insufficient or inappropriate. But without
conducting eva luation, we do not know whether our programs are helping or hurting,
that is, whether they only postpone the hunt for real solutions or truly construct new
futures for our clients. This chapter provides an overview of program evaluation in gen -
eral and outlines the primary considerations in designing program evaluations.
Evaluation can be done informally or formally. We are constantly, as consumers, infor-
mally evaluating products, services, and in formation. For example, we may choose not to
return to a store or an agency again if we did not evaluate the experience as pleasant.
Similarl y, we may mentally take note of unsolicited comments or anecdotes from clients and
draw conclusions about a program. Anecdotal and informal approaches such as these gen-
erally are not regarded as carrying scientific credibility. One reason is that decision biases
play a role in our "informal" evaluation. Specifically, vivid memories or strongly negative or
positive anecdotes will be overrepresented in our summaries of how things are evaluated.
This is why objective data are necessary to truly understand what is or is not working.
By contrast, formal evaluations systematically examine data from and about programs
and their outcomes so that better decisions can be made about the interventions designed
to address the related social problem. Thus, program evaluation involves the usc of social
research meLhodologies to appraise and improve the ways in which human services, poli-
ci~s, and programs are co nducted. Formal eva l.uation, by its very nature, is applied research.
Formal program evaluations attempt to answer the following general ques tion: Does
the p rogram work? Program evaluation may also address questions such as the following:
Do our clients get better? How does our success rate compare to those of other programs
or agencies? Can the same level of success be obtained through less expensive means?
221
222 PART II • QUANTITATIVE A PPROACHES: TYPES OF STUD IES
What is the expe ...
Similar to Chapter 5 Program Evaluation and Research TechniquesCharlene R. .docx (20)
ENG315 Professional Scenarios
1. Saban is a top performing industrial equipment salesperson for D2D. After three years of working with his best client, he receives a text message from Pat (his direct manager) assigning him to a completely different account.
Pat has received complaints that Saban gets all of the good clients and is not a “team player.”
Saban responds to the message and asks for a meeting with Pat to discuss this change. Pat responds with another text message that reads: “Decision final. Everyone needs to get a chance to work with the best accounts so it is fair. Come by the office and pick up your new files.”
Moments later, Saban sends a text message to Karen, his regional manager and Pat’s boss. It simply reads, “We need to talk.”
2. Amber, Savannah, and Stephen work for Knowledge, Inc. (a consulting company). While on a conference call with Tim Rice Photography (an established client), the group discusses potential problems with a marketing campaign. Tim Rice, lead photographer and owner of Tim Rice Photography, is insistent the marketing is working and changes are not needed.
Amber reaches over to put Tim on “Mute” but accidently pushes a different button. She immediately says to Savannah and Stephen that the marketing campaign is not working and that “…Tim should stick to taking pretty pictures.”
Tim responds, “You know I can hear you, right?”
3. James shows up to work approximately five minutes late this morning, walks silently (but quickly) down the hallway and begins to punch in at the time clock located by the front desk.
Sarah, the front desk manager, says, "Good morning, James," but James ignores her, punches in, and heads into the shop to his workplace. Sarah rolls her eyes, picks up the phone, and dials the on-duty manager to alert her that James just arrived and should be reaching his desk any moment.
4. Paul works for the website division of SuperMega retail company. He receives an email late Friday afternoon that explains a new computer will launch at the end of next June and it will be in high demand with limited stock. Also contained in the three-page-message is that customers will be able to preorder the item 30 days before launch according to the production company. Paul is asked to create a landing page for consumers who are interested in learning more about the product.
By mistake, Paul sets up a preorder page for the product that afternoon (well in advance of the company authorized period) and late Friday evening consumers begin to preorder the product. Sharon, Vice President of Product Sales at SuperMega, learns of the error Saturday morning and calls Paul to arrange a meeting first thing Monday morning. Sharon explains to Paul on the phone that the company intends on canceling all of the preorders and Paul responds that the company should honor the preorders because it was not a consumer error. After a heated exchange, Paul hangs up on Sharon when she in.
ENG122 – Research Paper Peer Review InstructionsApply each of .docxchristinemaritza
ENG122 – Research Paper Peer Review Instructions
Apply each of the following questions to the paper you’ve selected to read. Provide thorough and thoughtful answers so the author can easily and appropriately revise.
Who is the main audience of this paper?
What is the main idea presented herein?
What information does the reader need to know about the idea for it to make sense?
Are examples clear and appropriate?
Is evidence or support for any claims provided?
Is the topic appropriate to the writing assignment? Does it need to be more general? More focused?
Are writer’s points organized in a logical way?
.
ENG122 – Research Paper Peer Review InstructionsApply each of th.docxchristinemaritza
ENG122 – Research Paper Peer Review Instructions
Apply each of the following questions to the paper you’ve selected to read. Provide thorough and thoughtful answers so the author can easily and appropriately revise.
Who is the main audience of this paper?
What is the main idea presented herein?
What information does the reader need to know about the idea for it to make sense?
Are examples clear and appropriate?
Is evidence or support for any claims provided?
Is the topic appropriate to the writing assignment? Does it need to be more general? More focused?
Are writer’s points organized in a logical way?
.
ENG 115
ASSIGNMENT 2: STANCE ESSAY DRAFT
Due Week 7 and worth 100 points
For your next assignment, you will write a stance essay. A stance essay takes a position on a topic and argues and supports that
position with evidence. Consider your topic:
· What possible positions/arguments are there?
· What position resonates with you? (Which position do you believe is correct?)
· What are your main points?
· What are the counterpoints? Are you ready to dispute them?
· Do you have enough evidence to effectively support your argument?
For the stance essay, your personal voice (your perspective) should come through. This is just like assignment 1, except you should
maintain a formal tone.For this essay, you will need to support your points with credible sources. You’re ready to take a position on
the topic you have been writing about!
Important note: Stance Essays DO incorporate research exclusively from the WebText. DO NOT use outside sources. If you have
written a Stance Essay in a previous course, please reach out to your professor to see if you can re-use it. You are not permitted to
use ANY paper from an unrelated current or past course.
INSTRUCTIONS:
You are required to use your WebText to draft your essay in the templates!
Compose a three-four (3-4) page paper in which you do the following:
1. Use third person point of view (POV) and the appropriate voice and tone throughout your paper.
a. Did you use third person pronouns? (he, she, they, their)
b. Does your personality carry over in your writing? Are your word choices personal and consistent?
c. Is the tone formal? Does it express your attitude about the topic?
2. Write an introduction paragraph, which includes your thesis statement. It is suggested that this paragraph contain 5-7
sentences.
a. Does your introduction include solutions or approaches on the topic?
b. Does your thesis statement include three supporting reasons that clearly express your stance on the topic?\
c. Is your thesis statement clear and concise?
d. Does your introduction provide a preview of the rest of your essay?
3. Write a supporting/body paragraph for each of the three (3) points/reasons from your thesis statement. It is suggested
that each paragraph contain at least 5-7 sentences.
a. Do your body paragraphs support each point of your thesis with relevant examples or statistics?
b. Do you address the opinions or concerns that your audience might have?
c. Did you paraphrase, quote, or summarize properly to avoid plagiarism? Did you comment on each quotation? Do
you limit quotes to no more than 25 words.
4. Write with logic and with transitions throughout your paper?
a. Are your ideas consistent and well-organized, i.e., chronological order or order of importance?
b. Do your ideas flow from one sentence to the next and one paragraph to the next, in the order presented in your
thesis statement?
5. Write a conclusion paragraph. It is suggested that thi.
ENG 510 Final Project Milestone Three Guidelines and Rubric .docxchristinemaritza
ENG 510 Final Project Milestone Three Guidelines and Rubric
Overview: For the final project, you will be creating a writer’s toolkit in which you define, analyze, and apply storytelling elements, literary conventions, and
themes that you can use for future work. In Milestone Two, you focused on applying a deliberate point of view. In this milestone, you will analyze the other
techniques found in your chosen texts.
Prompt: Your analysis should include an in-depth evaluation of both the classic and contemporary texts’ treatment of the storytelling elements of narrative
structure (conflict, crisis, and resolution) and character development. In support of your analysis, you will assess the authors’ choices and literary techniques. In
addition, provide a rationale for the authors’ incorporation of literary conventions of the time period, supporting your stance with research. Lastly, you should
evaluate how the text uses these elements to create its intended theme or meaning. You may submit revised portions of this milestone for your final project.
Specifically, the following critical elements must be addressed:
I. Classic Work
A. Analyze the classic text for the core storytelling elements—narrative structure (conflict, crisis, and resolution), along with the character
development choices employed by the author. How does the author use the elements to create their own distinctive style?
B. Determine how the author’s choices relate to relevant literary conventions of the time, providing a supported rationale for the relationship. In
other words, what does the author’s adoption or skillful rejection of conventions say about the strategic communication of his or her story
concept?
C. Evaluate how the text uses the storytelling elements to create its intended theme, providing supported rationale.
II. Contemporary Work
A. Analyze the contemporary text for the core storytelling elements—narrative structure (conflict, crisis, and resolution), along with the character
development choices employed by the author. How does the author use the elements to create their own distinctive style?
B. Determine how the author’s choices relate to relevant literary conventions of the time, providing a supported rationale for the relationship. In
other words, what does the author’s adoption or skillful rejection of conventions say about the strategic communication of his or her story
concept?
C. Evaluate how the text uses the storytelling elements to create its intended theme, providing supported rationale.
Rubric
Guidelines for Submission: Milestone Three should be 3 to 4 pages in length, with double spacing, 12-point Times New Roman font, one-inch margins, and at
least three sources cited in MLA format.
Critical Elements Proficient (100%) Needs Improvement (75%) Not Evident (0%) Value
Classic Work:
Storytelling Elements
Analyzes the classic work for core
storytelling elements—narrative
structure (conflict, cris.
ENG-105 Peer Review Worksheet Rhetorical Analysis of a Public.docxchristinemaritza
ENG-105 Peer Review Worksheet: Rhetorical Analysis of a Public Document
Part of your responsibility as a student in this course is to provide quality feedback to your peers that will help them to improve their writing skills. This worksheet will assist you in providing that feedback. To highlight the text and type over the information in the boxes on this worksheet, double-click on the first word.
Name of the draft’s author: Type Author Name Here
Name of the peer reviewer: Type Reviewer Name Here
Reviewer
After reading through the draft one time, write a summary (3-5 sentences) of the paper that includes your assessment of how well the essay meets the assignment requirements as specified in the syllabus and the rubric.
Type 3-5 Sentence Summary Here
After a second, closer reading of the draft, answer each of the following questions. Positive answers will give you specific elements of the draft to praise; negative answers will indicate areas in need of improvement and revision. Please be sure to indicate at least three positive aspects of the draft and at least three areas for improvement in reply to the questions at the bottom of this worksheet.
Rhetorical Analysis Content and Ideas
· How effectively does the thesis statement identify the main points that the writer would like to make about the public document he or she is analyzing?
Type Answer Here
· How successful is the writer’s summary of the public document under study?
Type Answer Here
· How effective is the writer’s explanation and evaluation of the rhetorical situation, genre, and stance?
Type Answer Here
· How persuasively is evidence used to support assertions and enrich the essay?
Type Answer Here
· How effectively does the essay’s content support the thesis by analyzing the document and evaluating its effectiveness according to strategies from chapter 8 of Writing with Purpose?
Type Answer Here
Organization
· How effectively does the introduction engage the reader while providing an overview of the paper?
Type Answer Here
· Please identify the writer’s thesis and quote it in the box below.
Type Writer's Thesis Here
· How effectively do the paragraphs develop the topic sentence and advance the essay’s ideas?
Type Answer Here
· How effectively does the conclusion provide a strong, satisfying ending, not a mere summary of the essay?
Type Answer Here
Format
· How closely does the paper follow GCU formatting style? Is it double-spaced in 12 pt. Times New Roman font? Does it have 1" margins? Does it use headers (page numbers using appropriate header function)? Does it have a proper heading (with student’s name, date, course, and instructor’s name)?
|_|Yes |_|No Add optional clarification here
· Are all information, quotations, and borrowed ideas cited in parenthetical GCU format?
|_|Yes |_|No Add optional clarification here
· Are all sources listed on the references page in GCU format?
|_|Yes |_|No Add optional clarification here
· Is the required minimum number of sources li.
ENG 272-0Objective The purpose of this essay is t.docxchristinemaritza
ENG 272-0
Objective: The purpose of this essay is to make an analytical argument about connections across texts, time periods and cultures, and to situate this argument within the context of the existing critical discourse. You will need to select 3 primary texts to actively analyze in order to develop an argument of your own; you should make an argument about, not simply summarize, the primary texts.For the primary texts, choose one (1) work from each of the three (3) columns below.
Prompt:Based on Harper Lee's Pulitzer Prize winning book of 1961, To Kill A Mockingbird is set in small-town Alabama, 1932. Atticus Finch (played by Gregory Peck) is a lawyer and a widower with two young children, Jem and Scout. Atticus Finch is currently defending Tom Robinson, a black man accused of raping a white woman. Meanwhile, Jem and Scout are intrigued by their neighbors, the Radley’s, and the mysterious, seldom-seen Boo Radley in particular. The story features a number of “mockingbirds”—those who are scorned by society unfairly, and makes timeless insights about the nature of humanity and what it means to be human.
Option 1:Reflect on the film’s assertions, and then construct a thesis and write an essay that directly cites from a minimum of three (3) different texts considered in in this class, a minimum of one from each of the three columns below.
Option 2:With Lee’s story in mind, discuss and reflect on the following questions. What are the basic rights and liberties of a human in a social democracy? What effect does dehumanization have on the victim and the perpetrator? What is society’s role in facilitating the happiness and prosperity of its members? What role does conformity and blind adherence to tradition play in perpetuating inequality? Your response should directly cite from a minimum of three (3) different texts considered in ENG 272, a minimum of one from each of the three columns below.
· The essay must be 4-6 pages (1000-1500 words), typed, double-spaced in Times New Roman 12 pt. font with 1-inch margins. Include your name, the course #, the date, and an original title on the first page (standard MLA format). You are to use no sources other than the assigned texts from the table below; therefore, a Works Cited page is not necessary!!!!
The Enlightenment
Revolutions
Modernity
Kant-“What is Enlightenment?”
Descartes-“Discourse on Method”
Diderot-Encyclopedie
Wollstonecraft—“A Vindication of the Rights of Woman”
Paine-“Common Sense”
Paine-“Age of Reason”
Jefferson: Declaration of Independence
Jefferson: “On Equality”
Declaration of Sentiments
Declaration of Rights
DeGouges: The Rights of Woman
Douglass: The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass
Kafka: Metamorphosis
Whitman: “Song of Myself”
Selected Dickenson poems
Wordsworth: “The World is Too Much with Us.”
Assignment: How does the Critical Race Theory apply to the study of dismattling the
school to prison pipeline.
1. 6-7 pages
.
ENG 360 01 American PoetrySpring 2019TuesdayFriday 800 –.docxchristinemaritza
ENG 360 01 American Poetry
Spring 2019
Tuesday/Friday 8:00 – 9:15 St. Mary’s B1
Brandon Clay
Course Description:
ENG 360 is a survey of a selection of American poetry and poetics from the Puritan era to the present, showing the effects of the Romantic revolution on an American Puritan tradition and the making of a national vernacular for poetry. Students will study poetic technique and read authors such as Bradstreet, Taylor, Freneau, Emerson, Longfellow, Poe, Thoreau, Whitman, Dickinson, Robinson, Dunbar, Crane, Stein, Sandburg, Stevens, Williams, Pound, H.D., Moore, Eliot, Millay, Hughes, Cullen, Zukofsky, Auden, Roethke, Bishop, Berryman, Brooks, Lowell, Plath, Glück, Levertov, Ginsberg, Merrill, Kinnell, Rich, Pinsky, and Collins. This is a writing intensive course and it meets literature requirements for graduation.
Course Learning Outcomes:
· To become familiar with the history of and different styles of American poetry
· To develop an understanding of the historical and social frameworks in which poems are written
· To understand different critical approaches to the interpretation of poetry
· To refine the critical and analytical skills used in verbal and written discussions of poetry
· To develop an enjoyment of and appreciation for poetry
Prerequisite:
ENG 142, earning a “C” or better.
Required Text(s):
Lehman, David, ed. The Oxford Book of American Poetry. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2006.
Expected Student Behavior in Class:
All students are expected to behave in a professional and courteous manner to both the professor and other students in class, and to follow the procedures as outlined in this syllabus for this course. If the professor deems that a student has failed to adhere to this standard, the professor shall make a report to both the Dean of the School of Arts & Sciences, and the Dean of Students. Please follow all policies as written in the 2018-2019 Student Handbook.
Preparation and Active Class Participation:
Students are required to read all works for the course. Assignments must be read prior to the class in which the particular work(s) will be discussed. Papers must be written in MLA format, using and citing quotations from primary and/or secondary sources. Written work is due at the beginning of class on the due date specified on the schedule below. Major writing assignments will be submitted electronically using Moodle and Turnitin.com. Some written work may also be turned in as a hard copy. Use white paper and 12 point, Times New Roman font with one-inch margins. All papers must be stapled and (per MLA format) include name, class title, instructor name, and due date in upper left hand corner.
Note that Student Performance counts for 15% of the final grade (complete grading system described below). This is defined as how a student conducts him/herself in the class, and refers specifically to attendance, lateness, manners, and respect towards professor and fellow students. A student can expect to receive a.
ENG 4034AHamlet Final AssessmentDUE DATE WEDNESDAY, 1220, 1.docxchristinemaritza
ENG 403/4A
Hamlet Final Assessment
DUE DATE: WEDNESDAY, 12/20, 11:30 PM
At the end of the Hamlet unit, you will have two choices to earn 100 points. These choices replace the final essay test that was in the course originally. You can choose only ONE of the following options, and the due date remains the same. These activities will be graded just like the test would have been, meaning there is no chance to redo or revise the assignment. However, this will be taken into consideration when I grade them.
No matter what option you choose, it must be completed in a Word document and labeled or titled so that it is clear to your teacher which option you chose. On your document, write it as a heading, like this:
Your first and last name
Date
Name of the option you chose
Models of each assignment can be found in class announcements.
Option #1: RAFT
A RAFT is a writing assignment that encourages you to uncover your own voice and formats for presenting your ideas about the content you are studying. In this design, you have a lot of freedom to choose what interests you.
· R = Role of the writer: Who are you as the writer?
· A = Audience: To whom are you writing?
· F = Format: In what format are you writing?
· T = Topic: What are you writing about?
The process:
1. Use the chart below to choose two characters from the ROLE column. Your goal is to write in the voice (Role) of YOUR CHARACTER.
2. Using the knowledge and understanding that you have gained throughout the reading and viewing of Hamlet, choose a related Audience, Format, and Topic from the chart below.
3. As you craft your creative writing assignment, be sure the character’s personality and motivations are evident. For instance, you could choose Ophelia (role), Hamlet (audience), blog entry (format) and betrayal (theme). Then you will write a blog entry from Ophelia’s point of view with Hamlet as the intended audience focused on the theme of betrayal.
4. Next, repeat this process for a different role, audience, format and theme.
5. Please see the model below (pg. 8) to understand what to do.
6. If you are unsure of what a particular format is, the best thing to do is look up examples online.
· YOU MUST CHOOSE TWO CHARACTERS FROM THE ROLE LIST AND COMPLETE TWO DIFFERENT RAFTS. THEY WILL BE WORTH 50 POINTS EACH AND MUST BE AT LEAST 200 WORDS EACH.
· To clarify, this means two different roles, two different audiences, two different formats and two different themes.
· You may use some words from the play, but if you do they MUST be exact and put in quotation marks. The goal, however, is to use your own words. No outside sources are to be used for this assignment.
· You can choose to write about a particular scene or event, or the play as a whole.
· You are in the voice of the character, so if you choose the role of Ophelia, then you will become her (first person POV) and reflect her personality and motivations in your writing.
Role
Audience
Format
Theme
Choose the role that you .
ENG 3107 Writing for the Professions—Business & Social Scienc.docxchristinemaritza
ENG 3107: Writing for the Professions—Business & Social Sciences
Rev.6.26.18
Project 2: Memorandum
Your Strategies for Recommendation Report
OWL Draft Due Date:
Final Draft Setup Requirement:
• Polished, properly formatted, 2-page memorandum, that begins with a standard
memo heading section that contains To, From, Subject, and Date
• 12-point Times New Roman font
• Single-spaced lines
• 1st or 3rd person point of view
WHAT: Write a 2-page memorandum (memo) addressed to your course instructor as its
intended audience. The goal of your memo is to persuade your instructor to approve your
strategies for constructing your Recommendation Report, where you will identify a problem
within a specific company or organization and persuade a specific audience to take action.
You must use the Rhetorical Structure outlined in the HOW section below.
NOTE: Rather than draft a shorter version of your Recommendation Report, describe what you
intend to do to create your Recommendation Report as written below.
HOW: BRAINSTORM: Here are some suggestions from Contemporary Business Communications
(Houghton Mifflin, 2009) to prompt your thinking about possible topics for the
Recommendation Report as you develop this memo assignment (the term "ABC company" is a
generic name and cannot be used for the assignment):
• comparison of home pages on the Internet for ABC industry
• dress policy for the ABC company
• buying versus leasing computers at ABC company or university
• developing a diversity training program at ABC company
• encouraging the use of mass transit at ABC company or university
• establishing a recycling policy at ABC company
• evaluating a charity for corporate giving at ABC company
• recommending a site for the annual convention of ABC association
• starting an employee newsletter at ABC company
• starting an onsite wellness program at ABC company or university
• best online source for office supplies at ABC company
• best shipping service (e.g. UPS, USPS, FedEx)
• most appropriate laptop computer for ABC company managers who travel
ENG 3107: Writing for the Professions—Business & Social Sciences
Rev.6.26.18
RHETORICAL STRUCTURE: Use the subheadings in bold below in your memo.
• Description: What problem or challenge will you address in your Recommendation
Report? Provide an overview in two or three sentences, explaining why the memo has
been written. Why is the problem/challenge important to address?
• Objective: What should your audience know and do/change as a result of your
Recommendation Report?
• Information: What evidence will you will need to gather to support your
recommendations in the Recommendation Report? Where do you think you will find
this information? How will this information help you persuade your reader of your
recommendation? (Do not conduct any research for this memo assignment, just
describe your research plans.)
• Audience: Who is .
ENG 271Plato and Aristotlea Classical Greek philosophe.docxchristinemaritza
ENG 271
Plato and Aristotle
a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician
student of Socrates
writer of philosophical dialogues
founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world
Plato (@427 [email protected] BCE)
a genre of prose literary works in which characters discuss moral and philosophical problems, illustrating a version of the Socratic method (learning through open ended, critical thinking questioning)
The Republic is one of Plato’s Socratic dialogues
Socratic dialogue
a Socratic dialogue written by Plato around 380 BC concerning the definition of justice and the order and character of the just city-state and the just man.[
The Republic
Allegory: A story, poem, or picture that can be interpreted to reveal a hidden meaning, typically a moral or political one. An extended metaphor.
In Book VII of The Republic, it follows the “metaphor of the sun.” In it, the sun symbolizes illumination or enlightenment.
Ideas are the highest form of knowledge—not physical sensations
Explores the philosopher’s role in society (they are best for leadership roles)
Knowledge is freedom
Those with knowledge are obliged to share it
The Allegory of the Cave
The Allegory of the Cave
Greek philosopher and sage
student of Plato
teacher of Alexander the Great
Aristotle (384-322 BCE)
335 BCE: the earliest-surviving work of dramatic theory and the first philosophical treatise to focus on literary theory.
Key terms:
Mimesis or "imitation", "representation"
Catharsis or, variously, "purgation", "purification", "clarification"
Mythos or "plot"
Ethos or "character"
Dianoia or "thought", "theme"
Lexis or "diction", "speech"
Melos, or "melody"
Opsis or "spectacle"
The Poetics
Theogony and Metamorphoses
eng 271
Jf drake state technical college
Hesiod
Hesiod was a Greek oral poet generally thought by scholars to have been active between 750 and 650 BC, around the same time as Homer
The invocation of the muses
Muses dancing on Mount Helicon. Hesiod claimed he was inspired by the Muses to become a poet after they appeared to him on Mount Helicon. His poetry was partly an account of heroes and divinities, such as the Muses themselves, and included praise of kings.
Theogony
“the generation (or birth) of the gods”
The Theogony concerns the origins of the world (cosmogony) and of the gods (theogony), beginning with Chaos, Gaia, and Eros, and shows a special interest in genealogy.
The creation myth in Hesiod has long been held to have Eastern influences, such as the Hittite Song of Kumarbi and the Babylonian Enuma Elis. This cultural crossover would have occurred in the eighth and ninth century Greek trading colonies such as Al Mina in North Syria.
Chaos, Gaia, and Eros
Chaos (Greek χάος khaos) refers to the formless or void state preceding the creation of the universe or cosmos in the Greek creation myths, more specifically the initial.
ENG 315 Professional Communication Week 4 Discussion Deliver.docxchristinemaritza
ENG 315: Professional Communication
Week 4 Discussion: Delivering Bad News Messages
Delivering Bad News Messages
In the Chapter 7 reading, you learned about inductive and deductive methods of reasoning and communication. Share an example of a "bad news message" either from the text or from an online article you've seen (provide a link, please, if you choose the latter option). Explain whether you believe inductive OR deductive reasoning would be more effective to share that bad news with others and why.
After you have responded to this starter thread, don't forget to reply to at least one classmate to meet the minimum posting frequency requirement.
Student Response:
Erica Collins
RE: Week 4 Discussion: Delivering Bad News Messages
"They never gave me a fair chance," That's unfair," "This just can't be." In this case I will have to go with inductive reasoning after reviewing in some ways they are so similar to one another. Inductive reasoning is more based on uncertainty and deductive reasoning is more factual. In this case the conversation is more of an assumption.
I would think deductive would be more effective to share because deductive focus more on facts. Deductive Reasoning is the basic form of valid reasoning in my words accurate information that can be proven. Inductive reasoning is the premises in which the premises are viewed as supplying some evidence for truth. In my words this seems more of an opinion until proven. Tom me they are similar you have to really read to understand the difference of inductive and deductive reasoning.
ENG 315: Professional Communication
Due Week 4 and worth 150 points
Choose one of the professional scenarios provided in Blackboard under the Course Info tab, (see next page) or click here to view them in a new window.
Write a Block Business Letter from the perspective of company management. It must provide bad news to the recipient and follow the guidelines outlined in Chapter 7: Delivering Bad-News Messages in BCOM9 (pages 116-136).
The message should take the block business letter form from the posted example; however, you will submit your assignment to the online course shell.
The block business letter must adhere to the following requirements:
Content:
Address the communication issue from the scenario.
Provide bad news from the company to the recipient.
Concentrate on the facts of the situation and use either the inductive or deductive approach.
Assume your recipient has previously requested a review of the situation via email, letter, or personal meeting with management.
Format:
Include the proper introductory elements (sender’s address, date, recipient’s address). You may create any details necessary in the introductory elements to complete the assignment.
Provide an appropriate and professional greeting / salutation.
Single space paragraphs and double space between paragraphs.
Limit the letter to one page in length.
Clarity / Mechanics:
Focus on clarity, writing mechanics, .
ENG 315 Professional Communication Week 9Professional Exp.docxchristinemaritza
ENG 315: Professional Communication
Week 9
Professional Experience #5
Due at the end of Week 9 and worth 22 points
(Not eligible for late policy unless an approved, documented exception provided)
For Professional Experience #5, you will develop a promotional message. This can be an email, letter, info graphic, image, or any other relevant material that answers the following question:
Why should students take a Professional Communications course?
Instructions:
Step One: Choose the type of file you want to use to develop your promotional message (Word document, PowerPoint, etc.) and open a new file in that type and save to your desktop, using the following file name format:
Your_Name_Wk9_Promotion
Example: Ed_Buchanan_Wk9_Promotion
Step Two: Develop a promotional message that is no more than one page to explain why students should take a professional communications course.
Step Three: Submit your completed promotional message file for your instructor’s review using the Professional Experience #5 assignment link the Week 9 in Blackboard. Check that you have saved all changes and that your file name is follows this naming convention: Your_Name_Wk9_Promotion.
In order to receive credit for completing this task, you must:
Ensure your message is no more than one page.
Provide an effective answer to the question of why students should take a professional communication’s class.
Submit the file to Blackboard using the Professional Experience #5 link in the week 9 tab in Blackboard.
Note: This is a pass/fail assignment. All elements must be completed simulating the workplace environment where incomplete work is not accepted.
The professional experience assignments are designed to help prepare you for that environment. To earn credit, make sure you complete all elements and follow the instructions exactly as written. This is a pass/fail assignment, so no partial credit is possible. Assignments that follow directions as written will receive full credit, 22 points. Assignments that are incomplete or do not follow directions will be scored at a zero.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
Plan, create, and evaluate professional documents.
Write clearly, coherently, and persuasively using proper grammar, mechanics, and formatting appropriate to the situation.
Deliver professional information to various audiences using appropriate tone, style, and format.
Learn communication fundamentals and execute various professional tasks in a collaborative manner.
Analyze professional communication examples to assist in revision.
ENG 315: Professional Communication
Week 9 Discussion: Professional Networking
Part 1:
Professional Networking
Select ONE of the following:
Discuss three (3) reasons for utilizing professional networking during the job-hunting process. Note: Some potential points to consider include: developing a professional network, experiences you had presenting your resume at a job fair, or inter.
ENG 202 Questions about Point of View in Ursula K. Le Guin’s .docxchristinemaritza
ENG 202: Questions about Point of View in Ursula K. Le Guin’s “The Wife’s Story” (284-287), Alice
Walker’s “Olive Oil” and Meron Hadero’s “The Suitcase” (both in folder) 7 questions: 50 points total
Read everything carefully. This is designed to provide a learning experience.
Writers often use one of these three types of narration:
First-person narration uses “I” because “one character is telling the story from [his/her] point
of view.” In other words, we step into the skin of this character and move through the story
seeing everything through his/her eyes alone. To best illustrate first-person narration, choose
parts of the story that show the character revealing intimate thoughts/feelings, something we
can see only by having access to his/her heart & mind. This is a useful point of view to show a
character’s change of heart, to trick a reader, and/or to make the reader realize that s/he
understands more than the narrator does.
Third-person omniscient narration: “The narrator sees into the minds of any or all of
the characters, moving when necessary from one to another.” In other words, the
narrator is god-like (all-knowing) with the ability to report on the thoughts of multiple
characters. To best illustrate omniscient third-person narration, choose parts of the
story that show characters’ private thoughts/feelings revealed only to us, not the
others. This can be a very satisfying point of view because we know what is on many or
all characters' minds and do not have to guess. This is a useful point of view to show
how events impact characters in the story.
Third-person limited narration “reduces the narrator’s scope to a single
character.” In other words, the narrator does not know all but is rather
limited to the inner thoughts of one character; however, this narrator can
also objectively report on the environment surrounding this character. To
best illustrate third-person limited, choose parts of the story that
illustrate this character’s thoughts/feelings that are only revealed to
us, not to the others; additionally, choose parts of the story that show
objective reporting of events. This is a useful point of view for stories
that highlight a dynamic between a character and the world.
Each story this week uses a different type of narration.
“The Wife’s Story” uses first-person narration: the story is told from the point of view of the
wife.
1) Quote a part of the story that proves it is written in first-person narration. To earn
full points, choose wisely. To best illustrate first-person narration, choose a part of
the story that shows the wife revealing an intimate thought/feeling, something we can
see only by having access to her heart/mind. To earn full points, achieve correct
integration, punctuation, and citation by using the format below. (8 points)
Highlighting is just for lesson clarity.
Quotation Format
The wife reveals, “Quotation” (#)..
ENG 220250 Lab Report Requirements Version 0.8 -- 0813201.docxchristinemaritza
ENG 220/250 Lab Report Requirements
Version 0.8 -- 08/13/2018
I. General Requirements
The length of a lab report must not exceed 10 typewritten pages. This
includes any and all attachments included in the report.
The font size used in the body of the report must not exceed 12 pts.
The lab report must be submitted as a single document file with all of
the required attachments included.
[Refer to Exhibit #1]
Reports submitted electronically must be in the Adobe PDF format.
For any videos submitted (online students only):
They must have a minimum video resolution of 480p.
The maximum length for any video submitted must not exceed 5
minutes.
Due to their large file size, the video files must not be sent as
email attachments.
They can be uploaded to cloud storage (Dropbox, Google Drive, One
Drive, etc.). The link to the video file can then be submitted
via email.
II. Required Attachments
MultiSim simulation screenshots
The only simulation software that can be used for any lab
assignments in this course is MultiSim.
[Refer to Exhibit #2]
The simulation(s) shown on the lab report must show the same
types of measuring instruments that were used to perform the lab.
[Refer to Exhibit #3]
The illustration(s) included in the lab report must be actual
screenshots of the circuit simulation.
[Refer to Exhibit #4]
All screenshots of circuit simulations included in the report
must show the values being measured.
[Refer to Exhibit #5]
The screenshot(s) must be included in the body of the report.
They must be properly labelled and referenced in the lab report.
Printouts from MultiSim are not acceptable.
[Refer to Exhibit #6]
Raw Data
A copy of the original hand-written data sheet that you used to
record the data must be included in the lab report.
[Refer to Exhibit #7]
If the data is recorded on the lab assignment sheet, include only
the portion of the assignment sheet that you wrote your data on.
[Refer to Exhibit #8]
III. Lab Report Requirements
Equipment Documentation
The lab reports must include the make, model, and serial number
of lab equipment used in performing the lab. The equipment
includes
● Multimeters
● Capacitance and inductance testers
● Oscilloscopes
● Function generators
● Power Supplies
[Refer to Exhibit #9]
Lab Procedure
The lab procedure that you used must be documented in the report
as a step-by-step process. Bullet points or numbers must be used
to identify each step.
[Refer to Exhibit #10]
Data
Data must be shown in tabular format and all headings must be
clearly labelled along with the proper units of measurement.
[Refer to Exhibit #11]
No more than 2 to 4 decimal places are required for the showing
of data values. The use of engineering notation and/or metric
units of measurement is strongly recommended.
[Refer to Exhibit #12]
Showing ca.
ENG 203 Short Article Response 2 Sample Answer (Worth 13 mark.docxchristinemaritza
ENG 203: Short Article Response 2
Sample Answer
(Worth 13 marks)
ENGL 203 -Response Assignment 2: Sample Answer
1
Writing a Short Article Response (3 paragraph format + concluding sentence)
Paragraph 1:
Introduction
Introduction (summary) paragraph
· include APA citation of title, author, date + main idea of the whole article
· Brief summary of article (2 to 3 sentences)
· Last sentence is the thesis statement –
o must include your opinion/position + any two focus points from the article you have chosen to respond to
Paragraph 2:
Response Paragraph 1
Response to your first focus point from article #1
Paragraph 3:
Response Paragraph 2
Response to 2nd focus point from the article # 2
Paragraph 4: (optional)
Conclusion
Restate your thesis in slightly different words with concluding thoughts/summary of your responses
Length
300 to 400 words
*No Quotations, please paraphrase all sentences
A Response to “Access to Higher Education”
First sentence: APA Citation + reporting verb + main idea of whole article
In the article “Access to Higher Education,” Moola (2015) discussed the possible factors affecting one’s choice in attending higher education. Many people believe that the dramatic rise in college tuition is the main cause of inaccessibility to college. However, parental education backgrounds and their influence on children, admission selectivity categories in universities, unawareness of student aid opportunities, and coping with personal and social challenges are all having effects on a person’s option regarding their enrollment in colleges. Several negative consequences may occur if tertiary education is considered as a right such as negligence of studies and decrement in pass rate. While it is true that higher educational institutes admit students based on certain criteria, one could argue that it is unfair that universities prefer the wealthy, and those who are academically excellent.
Summary sentences (2 to 3)
Student Thesis: 2 focus points + opinion/position phrases (one positive, one negative)
Firstly, this article overlooked the fact that financial aid is not available for everyone and student loans have to be paid back. The author suggested that if university fees are not affordable, students can apply for academic grants and loans. However, scholarships and academic awards are distributed on a highly competitive basis, and therefore, only students who meet the eligibility requirements can benefit from them. Student financial aid does not cover all fees as well, and students awarded grants have to find other sources of financial aid to cover university fees and living costs. Many universities have a limited number or do not offer merit-scholarships at all, making it difficult for low-income students to be enrolled in their institution. Moreover, student loans usually carry interests that will keep increasing until repaid, resulting in large numbers of fresh graduates getting into debts.
Topic sentence: 1st focu.
ENG 130 Literature and Comp ENG 130 Argumentative Resear.docxchristinemaritza
ENG 130: Literature and Comp
ENG 130: Argumentative Research Essay
Background:
You have completed research on August Wilson, his life, and his plays.
You have completed reading/viewing Fences by August Wilson.
You have read the resources on Conflict in this unit.
Prompt (what will you be writing about):
Which conflict does Wilson use most to drive (bring forth, move forward) all the other
elements of the story?
Choose ONE that you feel is more apparent and easier to defend than the others.
o Troy vs Society
o Troy vs Himself
o Troy vs Family
o Troy vs Death
Helpful Notes:
Thesis:
o Your thesis is the response to the prompt question plus the supporting areas
that you will be using to defend your argument. Be sure to have a thesis that
clearly states which conflict you feel is the most important and drives the other
conflicts.
o Your thesis could begin with, “In the play, Fences, August Wilson uses the
conflict of __________ to drive the other conflicts and elements of the story as
evidenced by….
Sources and evidence:
o Be sure to use things that you have learned about Wilson’s life and his writings.
For example, if you are analyzing Troy and his father’s conflict, you could bring
in information that you researched about Wilson’s relationship with his own
father.
o Include direct quotations from the play. To cite a direct quote from a play, the
format is:
“quotation” (Wilson,1985, act #, scene #, line #).
OR
As Wilson (1985) writes, “quote” (act#, scene #, line#).
o Use at least three outside sources. Two of them could be from your previous
research essay. Be sure to include all of these in your reference page.
Requirements:
Length and format: 3-4 pages.
The title page and reference page are also required, but they should not be factored
into the 3-4 page length of the essay.
It should also be double spaced, written in Times New Roman, in 12 point font and
with 1 inch margins. Essay should conform to APA formatting and citation style.
Use the third-person, objective voice, avoiding personal pronouns such as “I,” “you,”
“we,” etc.
Use APA format for in-text citations and references when using outside sources and
textual evidence.
Skills to be assessed with this assignment: creating effective thesis statements,
incorporating research, analyzing rhetoric.
Please be cautious about plagiarism. Make sure to use in-text citations for direct
quotes, paraphrases, and new information.
Argumentative Research Essay Rubric
Does Not Meet
Expectations
0-11
Below
Expectations
12-13
Needs
Improvement
14-15
Satisfactory
16-17
Meets
Expectations
18-20
Introduction Introduction is not
present.
Background details
are a random
collection of
information,
unclear, or not
related to the topic.
Introduction is
attempted and
explains the
background, but
may lack detail.
Introdu.
ENG 132What’s Wrong With HoldenHere’s What You Should Do, .docxchristinemaritza
ENG 132
What’s Wrong With Holden?/Here’s What You Should Do, Holden…
Spring 2019
Your next project will involve gathering, recording, and analyzing information about
The Catcher in the Rye
.
The goal is to provide the reader with a better understanding of the novel’s main character, Holden Caulfield.
Think about his behavior in terms of cause and effect.
Your essay should focus either on reasons for his behavior (What’s Wrong With Holden?), or the results of Holden’s choices (Here’s What You Should Do, Holden…).
If you choose the latter, include a section that presents advice/guidance (kind of like Old Spencer).
Make sure to use research to support your ideas!
Here are the requirements:
1. 3-4 sources (books, articles, interviews, media, etc.)
2. A 2-page summary of the novel
3. A short essay (2-3 pages) that incorporates the information you gathered and supports some type of causal argument.
4. An MLA “Works Cited” in the essay (it doesn’t count as a page).
.
ENG 130- Literature and Comp Literary Response for Setting.docxchristinemaritza
ENG 130- Literature and Comp
Literary Response for Setting as a Device
Essay ENG 130: Literary Response for Setting
Sources: Choose one of the stories that you read in Unit 2/Setting Unit
“To Build a Fire” by Jack London
“The Storm” by Kate Chopin
“This is What It Means to Say Phoenix, Arizona” by Alexie
“The Cask of Amontillado” by Edgar Allan Poe
Prompt (What are you writing about?):
How does Setting affect/contribute to the plot of your chosen story?
Note: Remember that Setting is not only the place in which a story occurs. It is also mood,
weather, time, and atmosphere. These things drive other parts of the story.
How to get started:
Choose a story from this unit and discern all the elements of the Setting.
Decide in what three ways the setting contributes to the plot of your chosen story.
Formulate a thesis about setting and these three areas.
Mini lesson on thesis statements:
If you were writing about Star Wars, a sample thesis might read:
The setting in the Star Wars movies contributes to the desperateness of the
Resistance forces, provides a vast space for action and conflicts to occur,
focuses on how advances will affect society.
Broken down, this thesis would read:
The Setting in the Star Wars movies:
a. contributes to the desperateness of the Resistance forces (write
a supporting section with text examples)
b. provides a vast space for action and conflicts to occur, focuses
on how advances will affect society (write a supporting section
with text examples)
c. focuses on how advances will affect society (write a supporting
section with text examples)
Ask yourself, what is the setting of my story and how does it affect the plot
in the story?
For example, it is apparent that in London’s “To Build a Fire,” you would
devote a supporting section to how the weather conditions drive both the
conflict and the character’s actions.
After you have made connections to the three areas that setting affects, then
form your thesis. Here is a template for your thesis:
The Setting in author’s name and title of the story, contributes to first way
in which the setting affects the story, second way in which setting affects
the story, third way in which setting affects the story.
Instructions:
Read through all of the instructions of this assignment.
Read all of the unit resources.
Select one of the short stories to write about.
Your audience for this essay is people who have read the stories.
Your essay prompt is: How does Setting affect/contribute to the plot of your chosen story?
Your essay will have the following components:
o A title page
o An Introduction
o A thesis at the end of the introduction that clearly states how setting affects the story
o Supporting sections that defend your thesis/focus of the essay
o Text support with properly cited in-text citations
o A concluding paragraph
o A re.
ENG 130 Literature and Comp Literary Response for Point o.docxchristinemaritza
ENG 130: Literature and Comp
Literary Response for Point of View as a Device
Essay for Eng130: Point of View/Perspective
Sources: All of the short stories and plays you have read so far in this course.
Prompt (what are you writing about?):
Choose any of the literature that you have read in this course and choose one of the
following options:
a. In 3 pages or more, write an additional part of the story from a different character’s
perspective (example: write from Fortunatos’ perspective as he is being walled up
in to the catacombs, or perhaps from the perspective of Mrs. Hutchinson as she
prepares food on the morning of The Lottery).
OR
b. In 3 pages or more, write an additional part of the story from a different point of
view than that in which the story is written (example: write from the 1st person point
of view of the man in “To Build a Fire” as he realizes he is going to freeze to death,
or perhaps from the first person point of view of Cory in Fences as his father
blocks his dreams of going to college. Let the reader know what is going on in
their minds).
Note: Take a moment to email your instructor with your creative plan so that you know you
are on the right track.
Instructions (how to get it done):
Choose any of the short stories or plays you have read in this course.
Write a 3 or more page response in which you write an additional part of the story
from a different character’s perspective or a character’s different point of view.
Your audience for this response will be people who have read the stories.
Requirements:
Your response should be a minimum of 3 pages.
Your response should have a properly APA formatted title page.
It should also be double spaced, written in Times New Roman, in 12 point font and
with 1 inch margins.
You should have a reference page that includes the piece of literature you chose.
Please be cautious about plagiarism.
Be sure to read before you write, and again after you write.
Rubric for Point of View Response
Does Not Meet
Expectations
0-11
Below
Expectations
12-13
Needs
Improvement
14-15
Satisfactory
16-17
Meets
Expectations
18-20
Content
Writing is
disorganized or
not clearly
defined and/or
shows a
misunderstanding
of the task.
Writing is
minimally
organized. Use of
different
perspective is
underdeveloped.
Writing is
effective. Use of
different
perspective is
basic and
requires more
creativity.
Writing contains
related, quality
paragraphs. Use
of different
perspective is
effective
Writing is
purposeful and
focused. Use of
different
perspective is
highly effective
and thought
provoking.
Vocabulary/
Word Choice
Word choice is
weak.
Language and
phrasing is
inappropriate,
repetitive or lacks
meaning.
Dialogue, if used,
sounds forced.
Word choice is
limited.
Language and
phrasing lack
inspiration.
Dialogue, if used,
.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
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Chapter 5 Program Evaluation and Research TechniquesCharlene R. .docx
1. Chapter 5 Program Evaluation and Research Techniques
Charlene R. Weir
Evaluation of health information technology (health IT)
programs and projects can range from simple user satisfaction
for a new menu or full-scale analysis of usage, cost,
compliance, patient outcomes, and observation of usage to data
about patient's rate of improvement.
Objectives
At the completion of this chapter the reader will be prepared to:
1.Identify the main components of program evaluation
2.Discuss the differences between formative and summative
evaluation
3.Apply the three levels of theory relevant to program
evaluation
4.Discriminate program evaluation from program planning
and research
5.Synthesize the core components of program evaluation with
the unique characteristics of informatics interventions
Key Terms
Evaluation, 72
Formative evaluation, 73
Logic model, 79
Program evaluation, 73
Summative evaluation, 73
Abstract
Evaluation is an essential component in the life cycle of all
health IT applications and the key to successful translation of
these applications into clinical settings. In planning an
evaluation the central questions regarding purpose, scope, and
focus of the system must be asked. This chapter focuses on the
2. larger principles of program evaluation with the goal of
informing health IT evaluations in clinical settings. The reader
is expected to gain sufficient background in health IT
evaluation to lead or participate in program evaluation for
applications or systems.
Formative evaluation and summative evaluation are discussed.
Three levels of theory are presented, including scientific theory,
implementation models, and program theory (logic models).
Specific scientific theories include social cognitive theories,
diffusion of innovation, cognitive engineering theories, and
information theory. Four implementation models are reviewed:
PRECEDE-PROCEED, PARiHS, RE-AIM, and quality
improvement. Program theory models are discussed, with an
emphasis on logic models.
A review of methods and tools is presented. Relevant research
designs are presented for health IT evaluations, including time
series, multiple baseline, and regression discontinuity. Methods
of data collection specific to health IT evaluations, including
ethnographic observation, interviews, and surveys, are then
reviewed.
Introduction
The outcome of evaluation is information that is both useful at
the program level and generalizable enough to contribute to the
building of science. In the applied sciences, such as informatics,
evaluation is critical to the growth of both the specialty and the
science. In this chapter program evaluation is defined as the
“systematic collection of information about the activities,
characteristics, and results of programs to make judgments
about the program, improve or further develop program
effectiveness, inform decisions about future programming,
and/or increase understanding.”1 Health IT interventions are
nearly always embedded in the larger processes of care delivery
and are unique for three reasons. First, stakeholders' knowledge
about the capabilities of health IT systems may be limited at the
beginning of a project. Second, the health IT product often
changes substantially during the implementation process. Third,
3. true implementation often takes 6 months or longer, with users
maturing in knowledge and skills and external influences, such
as new regulations or organizational initiatives, occurring over
that period. Identification of the unique contribution of the
health IT application therefore is often difficult and evaluation
goals frequently go beyond the health IT component alone. In
this chapter the health IT component of evaluation is integrated
with overall program evaluation; unique issues are highlighted
for evaluating health IT itself. The chapter is organized into
three sections: (1) purposes of evaluation, (2) theories and
frameworks, and (3) methods, tools, and techniques.
Purposes of Evaluation
The purpose of evaluation determines the methods, approaches,
tools, and dissemination practices for the entire project being
evaluated. Therefore identifying the purpose is a crucial first
step. Mark, Henry, and Julnes have provided four main
evaluation purposes, which are listed in Box 5-1.
Usually an evaluation project is not restricted to just one of
these purposes. Teasing out which purposes are more important
is a process for the evaluator and the involved stakeholders. The
following sections represent a series of questions that can
clarify the process.
Formative versus Summative Evaluation
Will the results of the evaluation be used to improve the
program or to focus on determining whether the goals of the
program have been met? This question refers to a common
classification of evaluation activities that fall into two types:
(1) formative evaluation and (2) summative evaluation. The
difference is in how the information is used. The results of the
formative evaluation are used as feedback to the program for
continuous improvement.2,3 The results of the summative
evaluation are used to evaluate the merit of the program.
Formative evaluation is a term coined by Scriven in 1967 and
expanded on by a number of other authors to mean an
assessment of how well the program is being implemented and
to describe the experience of participants.4 Topics for formative
4. evaluation include the fidelity of the intervention, the quality of
implementation, the characteristics of the organizational
context, and the types of personnel. Needs assessments and
feasibility analyses are included in this general category. Box 5-
2 outlines several questions that fall into the category of
formative evaluation for health IT.
Box 5-1 Main Purposes of Program Evaluation
• Program and organizational improvement
• Assessment of merit or worth
• Knowledge development
• Oversight and compliance
Adapted from Mark M, Henry G, Julnes G. Evaluation: An
Integrative Framework for Understanding, Guiding and
Improving Policies and Programs. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass; 2000.
In contrast, summative evaluation refers to an assessment of the
outcomes and impact of the program. Cost-effectiveness and
adverse events analyses are included in this category. Some
questions that fall into the summative evaluation category are
listed in Box 5-3.
Dividing the evaluation process into the formative and
summative components is somewhat arbitrary, as they can be
and often are conducted concurrently. They do not necessarily
differ in terms of methods or even in terms of the content of the
information collected. Formative evaluation is especially
important for health IT products where the overall goal is
improvement. Because health IT products are “disruptive
technologies,” they both transform the working environment and
are themselves transformed during the process of
implementation.5 Many writers in the informatics field have
noted the paucity of information on implementation processes in
published studies. In a meta-analysis of health IT by researchers
at RAND, the authors noted:
5. In summary, we identified no study or collection of studies,
outside of those from a handful of health IT leaders that would
allow a reader to make a determination about the generalizable
knowledge of the system's reported benefit. This limitation in
generalizable knowledge is not simply a matter of study design
and internal validity. Even if further randomized, controlled
trials are performed, the generalizability of the evidence would
remain low unless additional systematic, comprehensive, and
relevant descriptions and measurements are made regarding how
the technology is utilized, the individuals using it, and the
environment it is used in.6(p4)
Box 5-2 Questions to Pose during Formative Evaluation
• What is the nature and scope of the problem that is being
addressed by health IT?
• What is the extent and seriousness of the need?
• How well is the technology working and what is the best
way to deliver it?
• How are participants (and users) experiencing the
program?
• How did the intervention change after implementation?
Box 5-3 Questions to Pose during Summative Evaluation
• To what degree were the outcomes affected by the
product?
• What is the cost effectiveness of the product?
• What were the unintended consequences of the product?
Although written in 2006, this statement is still relevant today.
Generalizability and Scope
Will the results of the evaluation be used to inform stakeholders
of whether a particular program is “working” and is in
compliance with regulations and mandates? This question refers
to issues of the generalizability and scope of the project. It is
also a question of whether the evaluation is more of a program
evaluation or a research study. An evaluation of a locally
developed project usually would be considered a program
evaluation. In contrast, if the program was designed to test a
6. hypothesis or research question and described, measured, or
manipulated variables that could be generalized to a larger
population, then the results of the evaluation study are more
like research. However, both approaches use systematic tools
and methods. For example, if the program to be evaluated is a
local implementation of alerts and decision support for
providers at the point of care to evaluate skin breakdown, then
the stakeholders are the administrators, nurses, and patients who
are affected by use of the decision support program. The
evaluation questions would address the use of the program, the
impact on resources, satisfaction, and perhaps clinical
outcomes. The evaluation would likely use a before and after
format and a more informal approach to assess whether the
decision support worked. However, if the evaluation question is
whether or not computerized guidelines affect behavior in
general and under what conditions, then the specific
stakeholders matter less and the ability to generalize beyond the
contextual situation matters more. A more formal, research-
based approach is then used. This question is really about what
is to be learned. Vygotsky called these two approaches
“patterning” versus “puzzling.”7 In the patterning approach to
evaluation the comparison is between what went before at the
local level, whereas in the puzzling approach the task is to do
an in-depth comparison between different options and puzzle
through the differences.
Another way to address this issue is to imagine that evaluation
activities fall along a continuum from “program evaluation” to
“evaluation research.” Program evaluation tends to have a wide
scope, using multiple methods with a diverse range of
outcomes. Evaluation research tends to be more targeted, using
more selected methods and fewer outcomes. On the program
evaluation end of the continuum, evaluation can encompass a
range of activities including but not limited to program model
development, needs assessment, tracking and performance
monitoring, and continuous quality improvement. On the
research end of the continuum, activities include theory testing,
7. statistical evaluation of models, and hypothesis testing. At both
ends of the continuum and in between, however, evaluators can
use a variety of research designs, rigorous measurement
methods, and statistical analyses.
Program Continuance versus Growth
Will the results of the evaluation be used to make a decision
about continuing the program as is or about expanding it to a
larger or different setting if it has generalizable knowledge?
Answering the question of whether a program will be continued
requires a focus on the concerns and goals of stakeholders as
well as special attention to the contextual issues of cost, burden,
user satisfaction, adoption, and effectiveness. Answering this
question also requires an assessment about the manner in which
the program was implemented and its feasibility in terms of
resources and efforts. Does the program require ongoing and
intense training of staff and technicians? Does it require unique
hardware requirements that are a one-time or ongoing cost?
Does the program have “legs” (i.e., can it exist on its own once
implemented)? Are the benefits accrued available immediately
or is it a long-term process?
One specific example to determine whether the program should
be continued is to assess whether or not it contributes to the
institution being a “learning organization.”8,9 This approach
focuses on performance improvement and the following four
areas of concern (modified for health IT):
1.What are the mental models and implicit theories held by
the different stakeholders about the health IT product?
2.How does the health IT product promote mastery or
personal control over the work environment?
3.What is the system-level impact of the health IT product?
How does the intervention support a system thinking approach?
4.How does the health IT product create a unified vision of
the information environment? Addressing this question requires
understanding how individuals view the future computerized
environment and whether or not they have come to a shared
8. vision.
Theories and Frameworks
The use of theory in evaluation studies is controversial among
evaluators as well as in the informatics community. On the one
hand, some authors note that evaluation studies are local,
limited in scope, and not intended to be generalizable. On the
other hand, other authors argue that theory is necessary to frame
the issues adequately, promote generalizable knowledge, and
clarify measurement. This author would argue that theory
should be used for the latter reason. Theoretical perspectives
clarify the constructs and methods of measuring constructs as
well as bring forward an understanding of mechanisms of
action.
For the purposes of this chapter, theoretical perspectives will be
divided into three levels of complexity. At the most complex
level are the social science, cognitive engineering, and
information science theories. These theories are well
established, have a strong evidence base, and use validated
measures and well-understood mechanisms of action. This
chapter discusses some well-known social science theories as
well as two health IT–specific adaptations of these theories that
have significant validation. At the next level are the program
implementation models, which are less complex and basically
consist of a conceptual model. The models are often used to
describe processes but few studies attempt to validate the
models or test models against each other. Finally, at the most
basic level are the program theory models, which are program
specific and intended to represent the goals and content of a
specific project. All evaluations for health IT products should
develop a program theory model to guide the evaluation process
itself. The descriptions below are brief and are intended to
provide an overview of the possibilities at each level.
Social Science Theories
There are myriad theories relevant to both the design of
interventions and products and the structure of the evaluation. A
9. more detailed description of such theories as they apply to
informatics is found in Chapter 2. A short description is
provided here for the purpose of context. These social science
theories include social cognitive theories, diffusion of
innovation theory, cognitive engineering theories, and
information theories.
Social Cognitive Theories
The social cognitive theories include the theory of planned
behavior,10 its close relative the theory of reasoned action,11
and Bandura's social cognitive theory.12 These theories predict
intentions and behavior as a function of beliefs about the value
of an outcome, the likelihood that the outcome will occur given
the behavior, and the expectations of others and self-efficacy
beliefs about the personal ability to engage in the activity. The
empirical validation of these theories is substantial and they
have been used to predict intentions and behavior across a wide
variety of settings.
Diffusion of Innovations Theory
Another very commonly used model in informatics is diffusion
of innovations theory by Rogers.13,14 In this model
characteristics of the innovation, the type of communication
channels, the duration, and the social system are predictors of
the rate of diffusion. The central premise is that diffusion is the
process by which an innovation is communicated through
certain channels over time among the members of a social
system organization. Individuals pass through five stages:
knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and
confirmation. Social norms, roles, and the type of
communication channels all affect the rate of adoption of an
innovation. Characteristics of an innovation that affect the rate
of adoption include relative advantage as compared to other
options; trialability, or the ease with which it can be tested;
compatibility with other work areas; complexity of the
innovation; and observability, or the ease with which the
innovation is visible.
Cognitive Engineering Theories
10. The cognitive engineering theories have also been widely used
in informatics, particularly naturalistic decision making
(NDM),15–17 control theory,18 and situation awareness
(SA).19 These theories focus more on the interaction between
the context and the individual and are more likely to predict
decision making, perception, and other cognitive variables.
NDM is a broad and inclusive paradigm. SA is narrower and is
particularly useful in supporting design.
SA combines the cognitive processes of orientation, attention,
categorization or sense-making, and planning into three levels
of performance. These activities are thought to be critical to
human performance in complex environments. Endsley refers to
a three-level system of awareness: (1) perception, (2)
comprehension, and (3) projection. She defines shared SA as the
group understanding of the situation.19 For example, in one
recent study of health IT, higher SA was significantly
associated with more integrated displays for intensive care unit
(ICU) nursing staff.20,21 Table 5-1 presents the core
components of SA and associated definitions.
TABLE 5-1 Levels of Situational Awareness
LEVEL
DESCRIPTION
Perception of the elements in the environment
What is present, active, salient, and important in the
environment? Attention will be driven by task needs.
Comprehension of the current situation
Classification of the event is a function of activation of long-
term memory. Meaning is driven by the cognitive process of
classification and task identification.
Projection of future status
Expectations of outcomes in the future. Driven by implicit
theories and knowledge about the causal mechanisms underlying
11. events.
Information Theories
One of the most influential theories is information theory
published in 1948 by Claude Shannon.22 Shannon focused on
the mathematical aspects of the theory. Weaver, an oncologist,
focused on the semantic meaning of the theory.23 Information
theory identifies the degree of uncertainty in messages as a
function of the capacity of the system to transmit those
messages given a certain amount of noise and entropy. The
transmission of information is broken down into source, sender,
channel, receiver, and destination. Because information theory
is essentially a theory of communication, information is defined
relative to three levels of analysis:
1.At the technical or statistical level, information is defined
as a measure of entropy or uncertainty in the situation. The
question at this level is: How accurately are the symbols used in
the communication being transmitted?
2.At the semantic level, information is defined as a reduction
of uncertainty at the level of human meaning. The question here
is: How well do the symbols that were transmitted convey the
correct meaning?
3.At the effectiveness level, information is defined as a
change in the goal state of the system. The question here is:
How well does the perceived meaning effect the desired
outcome?24
This simple framework can provide an effective evaluation
model for any system that evaluates the flow of information.
For example, Weir and McCarthy used information theory to
develop implementation indicators for a computerized provider
order entry (CPOE) project.25
Information foraging theory is a relatively new theory of
information searching that has proven very useful for analyzing
web searching.26 Information foraging theory is built on
12. foraging theory, which studies how animals search for food.
Pirolli and Card noticed similar patterns in the processes used
by animals to search for food and the processes used by humans
to search for information on the Internet. The basic assumption
is that all information searches are goal directed and constitute
a calibration between the energy cost of searching and the
estimated value of information retrieved. The four concepts
listed in Box 5-4 are important to measure. Empirical work on
foraging theory has validated its core concepts.27
Box 5-4 Four Concepts of Foraging Theory
1. Information and its perceived value
2. Information patches or the temporal and spatial location of
information clusters
3. Information scent or the presence of cues value and
location of information
4. Information diet or the decision to pursue one source over
another
Information Technology Theories
Two well-developed information technology theories are
specifically used in the IT domain. As is true of many IT
theories, they are compiled from several existing theories from
the basic sciences to improve their fit in an applied setting.
Information System Success
An IT model that integrates several formal theories is DeLone
and McLean's multifactorial model of IT success developed with
the goal of improving scientific generalization.28 Their theory
was originally developed in 1992 and revised in 2003 based on
significant empirical support. The model is based on Shannon
and Weaver's communication theory23 and Mason's information
“influence” theory.29 DeLone and McLean used Shannon and
Weaver's three levels of information: (1) technical (accuracy
and efficiency of the communication system), (2) semantic
(communicating meaning), and (3) effectiveness (impact on
receiver). These three levels correspond to DeLone and
14. are different than the variables associated with later
intentions.30,32,33 Specifically, the perceived work
effectiveness constructs (perceived usefulness, extrinsic
motivation, job fit, relative advantage, and outcome
expectations) were found to be highly predictive of intentions
over time. In contrast, variables such as attitudes, perceived
behavioral control, ease of use, self-efficacy, and anxiety were
predictors only of early intentions to use.
Second, the authors found that the variables predictive of
intentions to use are not the same as the variables predictive of
usage behavior itself.30 They found that the “effort factor
scale” (resources, knowledge, compatible systems, and support)
was the only construct other than intention to significantly
predict usage behavior. Finally, these authors found that the
model differed significantly depending on whether usage was
mandated or by choice. In settings where usage was mandated,
social norms had a stronger relationship to intentions to use
than the other variables.
Program Implementation Models
Program implementation models refer to generalized, large-
scale implementation theories that are focused on
FIG 5-2 An example of unified theory of acceptance and use of
technology.
(From Venkatesh V, Morris M, Davis G, Davis F. User
acceptance of information technology: toward a unified view.
MIS Quart. 2003;27[3]:425-478.)
performance improvement and institution-wide change. Four
models are reviewed here: PRECEDE-PROCEED, PARiHS, RE-
AIM, and quality improvement.
PRECEDE-PROCEED Model
The letters in the PRECEDE-PROCEED model represent the
following terms: PRECEDE Predisposing, Reinforcing, and
Enabling Constructs in Educational Diagnosis and Evaluation;
PROCEED Policy, Regulatory, and Organizational Constructs in
Educational and Environmental Development. This model was
15. originally developed to guide the design of system-level
educational interventions as well as evaluating program
outcomes. It is a model that addresses change at several levels,
ranging from the individual to the organization level. According
to the model the interaction between the three types of variables
produces change: predisposing factors that lay the foundation
for success (e.g., electronic health records or strong leadership),
reinforcing factors that follow and strengthen behavior (e.g.,
incentives and feedback), and enabling factors that activate and
support the change process (e.g., support, training,
computerized reminders, and templates or exciting content). The
model has been applied in a variety of settings, ranging from
public health interventions, education, and geriatric quality
improvement and alerting studies.34 Figure 5-3 illustrates the
model applied to a health IT product.
Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health
Services (PARiHS)
The PARiHS framework outlines three general areas associated
with implementation (Fig. 5-4):
Inc.)
FIG 5-4 The PARiHS model.
(From Kitson AL, Rycroft-Malone J, Harvey G, McCormack B,
Seers K, Titchen A. Evaluating the successful implementation
of evidence into practice using the PARiHS framework:
theoretical and practical challenges. Implement Sci. 2008;3:1.)
2.Context: Enhancing leadership support and integrating with
the culture through focus groups and interviews
3.Facilitation of the implementation process: Skill level and
role of facilitator in promoting action as well as frequency of
supportive interactions35
These three elements are defined across several subelements,
with higher ratings suggestive of more successful
16. implementation. For instance, a high level of evidence may
include the presence of randomized controlled trials (i.e., the
gold standard in research), high levels of consensus among
clinicians, and collaborative relationships between patients and
providers. Context is evaluated in terms of readiness for
implementation, including consideration of the context's
culture, leadership style, and measurement practices. High
ratings of context may indicate an environment focused on
continuing education, effective teamwork, and consistent
evaluation and feedback. Finally, the most successful
facilitation is characterized by high levels of respect for the
implementation setting, a clearly defined agenda and facilitator
role, and supportive flexibility.36 Successful implementation
(SI) is thus conceptualized as a function (f) of evidence (E),
context (C), and facilitation (F), or SI = f(E, C, F).37 The
PARiHS framework suggests a continuous multidirectional
approach to evaluation of implementation. Importantly,
evaluation is a cyclic and interactive process instead of a linear
approach.
Reach Effectiveness Adoption Implementation Maintenance
(RE-AIM)
RE-AIM was designed to address the significant barriers
associated with implementation of any new intervention and is
particularly useful for informatics. Most interventions meet
with significant resistance and any useful evaluation should
measure the barriers associated with the constructs (Reach,
Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, and Maintenance).
These constructs serve as a good format for evaluation.38,39
First, did the intervention actually reach the intended target
population? In other words, how many providers had the
opportunity to use the system? Or, how many patients had
access to a new website? Second, for effectiveness, did the
intervention actually do what it was intended to do? Did the
wound care decision support actually work as intended every
time? Did it identify the patients it was supposed to identify?
Or, did the algorithms miss some key variables in real life?
17. Third, for adoption, what proportion of the targeted staff,
settings, or institutions actually used the program? What was
the breadth and depth of usage? Did they use it for all relevant
patients or only for some? Fourth, for implementation, was the
intervention the same across settings and time? With most
health IT products there is constant change to the software, the
skill level of users, and the settings in which they are used.
These should be documented and addressed in the evaluation.
Finally, for maintenance, some period of time should be
identified a priori to assess maintenance and whether usage
continues and by whom and in what form. For health IT
interventions it is especially useful to look for unintended
consequences as well as workarounds during implementation
and maintenance in particular.
Quality Improvement
Evaluation activities using a quality improvement framework
are often based on Donabedian's classic structure-process-
outcome (SPO) model for assessing healthcare quality.40,41
Donabedian defines structural measures of quality as the
professional and organizational resources associated with the
provision of care, such as IT staff credentials, CPOE systems,
or staffing ratios. Process measures include the tasks and
decisions imbedded in care, such as the time to provision of
antibiotics or the proportion of patients on deep vein thrombosis
(DVT) prevention protocols. Finally, outcomes are defined as
the final or semifinal measurable outcomes of care, such as the
number of amputations due to diabetes, the number of patients
with DVT, or the number of patients with drug-resistant
pneumonia. These three categories of variables are thought to
be mutually interdependent and reinforcing. A model for patient
safety and quality research design (PSQRD) expands on this
well-known, original SPO model.42 For more details on this
model, see Chapter 20.
Program Theory Models
Program theory models are the most basic and practical of the
evaluation models. They are the implicit theories of
18. stakeholders and participants of the proposed program. A
detailed program theory identifies variables, the timing of
measures and observations, and the key expectations that reflect
their understandings. Most importantly, a program theory model
serves as a shared vision between the evaluator team and the
participants, creating a unified conceptual model that guides all
evaluation activities.
Six Steps
Program theory evaluation is recommended practice for all
program evaluation and an important approach regardless of
whether the program is the implementation of a new
documentation system or an institution-wide information
system. Invariably, various participants will have different ideas
about what the program is and why it works.43 Creation of a
program theory model serves to align the various stakeholders
into a single view. The Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention's six-step program evaluation framework is one of
the best examples in current use.44 It recommends the following
six steps:
1.Engage stakeholders to ensure that all partners have
contributed to the goals of the program and the metrics to
measure its success.
2.Describe the program systematically to identify goals,
objectives, activities, resources, and context. This description
process involves all stakeholders.
3.Focus the evaluation design to assess usefulness,
feasibility, ethics, and accuracy.
4.Gather credible evidence by collecting data, conducting
interviews, and measuring outcomes using a good research
design.
5.Justify conclusions using comparisons against standards,
statistical evidence, or expert review.
6.Ensure use and share lessons learned by planning and
implementing dissemination activities.
19. Logic Models
A logic model is a representation of components and
mechanisms of the program as noted by the authors of the W.K.
Kellogg Foundation's guide to logic models:
Basically, a logic model is a systematic and visual way to
present and share your understanding of the relationship among
the resources you have to operate your program, the activities
you plan, and the changes or results you hope to achieve. The
most basic logic model is a picture of how you believe your
program will work. It uses words and/or pictures to describe the
sequence of activities thought to bring about change and how
these activities are linked to the results the program is expected
to achieve.45(p1)
The basic structure of a logic model is illustrated in Figure 5-5.
The logic model starts with a category of “inputs,” which
include staff, resources, prior success, and stakeholders. In
health IT the inputs are the programs, software, the IT staff,
hardware, networks, and training. “Outputs” include the
activities that are going to be conducted, such as training,
implementation, software design, and other computer activities.
Participation refers to the individual involved. Outcomes are
divided into short, medium, and long outcomes or short-term
versus long-term outcomes. The goal is to make sure that the
components of the program are easy to see and the mechanisms
are made explicit.
The specific methods used to apply a model are not prescribed
(although creating a logic model is recommended). Use of a
wide range of methods and tools is encouraged. Engaging the
stakeholders is the first step and that process could involve
needs assessment, functionality requirements analyses,
cognitive task analyses, contextual inquiry, and ethnographic
observation, to name a few approaches. In all cases, the result is
the ability to provide a deep description of the program, the
expected mechanisms, and the desired outcomes. Once there is
20. agreement on the characteristics of the program at both the
superficial level and the deeper structure, designing the
evaluation is straightforward. Agreement among stakeholders is
needed not only to identify concepts to measure, but also to
determine how to meaningfully measure them.
In a health IT product implementation, agreement, especially
about goals and metrics, should be made early in the program
implementation process. Because health IT products are unique,
creating a shared vision and a common understanding of the
meaning of the evaluation can be challenging. Using an iterative
process for implementation can mitigate this problem where
design and implementation go hand in hand and the
stakeholder's vision is addressed repeatedly throughout the
process.
Methods, Tools, and Techniques
The need for variety in methods is driven by the diversity in
population, types of projects, and purposes that are
characteristic of research in informatics. Many evaluation
projects are classified as either qualitative or quantitative. This
division may be somewhat artificial and limited but using the
terms qualitative and quantitative to organize methods helps to
make them relatively easy to understand. A central thesis of this
section is that the choice of method should fit the question and
multiple methods are commonly used in evaluations.
Quantitative versus Qualitative Questions
Because evaluation is often a continuous process throughout the
life of a project, the systems life cycle is used to organize this
discussion. Evaluation activities commonly occur during the
planning, implementation, and maintenance stages of a project
(see Chapter 2 for more details about these stages and others in
the systems life cycle). At each stage both quantitative and
qualitative questions might be asked. At the beginning of a
project the goal is to identify resources,
FIG 5-5 Example of a logic model structure.
(From University of Wisconsin–Extension, Cooperative
21. Extension, Program Development and Evaluation website. Logic
model.
http://www.uwex.edu/ces/pdande/evaluation/evallogicmodel.htm
l. 2010.)
feasibility, values, extent of the problem to be solved, and types
of needs. The methods used to answer these questions are
essentially local and project specific. During the project,
evaluation questions focus on the intensity, quality, and depth
of the implementation as well as the evolution of the project
team and community. Finally, in the maintenance phase of the
project the questions focus on outcomes, cost–benefit value, or
overall consequences.
Table 5-2 presents a matrix that outlines the different stages of
a project and the types of questions that might be asked during
each stage. The questions are illustrations of possible
evaluation questions and loosely categorized as either
qualitative or quantitative.
Qualitative Methods
Many individuals believe that qualitative methods refer to
research procedures that collect subjective human-generated
data. However, subjective data can be quantitative, such as the
subjective responses to carefully constructed usability
questionnaires used as outcome end points. Diagnostic codes are
another example of quantitative forms of subjective data.
Qualitative methods, rather, refer to procedures and methods
that produce narrative or observational descriptive data that are
not intended for transformation into numbers. Narrative data
refer to information in the form of stories, themes, meanings,
and metaphors. Collecting this information requires the use of
systematic procedures where the purpose is to understand and
explore while minimizing bias. There are several very good
guides to conducting qualitative research for health IT
evaluation studies.46
TABLE 5-2 Evaluation Research Questions By Stage of Project
and Type of Question
22. TYPES OF QUESTIONS
STAGE OF PROJECT
QUALITATIVE
QUANTITATIVE
Planning
What are the values of the different stakeholders?
What are the expectations and goals of participants?
What is the prevalence of the problem being addressed by the
health IT product?
What are the resources available?
What is the relationship between experiencing a factor and
having a negative outcome?
What are the intensity and depth of use of health IT tools?
Implementation
How are participants experiencing the change?
How does the health IT product change the way individuals
relate to or communicate with each other?
How many individuals are participating?
What changes in performance have been visible? What is the
compliance rate?
How many resources are being used during implementation
(when and where)?
Maintenance
How has the culture of the situation changed?
What themes underscore the participants' experience?
What metaphors describe the change?
What are the participants' personal stories?
Is there a significant change in outcomes for patients?
23. Did compliance rates increase (for addressing the initial
problem)?
What is the rate of adverse events?
Is there a significant change in efficiency?
Is there a correlation between usage and outcomes?
IT, Information technology.
Structured and Semistructured Interviews
In-person interviews can be some of the best sources of
information about an individual's unique perspectives, issues,
and values. Interviews vary from a very structured set of
questions conducted under controlled conditions to a very
informal set of questions asked in an open-ended manner.
Typically, evaluators audio-record the interviews and conduct
thematic or content coding on the results. For example, user
interviews that focus on how health IT affects workflow are
especially useful. Some interviews have a specific focus, such
as in the critical incident method.47 In this method an
individual recalls a critical incident and describes it in detail
for the interviewer. In other cases the interview may focus on
the individual's personal perceptions and motivations, such as in
motivational interviewing.48 Finally, cognitive task analysis
(CTA) is a group of specialized interviews and observations
where the goal is to deconstruct a task or work situation into
component parts and functions.49–51 A CTA usually consists of
targeting a task or work process and having the participant walk
through or simulate the actions, identifying the goals,
strategies, and information needs. These latter methods are
useful for user experience studies outlined in Chapter 21.
Observation and Protocol Analysis
An interview may not provide enough information and therefore
observing users in action at work is necessary to fully
understand the interactions of context, users, and health IT.
Observation can take many forms, from using a video camera to
a combination of observation and interview where individuals
“think aloud” while they work. The think-aloud procedures need
to be analyzed both qualitatively for themes and quantitatively
24. for content, timing, and frequency.52
Interviews, CTAs, and observation are essential in almost every
health IT evaluation of users. Technology interventions are not
uniform and cannot simply be inserted into the workflow in a
“plug and play” manner. In addition, the current state of the
literature in the field lacks clarity about the mechanisms of
action or even delineating the key components of health IT.
Thus understanding the user's response to the system is
essential. For more information about the user experience, see
Chapter 21.
Ethnography and Participant Observation
Ethnography and participant observation are derived from the
field of anthropology, where the goal is to understand the larger
cultural system through observer immersion. The degree of
immersion can vary, as can some of the data collection methods,
but the overall strategy includes interacting with all aspects of
the context. Usually ethnography requires considerable time,
multiple observations, interviews, and living and working in the
situation if possible. It also includes reading historical
documents, exploring artifacts in current use (e.g., memos,
minutes), and generally striving to understand a community.
These methods are particularly useful in a clinical setting,
where understanding the culture is essential.46,53
Less intensive ethnographic methods are also possible and
reasonable for health IT evaluations. Focused ethnography is a
method of observing actions in a particular context. For
example, nurses were observed during patient care hand-offs
and their interactions with electronic health records were
recorded. From these observations design implications for hand-
off forms were derived.54,55
Quantitative Methods
Research Designs
Quantitative designs range from epidemiologic, descriptive
studies to randomized controlled trials. Three study designs
presented may be particularly useful for health IT and clinical
settings. Each of these designs takes advantage of the
25. conditions that are commonly found in health IT projects,
including automatically collected data, the ubiquitous use of
pre-post design, and outcome-based targets for interventions.
Time Series Analysis
This design is an extension of the simple pre-post format but
requires multiple measures in time prior to and after an
intervention such as health IT. Evidence of the impact is found
in the differences in mathematical slopes between measures
during the pre-test and post-test periods. This design has
significantly more validity than a simple pre-post one-time
measure design and can be very feasible in clinical settings
where data collection is automatic and can be done for long
periods with little increase in costs. For example, top-level
administrators might institute a decision support computerized
program to improve patient care for pain management. A
straightforward design is to measure the rate of compliance to
pain management recommendations during several periods about
12 months prior and several periods up to 12 months after
implementation, controlling for hospital occupancy, patient
acuity, and staffing ratios. This design is highly recommended
for health IT implementations where data can be captured
electronically and reliably over long periods.56,57
Regression Discontinuity Design
A regression discontinuity design is similar to a time series
analysis but is a formal statistical analysis of the pattern of
change over time for two groups. This design is particularly
suited to community engagement interventions, such as for low
vaccination rates in children or seat belt reminders. Participants
are divided into two nonoverlapping groups based on their
prescores on the outcome of interest. The example used above
of compliance with pain management guidelines in an inpatient
surgical unit may also be applicable. Providers with greater than
50% compliance to pain guidelines are put in one group and
those with less than 50% compliance with pain guidelines are in
the other group. Those with the lowest compliance receive a
decision support intervention such as a computerized alert and a
26. decision support system to assess and treat pain while the rest
do not. Post measures are taken some time after the intervention
and the difference between the predicted scores of the low
compliance group and their actual scores as compared to the
nonintervention group are noted. The validity of this design is
nearly as high as a randomized controlled trial, but this design
is much easier to implement because those who need the
intervention
FIG 5-6 Example of a multiple baseline study.
receive it. However, this design requires large numbers, which
may not be available except in a system-wide or multisite
implementation.58
Multiple Baseline with Single Subject Design
This design adds significant value to the standard pre-post
comparison by staggering implementation systematically (e.g.,
at 3-month intervals) over many settings but the measurement
for all settings starts at the same time. In other words,
measurement begins at the same time across five clinics but
implementation is staggered every 3 months. Figure 5-6
illustrates the pattern of responses that might be observed. The
strength of the evidence is high if outcomes improved after
implementation in each setting and they followed the same
pattern.59
Instruments
Data are commonly gathered through the use of instruments.
User satisfaction, social network analyses, and cost-
effectiveness tools are discussed briefly below.
User Satisfaction Instruments
User satisfaction is commonly measured as part of health IT
evaluations but is a complex concept. On the one hand it is
thought to be a proxy for adoption and on the other hand it is
used as a proxy for system effectiveness. In the first conception,
the constructs of interest would be usability and ease of use and
whether others use it (usability and social norms). In the second
conception, the constructs of interest would refer to how well
27. the system helped to accomplish task goals (usefulness). One of
the most common instruments for evaluating user satisfaction is
the UTAUT.31 This well-validated instrument assesses
perceived usefulness, social norms and expectations, perceived
effort, self-efficacy, ease of use, and intentions to use.
Reliability for these six scales ranges from 0.92 to 0.95.
A second measure of user satisfaction focuses on service quality
(SERVQUAL) and assesses the degree and quality of IT service.
Five scales have been validated: reliability, assurance,
tangibles, empathy, and responsiveness. These five scales have
been found to have reliability of 0.81 to 0.94.60
A third measure is the system usability scale (SUS), which is
widely used outside health IT.61 It is a 10-item questionnaire
applicable to any health IT product. Bangor and colleagues
endorsed the SUS above other available instruments because it
is technology agnostic (applicable to a variety of products) and
easy to administer and the resulting score is easily
interpreted.62 The authors provide a case study of product
iterations and corresponding SUS ratings that demonstrate the
sensitivity of the SUS to improvements in usability.
Social Network Analysis
Methods that assess the linkages between people, activities, and
locations are likely to be very useful for understanding a
community and its structure. Social network analysis (SNA) is a
general set of tools that calculates the connections between
people based on ratings of similarity, frequency of interaction,
or some other metric. The resultant pattern of connection is
displayed as a visual network of interacting individuals. Each
node is an individual and the lines between nodes reflect the
interactions. Although SNA uses numbers to calculate the form
of the networked display, it is essentially a qualitative
technique because the researcher must interpret the patterns of
connections and describe them in narrative form. Conducting an
SNA is useful if the goal is to understand how an information
system affected communication between individuals. It is also
useful to visualize nonpeople connections, such as the
28. relationship between search terms or geographical distances.63
For example, Benham-Hutchins used SNA to examine patient
care hand-offs from the emergency department to inpatient
areas, finding that each hand-off entailed 11 to 20 healthcare
providers.64
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) attempts to quantify the
relative costs of two or more options. Simply measuring
additional resources, start-up costs, and labor would be a
rudimentary cost analysis. A CEA is different than a cost–
benefit analysis, which gives specific monetary analysis. A
simple CEA shows a ratio of the cost divided by the change in
health outcomes or behavior. For example, a CEA might
compare the cost of paying a librarian to answer clinicians'
questions as compared to installing Infobuttons per the number
of known questions. Most CEA program evaluations will assess
resource use, training, increased staff hiring, and other cost-
related information. This would not necessarily be a full
economic analysis that would require a consultation with an
economist. The specific resources used could be delineated in
the logic model, unless it was part of hypothesis testing in a
more formal survey. The reader is directed to a textbook if
further information is needed.37
Conclusion and Future Directions
Evaluation of health IT programs and projects can range from
simple user satisfaction for a new menu to full-scale analysis of
usage, cost, compliance, patient outcomes, observation of
usage, and data about patients' rate of improvement. Starting
with a general theoretical perspective and distilling it to a
specific program model is the first step in evaluation. Once
overall goals and general constructs have been identified, then
decisions about measurement and design can be made. In this
chapter evaluation approaches were framed, focusing on health
IT program evaluation to orient the reader to the resources and
opportunities in the evaluation domain. Health IT evaluations
are typically multidimensional, longitudinal, and complex.
29. Health IT interventions and programs present a unique
challenge, as they are rarely independent of other factors.
Rather, they are usually embedded in a larger program. The
challenge is to integrate the goals of the entire program while
clarifying the impact and importance of the health IT
component. In the future, health IT evaluations should become
more theory driven and the complex nature of evaluations will
be acknowledged more readily.
As health IT becomes integrated at all levels of the information
context of an institution, evaluation strategies will necessarily
broaden in scope. Outcomes will not only include those related
to health IT but span the whole process. The result will be
richer analyses and a deeper understanding of the mechanisms
by which health IT has its impact. The incorporation of theory
into evaluation will also result in more generalizable knowledge
and the development of health IT evaluation science. Health
practitioners and informaticists will be at the heart of these
program evaluations due to their central place in healthcare, IT,
and informatics departments.
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People to Change. 2nd ed, 2002, Guilford Press, New York, NY.
49.
Crandall, B, Klein, G, Hoffman, R: Working Minds: A
Practitioner's Guide to Cognitive Task Analysis. 2006, MIT
Press, Cambridge, MA.
50.
Hoffman, RR, Militello, LG: Perspectives on Cognitive Task
Analysis. 2009, Psychology Press Taylor and Francis Group,
New York, NY.
51.
Schraagen, J, Chipman, S, Shalin, V: Cognitive Task Analysis.
2000, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahway, NJ.
52.
35. Ericsson, K, Simon, H: Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as
Data. Rev. ed, 1993, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
53.
Kaplan, B, Maxwell, J: Qualitative research methods for
evaluating computer information systems. In Anderson, JG,
Aydin, CE, Jay, SJ (Eds.): Evaluating Health Care Information
Systems: Approaches and Applications. 1994, Sage, Thousand
Oaks, CA, 45–68.
54.
Staggers, N, Clark, L, Blaz, J, Kapsandoy, S: Nurses’
information management and use of electronic tools during
acute care handoffs. Western J Nurs Res. 34(2), 2012, 151–171.
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Staggers, N, Clark, L, Blaz, J, Kapsandoy, S: Why patient
summaries in electronic health records do not provide the
cognitive support necessary for nurses’ handoffs on medical and
surgical units: insights from interviews and observations.
Health Informatics J. 17(3), 2011, 209–223.
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Harris, A, McGregor, J, Perencevich, E, et al.: The use and
interpretation of quasi-experimental studies in medical
informatics. J Am Med Inform Assoc. 13, 2006, 16–23.
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Ramsay, C, Matowe, L, Grill, R, Grimshaw, J, Thomas, R:
Interrupted time series designs in health technology assessment:
lessons from two systematic reviews of behavior change
strategies. Int J Technol Assess. 19(4), 2003, 613–623.
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Lee, H, Monk, T: Using regression discontinuity design for
program evaluation. American Statistical Association–
Proceedings of the Survey Research Methods Section . 2008,
ASA, Retrieved from
http://www.amstat.org/sections/srms/Proceedings/.
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Shadish, WR, Cook, TD, Campbell, DT: Experimental and
Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference.
36. 2002, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA.
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Pitt, L, Watso, NR, Kavan, C: Service quality: a measure of
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(SUS). Measuring Usability LLC
http://www.measuringusability.com/sus.php, 2012, February 2,
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Bangor, A, Kortum, P, Miller, JT: An empirical evaluation of
the system usability scale. Int J Hum-Comput Int. 24(6), 2008,
574–594.
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Evaluation: Social Network Analysis. 2005, Jossey-Bass/AEA,
Hoboken, NJ.
64.
Benham-Hutchins, MM, Effken, JA: Multi-professional patterns
and methods of communication during patient handoffs. Int J
Med Inform. 79(4), 2010, 252–267.
Discussion Questions
1. Of the levels of theory discussed in this chapter, what
level would be most appropriate for evaluation of electronic
health records? Would the level of theory be different if the
intervention was for an application targeting a new scheduling
system in a clinic? Why?
2. What is the difference between program evaluation and
program evaluation research?
3. Assume that you are conducting an evaluation of a new
decision support system for preventative alerts. What kind of
designs would you use in a program evaluation study?
4. Using the life cycle as a framework, explain when and why
you would use a formative or summative evaluation approach.
37. 5. What are the basic differences between a research study
and a program evaluation?
6. Review the following article: Harris A, McGregor J,
Perencevich E, et al. The use and interpretation of quasi-
experimental studies in medical informatics. J Am Med Inform
Assoc. 2006;13:16-23. Explain how you might apply these
research designs in structuring a program evaluation.
Case Study
A 410-bed hospital has been using a homegrown provider order
entry system for 5 years. It has recently decided to put in bar
code administration software to scan medications at the time of
delivery in order to decrease medical error. The administration
is concerned about medication errors, top-level administration
is concerned about meeting The Joint Commission accreditation
standards, and the IT department is worried that the scanners
may not be reliable and may break, increasing their costs. The
plan is to have a scanner in each patient's room; nurses will
scan the medication when they get to the room and also scan
their own badges and the patient's arm band. The application
makes it possible to print out a list of the patients with their
scan patterns and the nurses sometimes carry this printout
because patient's arm bands can be difficult to locate or nurses
do not want to disturb patients while they are sleeping. The bar
code software was purchased from a vendor and the facility has
spent about a year refining it. The IT department is responsible
for implementation and has decided that it will implement each
of the four inpatient settings one at a time at 6-month intervals.
The hospital administration wants to conduct an evaluation
study. You are assigned to be the lead on the evaluation.
Discussion Questions
1. What is the key evaluation question for this project?
2. Who are the stakeholders?
3. What level of theory is most appropriate?
4. What are specific elements to measure by stakeholder
38. group?
Pageburst Integrated Resources
As part of your Pageburst Digital Book, you can access the
following Integrated Resources:
Bibliography and Additional Readings
Web Resources
Chapter 5 Program Evaluation and Research Techniques
Charlene R. Weir
Evaluation of health information technology (health IT)
programs and projects can range from simple
user satisfaction for a new menu or full
-
scale analysis of usage, cost, compliance, patient outcomes, and
observation of usage to data about patient's r
ate of improvement.
Objectives
At the completion of this chapter the reader will be prepared to:
1.Identify the main components of program evaluation
2.Discuss the differences between formative and summative
evaluation
39. 3.Apply the three level
s of theory relevant to program evaluation
4.Discriminate program evaluation from program planning and
research
5.Synthesize the core components of program evaluation with
the unique characteristics of
informatics interventions
Key Terms
Evaluatio
n, 72
Formative evaluation, 73
Logic model, 79
Program evaluation, 73
Summative evaluation, 73
Abstract
Evaluation is an essential component in the life cycle of all
health IT applications and the key to
successful translation of these applications into cl
inical settings. In planning an evaluation the central
questions regarding purpose, scope, and focus of the system
must be asked. This chapter focuses on the
larger principles of program evaluation with the goal of
40. informing health IT evaluations in clinic
al
settings. The reader is expected to gain sufficient background in
health IT evaluation to lead or
participate in program evaluation for applications or systems.
Formative evaluation and summative evaluation are discussed.
Three levels of theory are pres
ented,
including scientific theory, implementation models, and
program theory (logic models). Specific
Chapter 5 Program Evaluation and Research Techniques
Charlene R. Weir
Evaluation of health information technology (health IT)
programs and projects can range from simple
user satisfaction for a new menu or full-scale analysis of usage,
cost, compliance, patient outcomes, and
observation of usage to data about patient's rate of
improvement.
Objectives
At the completion of this chapter the reader will be prepared to:
1.Identify the main components of program evaluation
2.Discuss the differences between formative and summative
evaluation
3.Apply the three levels of theory relevant to program
evaluation
4.Discriminate program evaluation from program planning
and research
5.Synthesize the core components of program evaluation with
the unique characteristics of
informatics interventions
Key Terms
41. Evaluation, 72
Formative evaluation, 73
Logic model, 79
Program evaluation, 73
Summative evaluation, 73
Abstract
Evaluation is an essential component in the life cycle of all
health IT applications and the key to
successful translation of these applications into clinical
settings. In planning an evaluation the central
questions regarding purpose, scope, and focus of the system
must be asked. This chapter focuses on the
larger principles of program evaluation with the goal of
informing health IT evaluations in clinical
settings. The reader is expected to gain sufficient background in
health IT evaluation to lead or
participate in program evaluation for applications or systems.
Formative evaluation and summative evaluation are discussed.
Three levels of theory are presented,
including scientific theory, implementation models, and
program theory (logic models). Specific
Running Head: INFORMATION NEEDS OF VARIOUS
COMPONENTS OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM 1
INFORMATION NEEDS OF VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF
THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM 2
Assignment 2: Information Needs of Various Components of the
Criminal Justice System
Name: Donecia Hudson
Argosy University
Date: March 7, 2018
42. Information Needs of Various Components of the Criminal
Justice System
Introduction
Prison overcrowding has become one of the most difficult social
phenomena that the criminal justice system is dealing with since
time immemorial. Prison overcrowding has developed slowly
and very steadily to become a social menace as the conditions in
these prisons are both unhealthy and dangerous to both the
inmates and the community at large. The factors leading to
prison overcrowding are influenced by law enforcement, courts,
juvenile system, homeland security and also the correctional
facilities.
These systems work in tandem to set the conditions necessary
for overcrowding to take place as they form the whole justice
system. The overpopulation of prisoners has led to inhumane
living conditions within the facilities. Congestion is a
consequence of long-standing policies from the various
components of the justice systems that have not acclimatized to
multiple changes. These changes include changes in social
norms and human rights awareness and activism that have
become an essential part of determining what is wrong and what
is right in the treatment of humans.
Overcrowding has spawned a variety of issues that include and
are not limited to prisoner mistreatment and rights violations,
health risks and physical and mental harm inmates under the
watch of responsible authorities. The taxpayer feels the effect
as the number of prisoners determines the needs of the prison
facility. An increasing number of prisoners than the prison
capacity demand more amenities, and hence the taxpayer pays
for the increase.
Causes of Prison Overcrowding
Policies and laws introduced in the court have been met with
much resistance. These laws would address and amend
overcrowding and prisons sentences and verdicts respectively in
43. such a way that just policies are enacted to reduce the prison
population. Resistance to the systems stems from the fact that
the public is demanding harsher punishments and longer
sentences for wrongdoers (Golaszewske, 2011). They require
that to feel more secure and have the delusion that this would
resolve the issues of rising crime rates. Furthermore to enact
favorable policies that will see prison population reduced, will
need more funding and this leaves the state with a daunting
decision of deciding where to allocate limited resources best.
These funds would be aimed at dealing with recidivism rates.
The projects are usually aimed at inmates from the earliest
stages of incarceration which is within the juvenile systems.
Coping with recidivism rates is a way of curbing the growing
inmate population.
Various projects to rehabilitate prisoners need funding and as
such are seen to be low in priority for most states. This being
that the public has the notion that prisoners should be locked
for longer and be kept away from society hence ensure crime
rate goes down. However, research has proved otherwise. The
Bureau of Justice Statistics, (2014), demonstrates that if
sentences are made shorter and more fitting to the crimes
committed, the population in prisons will reduce tenfold. The
increase in federal crimes and harsher punishments in the penal
code has seen to a rise in prison population. Drug offenders and
repeat small-time offenders have to spend time behind bars.
Addressing the situation is possible.
For the longest time, homeland security, along with immigration
authorities have used private prison facilities to hold
immigrants. Nearly 62% of the overall 400,000 arrested by the
US Immigration and Customs Enforcement are held in private
prisons which according to New York Times, have “hellish”
conditions. Homeland Security is therefore responsible for any
changes that can reduce the overcrowding witnessed in these
private prisons which are negatively impacting both the
taxpayer and the inmates held there. Technical violators of
parole are also held in jail for small violations such as being
44. late. The elderly are still in prison even when they do not pose a
danger to the society. Low-risk prisoners are also in prison and
hence the overcrowding.
In summary, the causes for overcrowding are high rates of
recidivism, repeat offenders who have a three-strike policy,
slow court systems, more federal crimes added to the penal code
and harsher sentences for certain offenses. Parole violators,
those awaiting hearing, and elderly prisoners also contribute to
the growing population in prisons.
Recommendations
According to the National Criminal Justice Reference
Service, (2000), prison overcrowding is caused by a slow court
system and hence to alleviate this, a system should be put in
place to reduce the number of inmates remaining in custody un-
sentenced, in remand and awaiting judgment. Use of volunteer
legal teams to organize bail hearings hence decreasing time
spent awaiting trial. Policies should also be reformed to reduce
the length of jail sentences. Elderly prisoners should also be
released into the community instead of spending their whole life
behind bars, (Pitts, Griffins & Johnson, 2014).
The use of other means of punishment for small-time
offenders, drug users and immigrants should help reduce the
populations in the prisons by a huge margin. Prisoners that have
a lower level of harm to the community should be integrated
back into the community and serve their sentence outside
prison. Drug users should alternatively be sent to rehabilitation
facilities and mental prisoners should be in psychiatric
facilities. Community service and probation should be common
alternatives to imprisonment, (Horne & Newman, 2015)
The parole system could also be a source of a solution.
Prisoners who do not pose a threat to the community should be
granted parole under supervision, (Albrecht, 2012). The boards
should also summon parole violators outside the prison and
solve it outside the prison. The juvenile system, on the other
hand, could amend policies that move juveniles to prison after
they have become of age. The juvenile delinquents should get a
45. second chance before being moved to adult prisons.
References
Albrecht, H. J. (2012). Prison overcrowding-finding effective
solutions: strategies and best practices against overcrowding in
correctional facilities. Max-Planck-Institut für Ausländisches
und Internationales Strafrecht.
Horne, C., & Newman, W. J. (2015). Updates since Brown v.
Plata: alternative solutions for prison overcrowding in
California. The journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry
and the Law, 43(1), 87-92.
National Criminal Justice Reference Service. (2000, January 1).
A Second Look at Alleviating Jail Crowding: A Systems
Perspective. Retrieved December 19, 2014, from
https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/bja/182507.pdf
Pitts, J. M., Griffin III, O. H., & Johnson, W. W. (2014).
Contemporary prison overcrowding: short-term fixes to a
perpetual problem. Contemporary Justice Review, 17(1), 124-
139.
www.lao.ca.gov/reports/2011/crim/overcrowding_080511.aspx
Case Study
A 410-bed hospital has been using a homegrown provider order
entry system for 5 years. It has recently decided to put in bar
code administration software to scan medications at the time of
delivery in order to decrease medical error. The administration
is concerned about medication errors, top-level administration
is concerned about meeting The Joint Commission accreditation
standards, and the IT department is worried that the scanners
may not be reliable and may break, increasing their costs. The
46. plan is to have a scanner in each patient's room; nurses will
scan the medication when they get to the room and also scan
their own badges and the patient's arm band. The application
makes it possible to print out a list of the patients with their
scan patterns and the nurses sometimes carry this printout
because patient's arm bands can be difficult to locate or nurses
do not want to disturb patients while they are sleeping. The bar
code software was purchased from a vendor and the facility has
spent about a year refining it. The IT department is responsible
for implementation and has decided that it will implement each
of the four inpatient settings one at a time at 6-month intervals.
The hospital administration wants to conduct an evaluation
study. You are assigned to be the lead on the evaluation.
Discussion Questions
1. What is the key evaluation question for this project?
2. Who are the stakeholders?
3. What level of theory is most appropriate?
4. What are specific elements to measure by stakeholder
group?
Case Study
A 410
-
bed hospital has been using a homegrown provider order entry
system for 5 years. It has recently
decided to put in bar code administration software to scan
medications at the time of delivery in order
to decrease medical error. The administration is
concerned about medication errors, top
-
level
administration is concerned about meeting The Joint
Commission accreditation standards, and the IT
department is worried that the scanners may not be reliable and
47. may break, increasing their costs. The
plan is t
o have a scanner in each patient's room; nurses will scan the
medication when they get to the
room and also scan their own badges and the patient's arm band.
The application makes it possible to
print out a list of the patients with their scan patterns and
the nurses sometimes carry this printout
because patient's arm bands can be difficult to locate or nurses
do not want to disturb patients while
they are sleeping. The bar code software was purchased from a
vendor and the facility has spent about a
year re
fining it. The IT department is responsible for implementation
and has decided that it will
implement each of the four inpatient settings one at a time at 6
-
month intervals.
The hospital administration wants to conduct an evaluation
study. You are assigned
to be the lead on
the evaluation.
Discussion Questions
1. What is the key evaluation question for this project?
2. Who are the stakeholders?
48. 3. What level of theory is most appropriate?
4. What are specific elements to measure by stakehol
der group?
Case Study
A 410-bed hospital has been using a homegrown provider order
entry system for 5 years. It has recently
decided to put in bar code administration software to scan
medications at the time of delivery in order
to decrease medical error. The administration is concerned
about medication errors, top-level
administration is concerned about meeting The Joint
Commission accreditation standards, and the IT
department is worried that the scanners may not be reliable and
may break, increasing their costs. The
plan is to have a scanner in each patient's room; nurses will
scan the medication when they get to the
room and also scan their own badges and the patient's arm band.
The application makes it possible to
print out a list of the patients with their scan patterns and the
nurses sometimes carry this printout
because patient's arm bands can be difficult to locate or nurses
do not want to disturb patients while
they are sleeping. The bar code software was purchased from a
vendor and the facility has spent about a
year refining it. The IT department is responsible for
implementation and has decided that it will
implement each of the four inpatient settings one at a time at 6-
month intervals.
The hospital administration wants to conduct an evaluation
study. You are assigned to be the lead on
the evaluation.
Discussion Questions
49. 1. What is the key evaluation question for this project?
2. Who are the stakeholders?
3. What level of theory is most appropriate?
4. What are specific elements to measure by stakeholder
group?