Chapter 2 Literature ReviewThe purpose of this project is to id.docx

Chapter 2: Literature Review
The purpose of this project is to identify causes of nurse
burnout in our organization and to implement strategies that
will alleviate the issues. This literature review will focus on the
topic of burnout and its implication in healthcare facilities. The
literature review's purpose is to highlight what has already been
researched in terms of active intervention that can be applied in
addressing burnout and improving the quality of care provided.
In identifying the literature that will be used in the study, the
search involved an inclusion and exclusion criteria. In the
inclusion criteria, all the studies had to be not older than five
years, written in English, peer-reviewed, and addressing
burnout in healthcare facilities. The databases that were used
are BMC, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Science Direct. The
search utilized keywords that include “burnout,” “healthcare
quality,” “patient satisfaction,” “patient safety,” “Compassion
Fatigue,” and “COVID-19.” The literature review addressed the
conceptual framework of the study, intervention strategies,
compassion fatigue (CF) and burnout, COVID-19 and burnout,
burnout and patient safety, and burnout and patient satisfaction.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework that will be applied in the research is
the Quality Health Outcomes Model (QHOM). QHOM touches
on several aspects that show the association between the context
or system, client characteristics, healthcare interventions, and
patient outcomes. The model posits that the quality of the
provider's services is essential in ensuring excellent outcomes
and patient satisfaction.
DesHarnais (2011) provides a conceptual framework and
definitions of quality. The author states that Donabedian
provided definitions of quality that reflect the goals and values

of the current medical care system and those that encompass the
broader society it serves. DesHarnais (2011) writes that
Donabedian used three aspects of care, namely, structure,
process, and outcomes. Rebar (2019) defines
quality, as well as its implications in the provision of care. The
author provides the National Academies of Sciences,
Engineering, and Medicine definition of healthcare quality.
Healthcare quality is defined as the degree to which healthcare
services for populations and individuals increase the likelihood
of desired health outcomes consistent with current professional
knowledge. Rebar writes that quality entails timeliness, patient-
centeredness, equity, efficiency, and effectiveness. Patient
satisfaction that is connected to the perceived quality of care
drives market competition and reimbursement.Burnout Survey
There are several burnout surveys available to use for assessing
the level of burnout with staff. According to Halbesleben and
Demerouti (2005), Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) is most
commonly used, however, researchers have criticisms. The MBI
uses three subscales of measurement: emotional exhaustion
(EE), depersonalization (DP), and personal accomplishment
(PA). Researchers have criticized these scaled based on the EE
and DP questions being negatively worded, whereas PA is
positively worded and the MBI only focuses on affective
components of EE (Halbesleben & Demerouti, 2005).
According to Halbesleben and Demerouti (2005), several
researchers believe EE should include cognitive and physical
exhaustion. One downfall of using MBI for organizations is the
costs.
The Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI) (Appendix A) was
developed to overcome the problems with MBI. This inventory
consists of 16 questions using two subscales, exhaustion and
disengagement. In contrast to MBI, the exhaustion questions

address both cognitive and physical components of exhaustion
and the wording is balanced resulting in a broader
conceptualization of burnout (Halbesleben & Demerouti, 2005).
In a study done by Halbesleben and Demerouti, evidence
supported the reliability, factorial validity and construct
validity of OLBI making this inventory reliable for assess
burnout. Tipa et al. (2019) state OLBI provides a high scale
reliability and can be used as an alternative to the MBI.
Intervention Strategies
An article by Reith, T., P. (2018) focuses on burnout in the
United States and provides causes, implications, and strategies
to tackle the issue. The strategies include involving leadership,
wise choice of incentives for practitioners, encouraging work-
life balance, encouraging peer support, providing resources for
mental health and self-care, and addressing burnout from the
onset of medical training.
Cur (2020) states that burnout is real, and it is characterized by
reduced efficiency, detachment, and exhaustion. The condition
should be addressed as soon as the symptoms are identified, but
the best approach is prevention. Prevention is possible if all
healthcare providers develop a greater awareness of the issue.
When they are burnt out, the behavior of practitioners may
cause them to be shunned and criticized by their colleagues.
Still, if the behavior is recognized as related to burnout, they
can be supported and helped instead.
Kim et al. (2019) conducted a sub-study of a more extensive
cross-sectional study to identify the factors that are associated
with burnout in healthcare practitioners engaged in HIV care in
Malawi. The study concluded that enhancing the supervisory
capacity of health facility managers and having an environment
that improved team dynamics can decrease burnout. Van
Bogaert (2017) adds that nurses have access to opportunities for
learning, relevant information, and personal development and

supportive relationships with supervisors, interdisciplinary and
peers to achieve their goals in an empowered work environment.
Ghavidel et al. (2019) explored the role of organizational
management on nurse burnout. The authors proposed the use of
appropriate policies in the programs while emphasizing the
mental and physical health of the nurses and addressing their
issues. Managers of healthcare facilities can sustain and
motivate staff.
Aryankhesal et al. (2019) and Zhang et al (2020) both
concluded interventions focused on self- care, mindfulness and
communication had significant impacts in the reduction of
burnout.Compassion Fatigue (CF) and Burnout
In their systematic review, Cocker and Joss (2016) explore the
effectiveness of interventions to reduce compassion fatigue
(CF) in community service, emergency, and healthcare workers.
The review concludes that evidence supporting CF interventions
at social and health care employees is relatively new. The
researchers recommend future studies to identify CF
interventions for vulnerable workers.
Applying for a systematic review, Van Mol et al. (2015)
conducted a study to assess the emotional distress experienced
by healthcare practitioners in the ICU, focusing on compassion
fatigue, burnout, and preventative strategies. The authors
claimed that the actual prevalence of vicarious trauma,
secondary traumatic stress, compassion fatigue, and burnout
remain open for discussion. The study proposes that a thorough
exploration of emotional distress and its correlation to ethical
rounds, communication skills, and mindfulness can offer an
appropriate starting point for the development of preventative
strategies.
Cetrano et al. (2017) conducted a study focusing on compassion
satisfaction, burnout, and Compassion Fatigue. Their analysis

identified that employees require attention to time pressures,
adequate ergonomics conditions, trust, training, and meetings.
Addressing future insecurities is vital in addressing Compassion
Satisfaction, and burnout.COVID-19 and Burnout
COVID-19 Hu et al. (2020) conducted a big-scale cross-
sectional, descriptive, correlational study design to examine
mental health, which included fear, depression, anxiety,
burnout, and associated factors among the frontline nurses that
are caring for coronavirus patients in Wuhan, China. The study
concluded that frontline nurses experienced fear and burnout.
The authors of the study proposed
interventions at the organizational and national level that will
improve mental health during a pandemic by managing and
preventing skin lesions, building self-efficacy, and resilience,
ensuring frontline work willingness and providing sufficient
social support. Morgantini et al. (2020) conducted a cross-
sectional survey and discovered that burnout during COVID-19
is prevalent because of high job stress, workload, limited
organizational support, and time pressure. Talaee (2020) affirm
that there is reliable and valid evidence for the investigation of
levels of depression, anxiety, and stress among the healthcare
workers engaged with the virus.Burnout and Patient Safety
Rodrigues, Santos, and Sousa (2017) state that burnout can
result in significant vulnerability and unsafe care. Garcia et al.
(2019) explored the relationship between burnout and patient
safety. Findings in the review demonstrated that high rates of
burnout are common among nurses and physicians. It is
correlated to external factors that include ineffective
interpersonal relationships, long journeys, and high workloads.
Excellent patient safety practices are influenced by organized
workflows that allow health professionals to be autonomous.

The study concluded that there is a relationship between
worsening patient safety and high levels of burnout. Dewa et al.
(2017) conducted a systematic review that used multiphase
screening. In the study, they propose that future research should
focus on burnout interventions. The authors claim that future
studies should assess physicians' interventions by focusing on
the safety-related quality of care to evaluate the effectiveness of
the interventions. The studies should also emphasize on the
relationship between dimensions of burnout and acceptability-
related quality of measures.Burnout and Patient Satisfaction
Copanitsanou, Fotos, and Brokalaki (2017), in their systematic
review, focused on the effects of nurses' work environment on
outcomes of both the nurses and patients. The study identified
that nurses
who perceive their work environment as good have lower
burnout syndrome and higher job satisfaction. Copanitsanou,
Fotos, and Brokalaki (2017) conclude that a pleasant work
environment has a determinant factor for high care quality and
improved outcomes for the nurses. West, Dyrbye, and Shanafelt
(2018) add that burnout results in lower patient satisfaction,
lower recovery times, medical errors, and lower care quality.
Anagnostopoulos et al. (2012) used a cross-sectional survey in
Western Greece to examine the impact of physician burnout on
patient satisfaction from consultation in the primary care
setting. The study results demonstrated that patient satisfaction
is significantly correlated with physician depersonalization and
physician emotional exhaustion. Besides, physician
depersonalization and emotional exhaustion are significant
factors that are associated with patient satisfaction as well as
consultation.Summary
In summary, the literature demonstrates that addressing the

issue of burnout experienced by healthcare practitioners
improves the quality of care provided to the patients and, in
turn, improves patient satisfaction. Key areas addressed in the
literature are burnout surveys, intervention strategies,
compassion fatigue (CF) and burnout, COVID-19 and burnout,
burnout and patient safety, and burnout, and patient
satisfaction. Chen et al. (2019) state that there is a possible
association between high patient satisfaction and improved
outcomes in some patient populations. Using the QHOM theory,
the discussion demonstrates that there are interventions that
need to be in place to address burnout, which is a crucial factor
in addressing patient satisfaction. Organizations need to
establish working environments and policies that address the
issues highlighted that contribute to burnout. Safety has been
identified as a concern in the occurrence of burnout in hospital
staff. The priority of leadership in a healthcare facility is
accountability for effective care while protecting visitors,
employees, and patients (Alert, 2017).
Addressing burnout does not entail having the healthcare
leadership coming up with policies and guidelines but also
involves the personnel that is affect, ensuring that the staff
work together is essential. Mijakoski et al. (2018) write that
teamwork can be used to safeguard workers from
disengagement, depersonalization, and emotional exhaustion.
World Literature in the Age of Globalization: Reflections on an
Anthology
Author(s): Waïl S. Hassan

Source: College English , Sep., 2000, Vol. 63, No. 1 (Sep.,
2000), pp. 38-47
Published by: National Council of Teachers of English
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38
World Literature in the Age
of Globalization: Reflections

on an Anthology
Wa'il S. Hassan
ince the early nineteenth century, Weltliteratur (world
literature) has been one
of the great Western humanistic ideas. Like many such ideas, it
has both re-
produced and reinforced a specifically Western worldview. For
a long time,
"world literature" was synonymous with European literature,
but with the vig-
orous interrogation from a number of perspectives of the
primacy of the Western
canon, the rise to global celebrity of scores of non-Western
writers (including several
Nobel laureates and others equally canonized by the Western
literary-critical estab-
lishment), and the increasing availability of English
translations, the teacher of a world
literature course today faces an unprecedented abundance of
texts from which to
choose. Yet this situation is fraught with difficulties of its own,
for even as the "glob-
alization of literary studies" emerges as the topic of the hour,
the selective inclusion
of non-Western texts in critical and pedagogical cadres often
reveals new configura-

tions of power and domination. I shall be arguing in this essay
that the pedagogical
application of the concept of "world literature" in the United
States since WWII has
developed in step with the political, economic, and strategic
remapping of global re-
lations, sometimes in subtle ways that tend to mask its
affiliations with power.
The globalization of literary studies is articulated in several
interrelated domains-
critical, curricular, pedagogical-all of which I cannot
adequately address within the
scope of this essay. I would like, however, to limit my
discussion to one aspect of ped-
agogy, namely the evolution of the single most authoritative
and widely used text-
book in world literature courses in the United States, The
Norton Anthology of World
Masterpieces. I shall begin by revisiting the notion of "world
literature" itself by way
Wai'l S. H a s s a n is Assistant Professor of English at Western
Illinois University. He has taught a num-
ber of world literature courses there and at the University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where he re-
ceived a Ph.D. in comparative literature in 1998. He has
written a dissertation on the Sudanese novelist
Tayeb Salih and a number of articles on postcolonial, Arabic,

and French literatures and on the teaching
of non-Western literatures.
College English, Volume 63, Number 1, September 2000
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World Literature in the Age of Globalization 39
of setting up the following question: Has the Norton Anthology
provided those of us
who are committed to the teaching of world literature from
non-Eurocentric per-
spectives with a useful tool, or does the anthology more subtly
than ever reproduce
the canon's ideological underpinnings? My attempt to answer
this question, in turn,
leads to a consideration of the extent to which the new notion
of the "globalization
of literary studies" departs from older concepts of "world
literature" and whether
multiculturalism has contributed something to this
globalization that the Eurocen-
tric assumptions of the traditional canon precluded. These
issues, I believe, are cen-
tral to any consideration of the teaching of world literature.

When Goethe coined the term Weltliteratur in 1827, he was
envisioning a future
state rather than naming a contemporary canon. As Rend
Wellek writes, for Goethe
"the term world literature . .. suggests a historical scheme of
the evolution of national
literatures in which they will fuse and ultimately melt into a
great synthesis" (221). For
Goethe, that ideal future was to be marked by open dialogue
between "nations"-in
Herder's sense of a nation as a collective cultural and linguistic
community with a dis-
tinctive spiritual essence, or a Volksgeist. In this dialogue,
each nation would be rep-
resented by its major writers, whose works would continue to
reflect each nation's
Volksgeist while achieving, as a result of the increased cross-
cultural understanding
fostered by reading foreign literatures, such breadth of vision
as to express the uni-
versality of the human experience. In that sense, world
literature was for Goethe an op-
portunity, not for the imposition of cultural hegemony by one
nation over others, but
rather for greater understanding of one's neighbors and of

oneself that would foster
harmony and lead to reducing conflict (Lawall, "Introduction"
13). Goethe's optimism
about the future of humanity may not have permitted him to
articulate the notion of
world literature in the context of contemporary historical forces
shaping Europe's im-
perialist expansion throughout the globe. His idealistic notion
of Weltliteratur was a
far cry from the cultural imperialism of Macaulay's grimly
pragmatic program (advo-
cated a few years later in the infamous "Indian Education:
Minute of the 2nd of Feb-
ruary, 1835") for the re-education of Indian youth in English
literature on the grounds
of its "intrinsic superiority" to the literatures of the "Orient"
(722).
Rooted as it is in Enlightenment universalism, the concept of
Weltliteratur was also
in a sense Goethe's response to the greatly increased volume of
trade and communica-
tion occasioned by the Industrial Revolution (Aldridge 9).
Goethe's notion of world lit-
erature, therefore, is linked in an important way to the
internationalization of culture
that resulted from the emergence of capitalism as the dominant

mode of production
in modern Europe. Similarly, our contemporary notion of the
globalization of literary
studies is affiliated with the globalization of capital, or late
capitalism in the post-Cold
War era. This new paradigm for literary studies is articulated
along the various trajec-
tories of postmodernism, the poststructuralist critique of
universalism and founda-
tional philosophy, and the multiculturalist interrogation of the
traditional Eurocentric
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40 College English
canon from Third World, feminist, minority, and class
perspectives. This kind of glob-
alization encompasses a wide range of neoliberal and
oppositional projects, all of which
I cannot hope to discuss here. However, I wish to emphasize
that they are far from
being uniform either in their histories or in their content and
that, in fact, consider-

able ambivalence and contradiction exist between them and the
parallel-sometimes
enabling-movement of corporate globalization. For example,
the multiple and dis-
tinct histories of national liberation worldwide, women's
movements, and Civil Rights
struggles may have converged with poststructuralism in their
interrogation of the Eu-
rocentric bias of enlightenment universalism, but at the same
time their projects may
conflict in profound ways with postmodernism when it is
understood, in FredricJame-
son's compelling argument, as "the cultural logic of late
capitalism."
What I do want to identify on this wide spectrum of positions is
the tendency, in
the sphere of culture in general and literary pedagogy in
particular, of some strands
of globalization to reproduce uncritically the logic of global
capitalism as the latest
form of imperialism while at the same time posing as counter-
hegemonic projects.
This tendency often results in idealized notions of
multiculturalism that superficially
celebrate difference and diversity while commodifying cultural
production. There
are, however, other non-hegemonic conceptions of difference

that self-consciously
historicize their understanding of world cultures and literatures
while maintaining
"critical vigilance" (to use Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's term)
toward their own af-
filiations with power. Such conceptions should, in my view,
inform our efforts to con-
struct a framework for the interpretation of culture and for
teaching world literature
that resists cultural imperialism, whether of Macaulay's or of
the more subtle, late
capitalist variety.
The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces lacks such a
framework. A brief his-
tory of the anthology's eight editions will show how its
Eurocentric definition of
"world literature" itself has come to embody some of the most
problematic aspects of
multiculturalism. W. W. Norton's dozen or so anthologies are
the most widely used
textbooks in introductory and survey literature courses in
American universities.
Those anthologies are expertly edited by teams of highly
distinguished scholars whose
decisions are often informed by questionnaires sent out to

hundreds of professors re-
garding what they teach and how they do so. The often
excellent introductions, help-
ful footnotes, and useful "Instructor's Guides" all contribute to
making Norton's
anthologies by far the most convenient textbooks available,
and, therefore, the most
concrete embodiment of the canon.
The World Masterpieces anthology, under the general
editorship of Maynard Mack,
first appeared in two volumes in 1956, then in successive
editions in 1965, 1973, 1979,
1985, 1992, 1995 (the "Expanded Edition" of the sixth), and
most recently 1999 (with
Sarah Lawall succeeding Mack as general editor). On the title
page of all seven regu-
lar editions (but not the "Expanded Edition"), the subtitle
"Literature of Western Cul-
ture" (emphasis added) tellingly sports the Eurocentric bias of
the collection: Not only
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is "world literature" fully coterminous with "Western"
literature, but the unabashed
proclamation in the subtitle, reiterated in the preface of each
edition, demonstrates just
how normalized that Eurocentrism has been. Not surprisingly,
those seven editions
have followed the standard periodization of Western literature-
classical, medieval, Re-
naissance, and so on-and contained, in the first four editions,
other than extracts from
the Old Testament, no non-Western works. Curiously, however,
the third (1973),
fourth (1979), and fifth (1985) editions announced inside the
front cover that a "com-
panion volume" entitled Masterpieces of the Orient was
available as a supplement to the
main anthology. This appendage to the 4,000-page anthology
was advertised as con-
veniently available in an abridged version of 379 pages and an
enlarged version of 834
pages. Even more than the subtitle of the anthology itself, this
strange, optional sup-
plement at an additional cost uneasily, and grudgingly,
acknowledged the Eurocen-
trism of the anthology. At the same time, this supplement
revealed the uneven division

of world literature into mainly Western, housed in the main
anthology, and Oriental,
available upon request in two "convenient" sizes. Shopper suit
thyself.
Nor was that all. The fifth edition of 1985 listed the Indian R.
K. Narayan, the
Japanese Mishima Yukio, and the Nigerian Wole Soyinka-not
in the "Companion
Volume," as one would expect, but in the main anthology under
the heading "Con-
temporary Explorations." It is not clear why these three writers
were placed in the
main anthology and not in the companion volume, nor is it
clear why these three par-
ticular writers, and no others, were thus Westernized by
association. Even more in-
terestingly, and with no explanation, the sixth edition of 1992
dropped all three, adding
in their place the Nigerian Chinua Achebe and the Egyptian
Naguib Mahfouz. The
sixth edition also included the epic of Gilgamesh in the
"Ancient World" section and
a selection from the Qur'an in the "Middle Ages" section (note
here the problematic
positing of a transcultural medievalism: the period from the
sixth to the fourteenth
centuries C.E., which witnessed the emergence of Arab
civilization, is subsumed in

the Norton Anthology under the rubric of what became known
in Europe as the Dark
Ages). The most recent, seventh edition (1999) has maintained
the non-Western se-
lections of the sixth, adding three short Arabic "medieval"
lyrics and a selection from
The Thousand and One Nights. (Meanwhile, the seventh edition
has grown to include
some 600 pages of works by Western women writers.) In this
way, Gilgamesh, the
Qur'an, The Thousand and One Nights, Achebe's Things
FallApart, and Mahfouz's "Za-
balaawi" simply become Western texts.
Obviously, this confusion would not have occurred had Norton
avoided the uni-
versalist pretensions of the title "World Masterpieces," and
named its anthology for what
it is: a library of Western literature. Yet the editors explain in
the preface to the sixth
edition that "for a very long time we have been experimenting
with ways to expand this
anthology into a collection of'world' masterpieces in the fillest
contemporary sense" (1992,
xviii; emphasis added). One cannot help but wonder at the
increasing elasticity of
Norton's notion of"world." Short of a Copernican revolution in
literary studies, which

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42 College English
is yet to come, what logic justifies the need for periodical
revision of the definition of
"'world' literature," or for including or excluding this or that
foreign text, other than
that of market trends? Consequently, the experience of reading
becomes truly a "con-
temporary exploration" for the reader-tourist-consumer with a
short attention span
and thirst for exotic commodities. Reading and teaching world
literature become a
leisurely stroll in a global literary mall that is structured at
once to satisfy and to re-
inforce Western modes of consumption and interpretation:
Western periodization,
Western thematics, and Western postmodern sensibilities.
Nevertheless, to market its anthology successfully, Norton
must walk the fine line
between pleasing both the "advocates of 'canonicity' and

'multiculturalism.' " This
means assuring the former that the sixth and subsequent
editions "will continue as in
the past to evolve and grow, responding to the needs and
preferences of those who
wish to stress in the limited time at their disposal the Judaic-
Greek-Roman-European-
American traditions of thought and feeling" (1992, xviii), a
promise that the seventh
edition of 1999 has honored. As for the multiculturalists, the
editors announced a
new "expanded edition," which was published in 1995 and
contained the entire sixth
edition plus 2,000 pages ofnon-Western works. Here, finally, is
globalization at work:
no fundamental structural changes reflecting a new vision of
global reality, but sim-
ply "expansion" (the term unambiguously implying territorial
"colonization" or "an-
nexation") by adding more and more foreign "masterpieces" to
a consolidated Western
canon. Yet this increase is emphatically, even apologetically,
presented as only an op-
tion: Norton is happy to offer to each his or her own preferred
version of the world.
In this "expanded edition," the editors removed the categories

of European lit-
erary history from the major section headings within the
anthology and used instead
a temporal scheme within which literary movements are clearly
marked as culture-
specific (e.g., "India's Heroic Age" or "China's Middle
Period"). Nevertheless, it will
be noticed that the temporal scheme itself (Vol. 1: Beginning to
A.D. 100, 100 to
1500, 1500 to 1650; Vol. 2: 1650 to 1800, 1800 to 1900, and
the twentieth century)
coincides with the standard periodization used in structuring
literature curricula in
most Western literature departments in the United States:
classical, medieval, Re-
naissance, Enlightenment, the nineteenth century, and the
twentieth century. Not
surprisingly, the editors felt that some justification was
necessary when this temporal
framework failed, for example, to showcase more than a
handful of non-Western
works, totaling 390 pages, in the sections covering 1500-1900
C.E., which consist of
1400 pages of Western literature. This is, of course, the period
when the world was
rapidly being subjugated by the colonial powers of Europe on
an unprecedented scale
in history, so that by the end of World War I Europe not only
dominated about 85%

of the earth's surface, but also imposed its languages and
curricula in ways that per-
manently changed countless non-Western cultures. Yet this
unpleasant fact is not
mentioned by the editors, who simply state that "selections
from non-Western liter-
ature diminish [in those sections] because in any culture the
upwellings of creativity
��82.178.172.69 on Tue, 20 Sep 2022
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that produce works of great stature obey no time schedule"
(1995). Whose time sched-
ule, one might ask, and whose criteria determine whether,
which, and when such
"works of great stature" ("timeless masterpieces") are
produced? Without question-
ing the sincere efforts of the editors, who seem to be trying
their best to amend an old
and embarrassing notion of the canon, update their anthology in
the light of new
knowledge, and also sell their product, I cannot help detecting
in that statement the
implicit logic of the argument that colonialism affected peoples
who were not simply

weaker militarily than the European colonizers, but who were
culturally bankrupt.
Obviously, no single course can ever hope to incorporate all of
the contents of
the anthology, or even a single volume of it, but the point is
that the anthology au-
thoritatively manufactures and imposes a fundamentally slanted
vision of world liter-
ature that has always obeyed the logic of imperialism. As
Kristin Ross argues, "[w]hen
we speak about breaking out of a Western bourgeois model in
our teaching, we can-
not speak merely of adding on or integrating cultures . .. into a
better, more repre-
sentative totality, a fuller globe. For we will then merely
reproduce what is essentially
a Western bourgeois sociology of culture: Western civilization
as world civilization"
(670). This is precisely the paradigm of "expansion" that
Norton used in the 1995 ex-
panded edition. Furthermore, the evolutionary trajectory of the
anthology in its suc-
cessive editions, with its reverential treatment of the Western
canon and random
inclusion and exclusion of non-Western writers, parallels the
historical trajectory of
Western European and North American enunciations of global

relations. Thus the
"world" of "world literature," as represented in the early
editions of the anthology,
was coterminous with the "West," while the so-called "Orient"
and its cultural pro-
duction occupied an ancillary status, only slightly more
ambivalent than Macaulay al-
lowed. Then the category of "Third World Literature" emerged
in the 1960s as a
sort of alternative canon (Ahmad 78-86), the mere existence of
which begins, two
decades later, to be tacitly conceded by the Norton Anthology.
At the height of decol-
onization movements and the Cold War, the Three Worlds
Theory-at least insofar
as it opposed First World to Third World-could be seen
retrospectively as the new
model for this institutionalized split between Western and non-
Western literatures
in the curriculum. With the end of the Cold War and the advent
of what George
Bush celebrated as a "New World Order," heralded by the
dramatic affirmation of U.S.
military supremacy in the Gulf War, the horizon of late-
capitalist global market econ-
omy expands freely, aided by a hegemonic form of
multiculturalism that has informed
the anthology's development in the 1990s.
What does this symptomatic development tell us, then, about

multiculturalism,
the controversial movement cited by the Norton editors as the
spur for "expanding"
the anthology? Leftist analyses and critiques of
multiculturalism (Zizek, San Juan,
Gates, and others), postmodernism (Jameson), and
globalization (Sivanandan, San
Juan, Lazarus, Dirlik)-notwithstanding the sometimes radically
distinct specificity
of their positionalities-distinguish themselves from
neoliberalism by stressing the
��82.178.172.69 on Tue, 20 Sep 2022
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44 College English
continuities between the hegemonic tendency of global
capitalism and its cultural
cognates, postmodernism and multiculturalism. The argument
goes like this: "If im-
perialism is the latest stage of capitalism, globalism is the
latest stage of imperialism"
(Sivanandan 5). Postmodernism, then, is described as the
"cultural logic of late capi-
talism" (Jameson), and multiculturalism as the "positive guise"
of the "cultural frag-

mentation" precipitated by global capitalism (Dirlik 30). The
most radical form of this
critique describes multiculturalism as a new kind of racism. In
an essay with strong
Jamesonian echoes entitled "Multiculturalism, or the Cultural
Logic of Multinational
Capitalism," Zizek's argues that
the ideal form of ideology of this global capitalism is
multiculturalism ... [which] is a
disavowed, inverted self-referential form of racism, a "racism
with a distance"-it "re-
spects" the Other's identity, conceiving the Other as a self-
enclosed "authentic" com-
munity towards which he, the multiculturalist, maintains a
distance rendered possible
by his privileged universal position. Multiculturalism is a
racism which empties its own
position of all positive content (the multiculturalist is not a
direct racist, he doesn't op-
pose to the Other the particular values of his own culture), but
nonetheless retains this
position as the privileged empty point of universality from
which one is able to appreci-
ate (and depreciate) properly other particular cultures-the
multiculturalist respect for
the Other's specificity is the very form of asserting one's own
superiority. (44)
The multiculturalist, in other words, is one who has
"transcended" or "moved beyond"
racial prejudice and into a privileged realm of late capitalist

development that no longer
depends on older forms of exploitation based on race; the
multiculturalist has "left be-
hind" those (mostly in parts of the world which have not
attained complete capitalist
development) who are still mired in ethnic, racial, and religious
strife. The implicit ref-
erence here is to the history of capitalism, which depended in
an earlier phase on colo-
nial expansion, which in turn spurred the development of post-
Enlightenment racial
theory, Orientalism, and similar discourses on Europe's Others.
Now, in a late phase
of capitalism that depends on globalization rather than colonial
expansion, racism ac-
cordingly assumes a more subtle form.
Taken together with its professed model, Jameson's reading of
postmodernism
as "the cultural logic of late capitalism," Zizek's critique places
multiculturalism
squarely within the imperialist project of multinational
capitalism; paradoxically, mul-
ticulturalism's professed anti-racism and acknowledgment of
the validity of other cul-
tural values and norms itself becomes an efficient vehicle for
undermining the integrity

of other cultures and a new form of racism. What enables this
sleight of hand is cap-
italism's drive toward maximizing profit by any means
necessary, so that the new racism
is not so much directed by one ethnic group against another,
but by global capitalism
(as an "empty point of universality") against its victims. In a
slightly different but re-
lated argument, Dirlik writes that "the apparent end of
Eurocentrism is an illusion,
because capitalist culture as it has taken shape has
Eurocentrism built into the very
structure of its narrative, which may explain why even as
Europe and the United States
lose their domination of the capitalist world economy,
culturally European and Amer-
��82.178.172.69 on Tue, 20 Sep 2022
05:14:43 UTC��
ican values retain their domination" (30). Thus, if not strictly
racist in the conventional
sense, multiculturalism as the cultural logic of the

globalization of capital is funda-
mentally Eurocentric and exploitative, despite its claims to the
contrary.
To illustrate, take the billboard multiculturalism of "The
United Colors of Benet-
ton" and MCI's claim to have built a "seamless global network"
of business commu-
nication. Benetton manufactures a kind of multiculturalist chic
(translated into images
of groups of stylish multiracial youngsters) designed to appeal
to liberal-minded youth
who can afford Benetton's expensive garments.
Multiculturalism here mobilizes no-
tions of racial equality that exist only in the eye of the
beholder (and consumer), mask-
ing not only the social and global realities of inequality but
also the very mechanism
by which capitalist culture depends on exploitation and
inequality.1 The MCI exam-
ple articulates a utopian vision of global capitalism in a series
of television advertise-
ments featuring Sam Neill as a corporate mogul standing in a
grayish, metallic,
high-walled enclosure that appears to be an abstract rendition
of a corporate board-
room. He peeps stealthily through a small aperture in the wall-
not a keyhole, he as-
sures us in one of the commercials-but apparently some sort of

cyper-panopticon
from which he spies at one time on robotic, expressionless
corporate employees danc-
ing in a (vicious?) circle. "They seem rather happy," says Neill
with confident au-
thority. Both the claustrophobic abstract setting and the
dehumanized state of the
otherwise privileged employees ironically underscore the
viciousness of this vision of
homogenized global culture (in another advertisement, dozens
of men uniformly clad
in spotless white suites and hats, who ostensibly represent
"local carriers and inter-
national carriers," exchange briefcases as they march
mechanically in circles). In such
a world of streamlined communications and global capitalist
access, there is simply no
place for the "unhappy": the poor, the women and children
shamefully exploited in
Third World sweatshops, and the underprivileged masses who
constitute the func-
tional waste of the "seamless global network." Within this New
World Order, "four-
fifths of the global population ... are simply marginalized"
(Dirlik 32).
Such representations by MCI and Benetton reveal the
depoliticizing, homoge-

nizing, and idealizing dynamics of global capitalism. In much
the same way, Norton
has been idealizing and depoliticizing the globalized canon, in
which the unpleasant
realities of colonial history and exploitation are sanitized
within an ever-expanding
pantheon of "timeless masterpieces."
This is not the place to restate the argument for
multiculturalism. From Rush
Limbaugh to Dinesh D'Souza and their ilk, the Right has been
busy demonizing and
stereotyping multiculturalism, which it sees, with reason, as a
menace to its parochial-
ism. The project of multiculturalism is unquestionably valid,
important, and ethical
insofar as it challenges both the realities and the philosophical
justifications (from
Platonic monism to Enlightenment universalism) of cultural,
racial, religious, sexual,
class, and other forms of hegemony. The pressing question that,
to my mind, Zizek's
compelling argument forces us to confront, is this: How and
when does multicultur-
��82.178.172.69 on Tue, 20 Sep 2022
05:14:43 UTC��

46 College English
alism turn into a superficial celebration of diversity that
sanitizes difference and ef-
fectively co-opts it into the "seamless global network" ideal for
corporate expansion?
To tackle the issue from this angle, I think, is to begin to clear
a space for an alterna-
tive model for the globalization of literary studies that carries
within it the recogni-
tion that the world is a closely knit, although extremely
diverse, human community
that superficial forms of multiculturalism tend to homogenize
and that the dynamics
of global capitalism attempt to transform into a seamless global
supermarket built on
Eurocentric assumptions, norms, and attitudes.
As Aijaz Ahmad observes, "Internationalism ... has been one of
the constitutive
traditions of the Left, but in this age of late capitalism it is best
to recognize that cer-
tain kinds of internationalism also arise more or less
spontaneously out of circuits of
imperialist capital itself, and the lines between the
internationalism of the Left and the
globalism of capitalist circuits must always be demarcated as

rigorously as possible" (45).
This distinction, also implicit in Zizek's critique of
multiculturalism, is more critically
important today than ever before and will become, I suspect,
more so in the future.
I would like to conclude by offering a few suggestions to those
who, like myself,
find themselves forced to use the Norton Anthology in their
world literature courses
for lack of a viable alternative, since it is the only anthology
available that attempts,
however unsatisfactorily, the admittedly daunting task of
bridging Western and non-
Western literatures. (I am emphatically not saying that one
should ignore Western lit-
erature.) Other anthologies either focus exclusively on the
West (Wilkie and Hurt)
or on Asia, Africa, and Latin America combined (Barnstone
and Barnstone).2 The
challenge one faces, therefore, involves not only balancing the
content of the course,
but also correcting the Eurocentric image of the world which
the Norton Anthology sug-
gests to the students who so much as read its table of contents.
One obvious solution to the shortcomings of this, or any,

anthology is to sup-
plement it with other texts and to devise creative ways of
structuring a course. More
important, I think, is that we engage our students in discussing
the history of the an-
thology, its affiliation with imperialist discourses on the non-
Western world, and the
cultural and political implications today of reproducing their
logic. Further, let us
make explicit to our students our philosophies of teaching
something as formidably
vast as world literature. Let us also explain to them that, since
we could not possibly,
in the space of one or two semesters, introduce them to a tiny
fraction of four mil-
lenia of world literature, we are offering them a particular
selection that, while it can-
not hope to represent, at least it could begin to suggest the
infinite, irreducible
diversity of the world in which we all live.3
NOTES
1. For an extended treatment of the politics of Benetton's brand
of multiculturalism, see Giroux.
2. Prentice Hall's new anthology, The World ofLiterature,
edited by Louise Westling et al., was pub-
lished in 1999, after this article was completed. This anthology

offers a more balanced selection of Asian,
��82.178.172.69 on Tue, 20 Sep 2022
05:14:43 UTC��
African, European, and North and South American texts than
the Norton while avoiding the latter's Euro-
centric periodization, thus promising to be a valuable textbook.
I have also learned that at least two other
anthologies are in preparation at Macmillan and Bedford.
3. I am indebted to many people who have generously offered
encouragement or valuable com-
ments on earlier drafts of this article: Stephanie Hilger,
Jonathan Hunt, James Hurt, Thomas Joswick,
R. S. Krishnan, Michael Palencia-Roth, Zohreh Sullivan,
Ronald Walker, and the anonymous reviewers
at College English. An earlier version of this essay was
presented at the 2nd Annual Red River Conference
on World Literature held at North Dakota State University in
April 1999 and appeared in its proceedings.
WORKS CITED
Ahmad, Aijaz. In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures.
London: Verso, 1992.
Aldridge, A. Owen. The Reemergence of World Literature.

Newark: U of Delaware P, 1986.
Anderson, G. L., ed. Masterpieces of the Orient. New York:
Norton, 1961.
. Masterpieces of the Orient, Enlarged Edition. New York:
Norton, 1977.
Barnstone, Willis, and Tony Barnstone, eds. Literatures ofAsia,
Africa, and Latin America. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1999.
Dirlik, Arif. "The Global in the Local." Global/Local: Cultural
Production and the Transnational Imaginary.
Ed. Rob Wilson and Wimal Dissanayake. Durham: Duke UP,
1996.
Gates, Henry Louis Jr., "Beyond the Culture Wars: Identities in
Dialogue." Profession 93 (1993): 6-11.
Giroux, Henry A. "Consuming Social Change: The 'United
Colors of Benetton.' " Cultural Critique 26
(1993-94): 5-32.
Jameson, Fredrick. Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of
Late Capitalism. Durham: Duke UP, 1991.
Lawall, Sarah. "Introduction: Reading World Literature."
Reading World Literature: Theory, History, Prac-
tice. Ed. Sarah Lawall. Austin: U of Texas P, 1994. 1-64.
Lawall, Sarah, et al., eds. The Norton Anthology of World
Masterpieces. 2 vols. 7th ed. New York, Norton: 1999.
Lazarus, Neil. "Charting Globalization." Race and Class 40.2-3
(1998-1999): 91-109.

Macaulay, Thomas Babington. "Indian Education: Minute of
the 2nd of February, 1835." Macaulay: Prose
and Poetry. Ed. G. M. Young. London: Rupert Hart-Davis,
1952. 719-30.
Mack, Maynard, et al., eds. The Norton Anthology of World
Masterpieces. 2 vols. New York, Norton: 1956.
. The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces. 2 vols. 4th ed.
New York, Norton: 1979.
. The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces. 2 vols. 6th ed.
New York, Norton: 1992.
. The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces (Expanded
Edition). New York, Norton: 1995.
Ross, Kristin. "The World Literature and Cultural Studies
Program." Critical Inquiry 19 (1993): 666-76.
San Juan, E. "Globalization, Dialogic Nation, Diaspora."
Beyond Postcolonial Theory. New York: St. Mar-
tin's P, 1998. 195-226.
- . "The Multicultural Imaginary: Problematizing Identity and
the Ideology of Racism." Beyond Post-
colonial Theory. New York: St. Martin's P, 1998. 113-54.
Sivanandan, A. "Globalism and the Left." Race and Class 40.2-
3 (1998-1999): 5-19.
Wellek, Rene. A History of Modern Criticism: 1750-1950. Vol.
I: The Later Eighteenth Century. London:
Jonathan Cape, 1955.

Westling, Louise, et al., eds. The World of Literature. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1999.
Wilkie, Brian, and James Hurt, eds. Literature of the Western
World. 2 vols. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pren-
tice Hall, 1997.
Zizek, Stavoj. "Multiculturalism, or the Cultural Logic of
Multinational Capitalism." New Left Review 225
(1997): 28-51.
��82.178.172.69 on Tue, 20 Sep 2022
05:14:43 UTC��
Contents38394041424344454647Issue Table of ContentsCollege
English, Vol. 63, No. 1 (Sep., 2000), pp. 1-121Front Matter [pp.
1-8]Reading "Whiteness" in English Studies [pp. 9-37]World
Literature in the Age of Globalization: Reflections on an
Anthology [pp. 38-47]Limping or Flying? Psychoanalysis,
Afrocentrism, and Song of Solomon [pp. 48-70]On Reading
Differently: Through Foucault's Resistance [pp. 71-
94]ReviewReview: Roses in December: Cultural Memory in the
Present [pp. 95-101]Comment & ResponseA Comment on
"Historical Studies and Postmodernism: Rereading Aspasia of
Miletus" [pp. 102-105]Xin Liu Gale Responds [pp. 105-
107]Back Matter [pp. 108-121]
Title
Capstone Project
Submitted to Grantham University
Graduate Faculty of the School of Nursing
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Nursing
(Nursing Leadership and Management Organization)
by
FUNMILOLA. R. OMO-OLAOYE
December 2022
Chapter 2: Literature Review
The project aims to determine the causes of lateral violence
(LV) in the workplace and advise strategies to promote peaceful
collaboration to ensure quality healthcare services. The
literature review will elaborate on healthcare quality
enhancement techniques such as evidence-based care, and
leadership and management requirements to ensure employee
competence. The covered research will emphasize on the data
driven techniques and models for improvement of healthcare
delivery through responsive management. Comment by
Gloria Ohmart: Please review the chapter 2 sample. This
introduction is still incorrect. Begin with a brief summary of
your problem. State the method of your search (ie) search
engines, years, keywords
Please look at the example!
Horizontal Violence
It is a devastating phenomenon in the nursing workplace. Also
known as 'horizontal violence' or 'workplace bullying,' LV is
disruptive and inappropriate behavior demonstrated in the
workplace by one employee to another who is in either an equal
or lesser position (Coursey, Rodriguez, Dieckmann, & Austin,
2013. Lateral workplace violence is harmful. It has adverse
effects on employees, clients, and the overall organizations they
work for. From the literature searches, the most affected nurses

are new employees. In contrast, others may experience this
violence in the form of being allocated heavy workloads
unjustly, being neglected when requesting something, and
oppression by use of power. Nursing employees have the right
to mitigate such violence by reporting various instances or
creating an environment that ensures they are also respected as
individuals. Moreover, nurse leaders should mitigate lateral
workplace violence by educating workers on the right strategies,
creating policies against this lateral violence, and collaborating
with employees to ensure fairness, dignity, and respect. By
doing so, it will vastly reduce possible future incidents of
lateral workplace violence.
Evidence-Based practice
EBP incorporates the most recent and relevant research findings
with clinical expertise and patient values to deliver the best
possible outcomes (Zimmerman, 2017). The process begins with
formulating a relevant clinical question, continues with the
identification, analysis, and incorporation into clinical practice
of the most relevant data, and concludes with an evaluation of
the evidence-based on patient outcomes (Melnyk, & Fineout-
Overholt, 2022).
Healthcare quality spans multiple disciplines. As healthcare
quality efforts have evolved in nursing and the entire healthcare
team, variations are noted within and between the disciplinary
perspectives. In nursing, quality began with Florence
Nightingale. Among the first to earn credit for developing a
theoretical approach to quality improvement, Nightingale
addressed compromises to nursing and health quality by
identifying and working to eliminate factors hindering
reparative processes.
Transtheoretical Model
The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) is a strategy for intentional
change that focuses on the person's decision-making abilities

(Prochaska, 2020). The TTM operates on the assumption that
people are not known to make rash adjustments to their daily
habits. Contrarily, changing one's behavior, especially a long-
standing habit, is a repetitive and cyclical process (Rae, &
Neall, 2022). The TTM is a model, not a theory, and it is
possible to apply other behavioral theories and constructs to
various aspects of the model (Gatfield et al., 2022). The
Transtheoretical Model (TTM) posits that when individuals
decide to change their behavior, they go through a series of six
stages. The last stage, termination, is seldom employed in stage-
of-change applications for health-related activities and was not
part of the original idea (Dell et al., 2021). Different
intervention strategies are needed to go from one stage of
change to the next and, finally, to maintenance, the last and
ideal stage of the model; hence it can be useful in curbing
lateral violence in the workplace.
Donabedian model
The Donabedian model is a conceptual model that provides a
framework for examining health services and evaluating
healthcare quality. According to the model, information about
the quality of care can be drawn from three categories:
"structure," "process," and "outcomes. (Donabedian, 1988)
Structure describes the context in which care is delivered,
including hospital buildings, staff, financing, and equipment
(Tossaint-Schoenmakers et al., 2021). Process denotes the
transactions between patients and providers throughout the
delivery of healthcare.
Every American has a definition or personal view of high-
quality health care. For some individuals, such a definition
revolves around the ability to go to the provider or hospital of
their choice; for others, access to specific types of treatment is
paramount (Butts & Rich 2013). Outcomes refer to the effects
of healthcare on the health status of patients and populations.
Transactional Theories
Transactional theories, also referred to as Management theories
or exchange leadership theories, revolve around the role of

supervision, organization, and teamwork. These leadership
theories consider rewards and punishments as the basis for
leadership actions (Rosenblatt, 2018). This is one of the often-
used theories in business and healthcare settings, and the
proponents of this leadership style use rewards and punishments
to motivate employees. Staff under this leadership style are
often encouraged/ motivated to be self-developed; these will
help promote a quality healthcare environment.
Summary
The literature review shows that a change of leadership and
management approach in the healthcare system can result in
improved patient outcomes. A transactional leadership model
promotes high employee morale, resulting in improved service
delivery quality. When the employees are recognized through
strategic leadership interventions and incentives, their creativity
and job satisfaction increase – promoting improved outcomes.
Moreover, the role of a data-driven healthcare intervention
approach is emphasized in the research. Data-driven healthcare
interventions promote quality and credibility as past established
research outcomes guide all decisions.
EBP plays a critical role in healthcare promotion. Evidence-
based practice (EBP) considers the latest and most relevant
research findings, clinical experience, and patient values to
achieve the greatest results (Zimmerman, 2017). Patient
outcomes are used to evaluate the evidence after it has been
gathered, analyzed, and implemented into clinical practice. The
process starts with formulating a relevant clinical question
(Melnyk, & Fineout-Overholt, 2022).
References
Dell, N. A., Long, C., & Mancini, M. A. (2021). Models of
mental health recovery: An overview

of systematic reviews and qualitative meta-syntheses.
Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal. Comment by
Gloria Ohmart: Only the first line of each reference is left hand
justified. The next sentence is indented like your paragraphs.I
did the first one already. Make sure all your references are done
like this.
Donabedian model of structure, process, and outcome.
Journal of medical Internet research,
23(5), e27180.
Gatfield, E., O'Leary, P., Meyer, S., & Baird, K. (2022). A
multitheoretical perspective for addressing domestic and family
violence: Supporting fathers to parent without harm.
Journal of social work,
22(4), 876-895.
Melnyk, B. M., & Fineout-Overholt, E. (2022).
Evidence-based practice in nursing & healthcare: A
guide to best practice. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Prochaska, J. O. (2020). Transtheoretical model of behavior
change.
Encyclopedia of behavioral medicine, 2266-2270.
Rae, K., & Neall, A. M. (2022). Human Resource Professionals'
Responses to Workplace Bullying.
Societies,
12(6), 190.
Rosenblatt, L. M. (2018). The transactional theory of reading
and writing. In
Theoretical models and processes of literacy (pp. 451-
479). Routledge.
Tossaint-Schoenmakers, R., Versluis, A., Chavannes, N.,

Talboom-Kamp, E., & Kasteleyn, M. (2021). The challenge of
integrating ehealth into health care: Systematic literature review
of the
Zimmerman, K. (2017). Essentials of Evidence Based Practice.
International Journal of Childbirth Education,
32(2).

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