This document examines Nigeria's over-dependence on natural gas for electricity generation between 1999 and 2012. It finds that Nigeria was most vulnerable to disruptions in natural gas supply in 2005 due to its reliance on natural gas for electricity generation and exposure to geopolitical risks in the Niger Delta region. By 2012, Nigeria was the second most vulnerable among the years studied due to a gas supply security index of 0.83. The study suggests Nigeria target other sources for power generation to mitigate risks from natural gas supply disruptions.
11.0010www.iiste.org call for paper.wind energ 97-107Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a journal article about the role of energy policy and security in sustainable wind energy systems in India. It discusses India's current energy status and dependence on imports. It then outlines India's potential for wind energy given its tropical climate and discusses how wind energy can play an important role in sustainable development by providing energy to rural areas. The document analyzes India's wind energy program and policies supporting wind energy development.
The UK has made progress transitioning to renewable energy and reducing greenhouse gas emissions through policies that promote low-carbon technologies like renewable energy, nuclear power, and carbon capture and storage. Currently, natural gas provides 30.2% of the country's electricity but renewable capacity has increased, particularly from wind and solar. The UK aims to source 15% of energy from renewables by 2020 and cut greenhouse gas emissions by at least 34% by 2020 and 80% by 2050 to meet climate change goals. Meeting future energy needs will be challenging as the population grows but renewable expansion can help reduce reliance on imported natural gas and oil.
Energy crisis of Nepal and it's sustainable solutions Dr Ramhari Poudyal
This document discusses Nepal's energy crisis and potential sustainable solutions. It notes that Nepal relies heavily on traditional biomass energy sources and faces issues with air pollution, energy poverty, and power outages. However, Nepal has significant untapped hydropower potential of over 45 GW. The document examines Nepal's current energy mix, challenges with delayed hydropower projects, and outlines solutions such as improving energy infrastructure, promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency, and emphasizing an optimal energy generation mix.
Shaping the future: Energy Security in IndiaPierre Memheld
India is the fourth largest energy consumer in the world and relies heavily on coal for electricity generation. By 2035, coal is projected to make up over 47% of India's energy basket. However, over 33% of Indian households still lack access to electricity, with over 90% of those being in rural areas. The conference aims to explore energy security from both a national perspective by augmenting energy supplies, as well as an individual perspective by improving access to quality energy services for all Indians. Experts will discuss options for improving production, transmission, and delivery efficiencies as well as addressing issues of access.
The document summarizes India's projected energy needs over the coming decades based on expected high economic growth rates. It estimates that primary energy demand in India will increase from about 13.5 EJ in 2002-03 to about 117 EJ in 2052-53, requiring development of all energy sources including fossil fuels, renewables, nuclear, and new technologies. Nuclear energy could potentially contribute one quarter of India's energy needs by 2050 if fast reactor deployment is accelerated and technologies like thorium breeding and accelerator-driven systems are successfully developed. Meeting India's large energy needs while limiting carbon emissions will require significant expansion of nuclear and renewable energy.
11.0010www.iiste.org call for paper.wind energ 97-107Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a journal article about the role of energy policy and security in sustainable wind energy systems in India. It discusses India's current energy status and dependence on imports. It then outlines India's potential for wind energy given its tropical climate and discusses how wind energy can play an important role in sustainable development by providing energy to rural areas. The document analyzes India's wind energy program and policies supporting wind energy development.
The UK has made progress transitioning to renewable energy and reducing greenhouse gas emissions through policies that promote low-carbon technologies like renewable energy, nuclear power, and carbon capture and storage. Currently, natural gas provides 30.2% of the country's electricity but renewable capacity has increased, particularly from wind and solar. The UK aims to source 15% of energy from renewables by 2020 and cut greenhouse gas emissions by at least 34% by 2020 and 80% by 2050 to meet climate change goals. Meeting future energy needs will be challenging as the population grows but renewable expansion can help reduce reliance on imported natural gas and oil.
Energy crisis of Nepal and it's sustainable solutions Dr Ramhari Poudyal
This document discusses Nepal's energy crisis and potential sustainable solutions. It notes that Nepal relies heavily on traditional biomass energy sources and faces issues with air pollution, energy poverty, and power outages. However, Nepal has significant untapped hydropower potential of over 45 GW. The document examines Nepal's current energy mix, challenges with delayed hydropower projects, and outlines solutions such as improving energy infrastructure, promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency, and emphasizing an optimal energy generation mix.
Shaping the future: Energy Security in IndiaPierre Memheld
India is the fourth largest energy consumer in the world and relies heavily on coal for electricity generation. By 2035, coal is projected to make up over 47% of India's energy basket. However, over 33% of Indian households still lack access to electricity, with over 90% of those being in rural areas. The conference aims to explore energy security from both a national perspective by augmenting energy supplies, as well as an individual perspective by improving access to quality energy services for all Indians. Experts will discuss options for improving production, transmission, and delivery efficiencies as well as addressing issues of access.
The document summarizes India's projected energy needs over the coming decades based on expected high economic growth rates. It estimates that primary energy demand in India will increase from about 13.5 EJ in 2002-03 to about 117 EJ in 2052-53, requiring development of all energy sources including fossil fuels, renewables, nuclear, and new technologies. Nuclear energy could potentially contribute one quarter of India's energy needs by 2050 if fast reactor deployment is accelerated and technologies like thorium breeding and accelerator-driven systems are successfully developed. Meeting India's large energy needs while limiting carbon emissions will require significant expansion of nuclear and renewable energy.
This report analyzes the long-term outlook for non-fossil energy technologies in 2050 and beyond. Several key points are made:
- Significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions are needed by 2050 to keep global warming below 2°C. Relying only on energy sector options may not be sufficient in Europe.
- Many renewable technologies like solar, wind, hydropower, and bioenergy have the potential to play a major role in the global energy supply by 2050. Technologies like geothermal and wave energy also show promise.
- Energy storage technologies will be important for integrating variable renewable resources into the grid and providing energy for transportation. However, energy storage is often costly.
- Nuclear
Impact of COVID-19 on energy systems in Nepal: Implications for SDGs Dr Ramhari Poudyal
The COVID-19 pandemic has negatively impacted progress towards SDG 7 of affordable and clean energy in Nepal. Lockdowns led to a 20-25% decline in electricity and fuel consumption in Nepal. This threatens Nepal's goal of providing universal electricity access by 2023 and becoming carbon neutral by 2050. The pandemic also resulted in a 5% decline in global energy demand and up to 8% reductions in emissions from electricity, oil, coal, and natural gas. However, CO2 emissions still remain 10 years higher than pre-pandemic levels, emphasizing the need for countries like Nepal to build more resilient and sustainable energy systems in order to achieve their SDG targets.
This document discusses planning for energy needs in 2030. It notes that global energy supplies are finite, populations and energy demands are growing, and some energy sources contribute to climate change and pollution. The document examines current and projected contributions of various energy sources like oil, coal, natural gas, and nuclear. It also discusses how long current reserves may last given consumption rates. The document proposes that to address these issues, the plan for 2030 should reduce energy demands through efficiency, educate the public, and diversify energy supplies by developing new technologies, utilizing regional strengths for sources like solar and wind, and reducing reliance on imported oil.
Simon Reeve shares his predictions on the future energy mix, taking into consideration recent events such as Deepwater Horizon and Fukushima. Simon is joined by key energy professionals offering perspectives from different corners of the industry.
Simon is the Power Sector Director for the Lloyd's Register Group.
The document discusses India's goals for achieving environment and energy sustainability by 2050. It analyzes India's current primary energy consumption and CO2 emissions compared to other countries. It also examines India's electricity production mix focusing on renewable energy sources like solar, wind and hydro. The objectives are to increase renewable energy capacity like solar to 175GW by 2022 and explore new sources from oceans. By transitioning to cleaner energy and improving efficiency, the document concludes India can meet its energy demand while balancing environmental sustainability and energy security goals.
Integration of coal based fuel into the energy mix & expansion of hydro...FRANKLIN AJAEGBU
The document discusses strategies for improving electricity supply in Nigeria through diversifying the energy mix and expanding power sources. It recommends integrating coal-based fuel and expanding hydroelectric power through new dams. Nigeria currently generates only 3,000MW against a demand of 50,000MW and projected need of 150,000MW by 2030. Other countries rely heavily on coal for power but Nigeria has not utilized its estimated reserves of 3 billion tonnes. The study argues Nigeria can meet energy demands through clean coal technologies and hydroelectric power given suitable locations for dams exist. Investments are needed in generation, transmission and distribution to achieve optimal electricity supply.
One of the most important resources of a nation is energy. The significance of
energy definitely cannot be overemphasized as it is immensely utilized in our everyday
activities as a very germane requirement for survival and robust lifestyle. The amount
of energy availability and its usage in a country measures the level of
industrialization. Several devices including machines, electronics, household
electrical appliances and other domestic equipment and machines, industrial
production and processing machines, streetlights for lighting, our vehicles all require
energy in various form be it solar, hydro-electric, biogas, gasoline, diesel and the
likes to function properly to optimum capacity. However, owing to the stupendous
hike in fuel price, increase in electricity charges and the desire to limit the use of
fossil fuels and reduce carbon emissions, there have been several human efforts on the
pursuit for alternate means of power. This study is aimed at analyzing the range of
renewable energy potentials in Nigeria, and how they can ultimately be used for
national development.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
heavily on fossil fuel
Need to shift toward renewable energy
Government take initiative to increase share of
renewable energy
R&D and technology advancement help to make
renewable energy economical
Public private partnership play a crucial role
With proper policy and planning, India can meet
energy demand from renewable energy sources
This document discusses India's energy sector. It notes that India relies heavily on fossil fuels but is seeking to increase its use of renewable energy. Some key points made include:
- India relies on fossil fuels for 80% of its energy needs but resources are limited and cause pollution.
- Renewable energy development is increasing, with solar and wind being major focuses. The National
The document discusses the global energy crisis, its causes, historical crises, emerging shortages, and future alternatives. It outlines that fossil fuels like oil and gas have met most energy demand but are finite. An energy crisis occurs when there is a bottleneck or price rise in a country's energy supply. Common causes are overconsumption, aging infrastructure, and disruptions in oil refineries. The document lists several historical energy crises from the 1970s to 2000s and emerging shortages in the late 2000s. It argues future efforts should develop renewable energy sources like biomass, hydro, solar, wind, geothermal and tidal to provide sustainable alternatives to depleting fossil fuels.
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is an International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
Presently, there is rapid growth in Technology advancement. Developed countries are searching for new alternative energy sources to minimize the pressure on natural sources like gas, uranium, oil, coal, etc. However, natural sources of energy are inadequate and expensive, which also contributed heavily to greenhouse gas emissions. Developing countries like Nigeria are also trying to exploit different renewable energy sources like solar energy, hydropower, wind energy, bioenergy, etc. to accomplish their increasing demand and also to eradicate the energy crisis Nigeria has been experiencing due to insufficient electricity generation. This paper analyses the importance of renewable sources, the challenges and the benefits. This paper also analyses how renewable energy can be accepted as a perfect solution for economic development.
This document discusses energy security in India. It notes that India faces considerable energy scarcity due to its large population and rapid economic growth. India's energy production meets only about half of its needs, and it must invest heavily to quadruple energy production by 2030 in order to meet demand. Key challenges include improving production from existing oil and gas fields, developing clear policies to attract investment in infrastructure like pipelines, and increasing reliance on renewable energy sources. The document analyzes trends, compares India to other countries' approaches to energy security, and argues that securing India's energy future will require concerted efforts across many areas over the long term.
Coal remains a central part of the global energy system, accounting for around 40% of global electricity production. It is expected to replace oil as the world's largest source of primary energy in the coming years. Coal reserves are estimated at 869 billion tonnes globally, which at current production rates should last around 115 years. China is the largest coal producer, consumer, and importer. Developing countries are expected to drive a 50% increase in global coal use by 2030 to meet growing energy demand and support development goals like improving electrification rates and reducing energy poverty. Technologies like high-efficiency plants and carbon capture and storage can help reduce the environmental impacts of increased coal use.
The document summarizes current energy production methods in the United States and discusses alternative energy sources. It notes that the US currently generates the majority of its electricity from natural gas (35.1%), coal (27.4%), and nuclear (19.3%) sources. The document also discusses the pros and cons of various renewable energy sources like solar and wind as well as challenges around energy storage and integrating renewable energy into the national grid. It concludes by stating that developing better energy storage capabilities will help address the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources.
M6A1 Group Project - Alternative Energy Final - 20190616 ChristopherGibson31
The document summarizes current energy production methods in the United States and discusses alternative energy sources. It notes that the top three energy sources are natural gas at 35.1%, coal at 27.4%, and nuclear at 19.3%. The document also discusses the pros and cons of various renewable energy sources like solar and wind as well as challenges around energy storage and integrating renewable energy into the national grid. It concludes by arguing that developing energy storage capabilities is key to transitioning to more renewable energy sources.
Ret leccture 2 energy scenario in rural indiaB.k. Das
Rural areas in India rely heavily on biomass for cooking and kerosene for lighting due to lack of access to modern energy. Biomass cooking leads to health and environmental issues. While some villages are classified as electrified if they have even basic electricity access, only 44% of rural households actually have electricity access compared to 87% of urban households. Rural areas consume energy for cooking, lighting, farming, local enterprises, water, schools and more. Key energy sources in rural areas include biomass, kerosene, electricity, and solar power has potential. Improving rural energy access requires understanding diverse rural energy needs beyond just cooking and lighting.
The document discusses India's energy scenario and places nuclear energy in context. It notes that nuclear currently provides only 2% of India's energy despite being highlighted as a solution. Renewable energy and energy efficiency provide more potential to meet demand growth in a sustainable manner. While energy access is needed for development, a business as usual approach is unsustainable. Prioritizing the needs of the poor through development focused policies can achieve faster poverty reduction than economic growth alone.
India faces major challenges in achieving its goal of reaching net zero carbon emissions by 2070. Key challenges include ramping up renewable energy production while meeting rising energy demand, reducing dependence on fossil fuels which currently meet 80% of energy needs, electrifying transportation which is currently heavily reliant on oil, developing cleaner industrial processes, and strengthening regulatory bodies and policy implementation. Reaching net zero will require massive investments and accelerating the country's transition to renewable energy, electric vehicles, and more efficient use of energy.
This document discusses various energy scenarios from the past, present and future. It outlines 4 broad energy scenarios for the future: techno-explosion, techno-stability, energy descent, and collapse. It also summarizes key IEA energy scenarios - the 6°C scenario projects a long-term temperature rise of at least 6°C without efforts to limit emissions. The 4°C scenario requires significant policy and technology changes to limit warming to 4°C. The 2°C scenario requires cutting energy CO2 emissions by over half by 2050 compared to 2009 to have an 80% chance of staying below a 2°C rise.
Promoting Massive Renewable Energy (RE) Projects
towards achieving Sustainable Development in Nigeria
Taiwo Benjamin
Carleton University, Canada
Presented at #naee2015
Identification of Reserved Energy Resource Potentials for Nigeria Power Gener...IJERA Editor
This document identifies and analyzes Nigeria's potential reserve energy resources that could be harnessed for power generation, including coal, natural gas, and hydroelectric sources. It finds that Nigeria has proven coal reserves of 445 million tons and estimated reserves of 2,559 million tons. Proven natural gas reserves are 4 trillion cubic meters and estimated reserves are 5.4 trillion cubic meters. Identified hydroelectric potential is 12,525MW. Harnessing these reserve energy resources could contribute up to 96,079.40MW of additional generating capacity beyond existing capacity of 12,066MW, significantly improving Nigeria's power supply.
This report analyzes the long-term outlook for non-fossil energy technologies in 2050 and beyond. Several key points are made:
- Significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions are needed by 2050 to keep global warming below 2°C. Relying only on energy sector options may not be sufficient in Europe.
- Many renewable technologies like solar, wind, hydropower, and bioenergy have the potential to play a major role in the global energy supply by 2050. Technologies like geothermal and wave energy also show promise.
- Energy storage technologies will be important for integrating variable renewable resources into the grid and providing energy for transportation. However, energy storage is often costly.
- Nuclear
Impact of COVID-19 on energy systems in Nepal: Implications for SDGs Dr Ramhari Poudyal
The COVID-19 pandemic has negatively impacted progress towards SDG 7 of affordable and clean energy in Nepal. Lockdowns led to a 20-25% decline in electricity and fuel consumption in Nepal. This threatens Nepal's goal of providing universal electricity access by 2023 and becoming carbon neutral by 2050. The pandemic also resulted in a 5% decline in global energy demand and up to 8% reductions in emissions from electricity, oil, coal, and natural gas. However, CO2 emissions still remain 10 years higher than pre-pandemic levels, emphasizing the need for countries like Nepal to build more resilient and sustainable energy systems in order to achieve their SDG targets.
This document discusses planning for energy needs in 2030. It notes that global energy supplies are finite, populations and energy demands are growing, and some energy sources contribute to climate change and pollution. The document examines current and projected contributions of various energy sources like oil, coal, natural gas, and nuclear. It also discusses how long current reserves may last given consumption rates. The document proposes that to address these issues, the plan for 2030 should reduce energy demands through efficiency, educate the public, and diversify energy supplies by developing new technologies, utilizing regional strengths for sources like solar and wind, and reducing reliance on imported oil.
Simon Reeve shares his predictions on the future energy mix, taking into consideration recent events such as Deepwater Horizon and Fukushima. Simon is joined by key energy professionals offering perspectives from different corners of the industry.
Simon is the Power Sector Director for the Lloyd's Register Group.
The document discusses India's goals for achieving environment and energy sustainability by 2050. It analyzes India's current primary energy consumption and CO2 emissions compared to other countries. It also examines India's electricity production mix focusing on renewable energy sources like solar, wind and hydro. The objectives are to increase renewable energy capacity like solar to 175GW by 2022 and explore new sources from oceans. By transitioning to cleaner energy and improving efficiency, the document concludes India can meet its energy demand while balancing environmental sustainability and energy security goals.
Integration of coal based fuel into the energy mix & expansion of hydro...FRANKLIN AJAEGBU
The document discusses strategies for improving electricity supply in Nigeria through diversifying the energy mix and expanding power sources. It recommends integrating coal-based fuel and expanding hydroelectric power through new dams. Nigeria currently generates only 3,000MW against a demand of 50,000MW and projected need of 150,000MW by 2030. Other countries rely heavily on coal for power but Nigeria has not utilized its estimated reserves of 3 billion tonnes. The study argues Nigeria can meet energy demands through clean coal technologies and hydroelectric power given suitable locations for dams exist. Investments are needed in generation, transmission and distribution to achieve optimal electricity supply.
One of the most important resources of a nation is energy. The significance of
energy definitely cannot be overemphasized as it is immensely utilized in our everyday
activities as a very germane requirement for survival and robust lifestyle. The amount
of energy availability and its usage in a country measures the level of
industrialization. Several devices including machines, electronics, household
electrical appliances and other domestic equipment and machines, industrial
production and processing machines, streetlights for lighting, our vehicles all require
energy in various form be it solar, hydro-electric, biogas, gasoline, diesel and the
likes to function properly to optimum capacity. However, owing to the stupendous
hike in fuel price, increase in electricity charges and the desire to limit the use of
fossil fuels and reduce carbon emissions, there have been several human efforts on the
pursuit for alternate means of power. This study is aimed at analyzing the range of
renewable energy potentials in Nigeria, and how they can ultimately be used for
national development.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
heavily on fossil fuel
Need to shift toward renewable energy
Government take initiative to increase share of
renewable energy
R&D and technology advancement help to make
renewable energy economical
Public private partnership play a crucial role
With proper policy and planning, India can meet
energy demand from renewable energy sources
This document discusses India's energy sector. It notes that India relies heavily on fossil fuels but is seeking to increase its use of renewable energy. Some key points made include:
- India relies on fossil fuels for 80% of its energy needs but resources are limited and cause pollution.
- Renewable energy development is increasing, with solar and wind being major focuses. The National
The document discusses the global energy crisis, its causes, historical crises, emerging shortages, and future alternatives. It outlines that fossil fuels like oil and gas have met most energy demand but are finite. An energy crisis occurs when there is a bottleneck or price rise in a country's energy supply. Common causes are overconsumption, aging infrastructure, and disruptions in oil refineries. The document lists several historical energy crises from the 1970s to 2000s and emerging shortages in the late 2000s. It argues future efforts should develop renewable energy sources like biomass, hydro, solar, wind, geothermal and tidal to provide sustainable alternatives to depleting fossil fuels.
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is an International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
Presently, there is rapid growth in Technology advancement. Developed countries are searching for new alternative energy sources to minimize the pressure on natural sources like gas, uranium, oil, coal, etc. However, natural sources of energy are inadequate and expensive, which also contributed heavily to greenhouse gas emissions. Developing countries like Nigeria are also trying to exploit different renewable energy sources like solar energy, hydropower, wind energy, bioenergy, etc. to accomplish their increasing demand and also to eradicate the energy crisis Nigeria has been experiencing due to insufficient electricity generation. This paper analyses the importance of renewable sources, the challenges and the benefits. This paper also analyses how renewable energy can be accepted as a perfect solution for economic development.
This document discusses energy security in India. It notes that India faces considerable energy scarcity due to its large population and rapid economic growth. India's energy production meets only about half of its needs, and it must invest heavily to quadruple energy production by 2030 in order to meet demand. Key challenges include improving production from existing oil and gas fields, developing clear policies to attract investment in infrastructure like pipelines, and increasing reliance on renewable energy sources. The document analyzes trends, compares India to other countries' approaches to energy security, and argues that securing India's energy future will require concerted efforts across many areas over the long term.
Coal remains a central part of the global energy system, accounting for around 40% of global electricity production. It is expected to replace oil as the world's largest source of primary energy in the coming years. Coal reserves are estimated at 869 billion tonnes globally, which at current production rates should last around 115 years. China is the largest coal producer, consumer, and importer. Developing countries are expected to drive a 50% increase in global coal use by 2030 to meet growing energy demand and support development goals like improving electrification rates and reducing energy poverty. Technologies like high-efficiency plants and carbon capture and storage can help reduce the environmental impacts of increased coal use.
The document summarizes current energy production methods in the United States and discusses alternative energy sources. It notes that the US currently generates the majority of its electricity from natural gas (35.1%), coal (27.4%), and nuclear (19.3%) sources. The document also discusses the pros and cons of various renewable energy sources like solar and wind as well as challenges around energy storage and integrating renewable energy into the national grid. It concludes by stating that developing better energy storage capabilities will help address the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources.
M6A1 Group Project - Alternative Energy Final - 20190616 ChristopherGibson31
The document summarizes current energy production methods in the United States and discusses alternative energy sources. It notes that the top three energy sources are natural gas at 35.1%, coal at 27.4%, and nuclear at 19.3%. The document also discusses the pros and cons of various renewable energy sources like solar and wind as well as challenges around energy storage and integrating renewable energy into the national grid. It concludes by arguing that developing energy storage capabilities is key to transitioning to more renewable energy sources.
Ret leccture 2 energy scenario in rural indiaB.k. Das
Rural areas in India rely heavily on biomass for cooking and kerosene for lighting due to lack of access to modern energy. Biomass cooking leads to health and environmental issues. While some villages are classified as electrified if they have even basic electricity access, only 44% of rural households actually have electricity access compared to 87% of urban households. Rural areas consume energy for cooking, lighting, farming, local enterprises, water, schools and more. Key energy sources in rural areas include biomass, kerosene, electricity, and solar power has potential. Improving rural energy access requires understanding diverse rural energy needs beyond just cooking and lighting.
The document discusses India's energy scenario and places nuclear energy in context. It notes that nuclear currently provides only 2% of India's energy despite being highlighted as a solution. Renewable energy and energy efficiency provide more potential to meet demand growth in a sustainable manner. While energy access is needed for development, a business as usual approach is unsustainable. Prioritizing the needs of the poor through development focused policies can achieve faster poverty reduction than economic growth alone.
India faces major challenges in achieving its goal of reaching net zero carbon emissions by 2070. Key challenges include ramping up renewable energy production while meeting rising energy demand, reducing dependence on fossil fuels which currently meet 80% of energy needs, electrifying transportation which is currently heavily reliant on oil, developing cleaner industrial processes, and strengthening regulatory bodies and policy implementation. Reaching net zero will require massive investments and accelerating the country's transition to renewable energy, electric vehicles, and more efficient use of energy.
This document discusses various energy scenarios from the past, present and future. It outlines 4 broad energy scenarios for the future: techno-explosion, techno-stability, energy descent, and collapse. It also summarizes key IEA energy scenarios - the 6°C scenario projects a long-term temperature rise of at least 6°C without efforts to limit emissions. The 4°C scenario requires significant policy and technology changes to limit warming to 4°C. The 2°C scenario requires cutting energy CO2 emissions by over half by 2050 compared to 2009 to have an 80% chance of staying below a 2°C rise.
Promoting Massive Renewable Energy (RE) Projects
towards achieving Sustainable Development in Nigeria
Taiwo Benjamin
Carleton University, Canada
Presented at #naee2015
Identification of Reserved Energy Resource Potentials for Nigeria Power Gener...IJERA Editor
This document identifies and analyzes Nigeria's potential reserve energy resources that could be harnessed for power generation, including coal, natural gas, and hydroelectric sources. It finds that Nigeria has proven coal reserves of 445 million tons and estimated reserves of 2,559 million tons. Proven natural gas reserves are 4 trillion cubic meters and estimated reserves are 5.4 trillion cubic meters. Identified hydroelectric potential is 12,525MW. Harnessing these reserve energy resources could contribute up to 96,079.40MW of additional generating capacity beyond existing capacity of 12,066MW, significantly improving Nigeria's power supply.
The document discusses solutions to power generation shortages in Nigeria using solar energy. It finds that providing reliable power for manufacturing activities through solar energy backup is much cheaper and safer than using generator backup. Specifically:
- The average cost per unit of power consumption is N59.29 for solar, N20.88 for grid electricity, and N83.50 for generators.
- Nigeria receives abundant sunlight and has potential to harness solar energy, yet has underutilized its renewable resources due to overreliance on fossil fuels and lack of infrastructure development.
- Reliably powering industries through solar could help solve Nigeria's power shortages more effectively than the current reliance on expensive, polluting generators.
- The document discusses a quantitative study on public perception of nuclear power in Nigeria. It analyzes data collected through questionnaires to understand perceptions.
- The study found that the majority of respondents had a positive perception of nuclear power. It also found statistically significant differences in perceptions among different age groups.
- Both genders were found to have similar levels of support for building nuclear power in Nigeria, according to the study. The study concluded that nuclear power could help boost Nigeria's energy security if plants were located away from settlements in remote areas.
Modelling and analysis of a PV/wind/diesel hybrid standalone microgrid for ru...journalBEEI
The scarce electricity supply in Nigeria is a key factor to the low industrial development in a country well-known for having the least electrification in Africa per capita. Presently, Nigeria employs four different kinds of energy such as coal, natural gas, hydro, and oil. Three of the four resources mentioned above used for the production of energy in Nigeria is connected with increasing emissions of greenhouse gas: natural gas, oil, and coal, with coal releasing the worst. This paper presents a model and analysis of PV/Wind/Diesel hybrid system for rural electrification in Kaduna state, northern Nigeria. HOMER (Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewable) software tool was used for optimization and modeling of this work. Simulation results show that the PV/Wind/Diesel system with Battery storage is the most cost-effective system since it recorded considerable cost of energy and reduces CO2 emissions significantly.
Nigeria’s nuclear power generation project current state and future prospectsAlexander Decker
This document summarizes Nigeria's nuclear power generation project. It discusses Nigeria's current energy crisis due to insufficient electricity production to meet growing demand. Nigeria created the Nigeria Atomic Energy Commission in 1976 to pursue nuclear power as part of its energy mix. The Commission aims to develop human resources and infrastructure to deploy nuclear power plants for electricity generation. The document examines Nigeria's progress so far in its nuclear program and future plans to bring its first nuclear power plant online.
Renewable power energy production the energy sustenance option for nigeriaAlexander Decker
This document discusses renewable power energy production as an option for meeting Nigeria's energy needs. It notes that Nigeria receives abundant sunlight and has potential for solar power production. Specifically, it receives an average of 3.5-7 kWh/m2/day of solar radiation. Biomass is also widely available across Nigeria and has potential to generate 442MWe of energy. The document aims to highlight how renewable energy sources like solar and biomass could be developed to deliver megawatts of energy to the national grid and provide a renewable energy plan for Nigeria. It argues that solar and biomass technologies could help address Nigeria's problem of inefficient electricity distribution and unreliable power supply by harnessing the abundant solar and biomass resources.
A STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF ENERGY GENERATION AND CONSUMPTION IN DANGOTE CEMENT ...Najeem Olawale Adelakun
ABSTRACT
Energy supply for economic activities has been a major problem in Nigeria such that it does appear that solution
to stable, reliable power supply is not yet in sight. Consequently, consumers (industrial, residential and
commercial) have all resorted to self-generation to complement whatever supply (if any) that comes from the very
unreliable national grid. For instance, the available power supply to the entire nation fluctuates between 3000MW
and 3500MW. A study of monthly energy generation in Dangote Cement Plant for a typical year was carried out.
This was compared with the equivalent monthly generation from the entire Nigeria’s grid system. The results
show that in 2013, at the early stage of commencement of production of operation in the plant), the total energy
generated by the Dangote Power Plant was 406762.33 MWH while the total energy consumed by the company
was 401903.72 MWh. Dangote’s total energy generation in 2013 represents 1.4% of Nigeria’s total generation
from grid in the same year. The total distribution loss was 4858.61 MWH (which is 1.2% of the total energy
generated by the company).Comparatively, the total generation from national grid in 2013 was 29628699. This
study further shows that Dangote Cement, Ibese produces enough energy for its use and could even sell any excess
if encouraged.
Alternative Electric Power Plant that Environmental Friendliness at Indonesiainventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
Recovery of cost of electricity supply in the nigerian power sectorAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a research journal article that analyzed revenue generation and cost recovery in Nigeria's power sector. The study examined whether increases in electricity tariffs through the Multi-Year Tariff Order (MYTO) significantly increased revenue and cost recovery from 2008-2012. The researchers discovered that while full cost recovery was not achieved in some years, the level of recovery was significant. Revenue also significantly increased after MYTO was implemented in 2008. However, increased tariffs did not have a significant impact on power generation. The researchers recommend that future tariffs allow private operators to recover costs and make profits when they take over the sector. Efforts should also be made to reduce transmission losses and improve service quality to increase demand.
Recovery of cost of electricity supply in the nigerian power sectorAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a research study analyzing cost recovery in Nigeria's power sector. The study examined how increases in electricity tariffs through the Multi-Year Tariff Order (MYTO) in 2008 and 2012 affected operational cost recovery, revenue generation, and power generation. The researchers found that while full cost recovery was not achieved in some years, the level of recovery was significant. Revenue increased significantly after MYTO was implemented in 2008. However, increased tariffs did not have a significant impact on power generation. The study recommends setting tariffs to allow private operators to recover costs and make profits when they take over the sector. Efforts should also be made to reduce transmission and distribution losses and ensure regular supply to increase demand.
RENEWABLE ENERGY TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE POWER SUPPLY IN THE NIGERIAN POWER IND...IAEME Publication
The challenge of climate change results primarily from the global use of fossil
fuel. Renewable energy as alternative energy source allows the use of natural sources
such as micro-hydro, wind; solar, and biomass that are sustainable to be explored.
The increase in the dependence on renewable energy calls for attention which can be
solved by the use of energy management. Energy management will provide a
consistent and controllable power supply. There is the need for the integration of
energy management into the grid planning and design. In this work, Energy
management using energy storage is thus considered as one design method for the
system to maximize simplicity and increase reliability using HOMER, a conventional
simulation tool.
Assessment of the availability and utilization of household energy supplies i...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that assessed household energy supply and utilization patterns in Ife Central Local Government, Nigeria, with the aim of mitigating environmental impacts. The study found that the most commonly used energy sources were electricity (92.05%) and kerosene (72.85%), while solar was least used (1.99%). Factors like cost, availability, and indoor pollution most influenced energy source choices. The consumption of energy sources in buildings was found to impact 68.20% of respondents through smoke, with traces of smoke in houses and indoor pollution rated as the most significant impacts. The study concluded more environmentally friendly and sustainable energy sources should be made widely available to reduce environmental hazards.
Off-grid small hydropower for rural development in NigeriaIJSRED
This document summarizes research on the potential for small hydropower systems to provide off-grid electricity in rural areas of Nigeria. It finds that Nigeria has many potential small hydropower sites that could generate between 5.13-5000 kW, enough to power an average rural community. Several studies are cited that identified specific sites across Nigeria with potential for small hydropower development. However, only a small percentage of the potential has been harnessed so far. The document concludes that developing decentralized off-grid small hydropower networks at potential sites could significantly increase electricity access for rural populations in Nigeria.
Modeling and forecasting energy consumption in ghanaAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that models and forecasts energy consumption in Ghana using seasonal ARIMA models. The author obtained monthly energy consumption data from 2001-2011 from Ghana's Ministry of Energy. Various SARIMA models were identified and fitted to the data. The best fitting model was selected as SARIMA (1,1,1)(0,1,2) based on having the lowest Akaike Information Criterion and Schwartz Bayesian Criterion values. This model was used to accurately forecast energy consumption for 2013 based on validation with 2012 data. The study aims to provide a modeling tool for long-term energy planning in Ghana.
Comparative Study of Electricity Production Cost of Energy Mix of Burkina Fasoijtsrd
This paper presents the feasibility study of replacing HFO power plants with LNG power plant, taking into account the balance of electricity supply and demand in the energy mix of Burkina Faso. The study consisted of calculating and comparing the optimal electricity production costs of each production mode and verifying the competitiveness of electricity production cost using LNG compared to HFO. The simulations results showed that LNG cost being less expensive than HFO cost, the production cost per kWh of electricity using LNG is very competitive compared to the production cost per kWh of electricity using HFO. Power plants running on LNG can replace HFO plants in electricity production in Burkina Faso. Switching to natural gas will optimize Burkina Fasos energy mix and ensure energy security at a compatible cost with household income. This will gradually reduce the countrys dependence on imported electrical energy. KY J. B. | Tissologo M. | Ouedraogo S. | Nikiema O. | Ouattara F. "Comparative Study of Electricity Production Cost of Energy Mix of Burkina Faso" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-7 | Issue-6 , December 2023, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd60085.pdf Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/60085/comparative-study-of-electricity-production-cost-of-energy-mix-of-burkina-faso/ky-j-b
Nigeria is a major oil producer but relies on imports for most of its oil products due to limited domestic refining capacity. Oil products are important sources of energy for transportation, households, and businesses. While natural gas is also domestically produced, access to electricity is limited, especially in rural areas. High costs and reliability issues mean many firms and households rely on diesel generators as backups. Energy subsidies are an important issue in Nigeria given its role as a major oil producer but reliance on imports and limited domestic refining.
This document provides an overview of coal gasification technology and its potential application in Nigeria. It discusses Nigeria's coal industry, which has declined significantly since the discovery of oil. Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) is presented as a cleaner coal technology that can convert coal into syngas for electricity generation. IGCC could help address Nigeria's electricity challenges by providing an alternative to the country's heavy reliance on natural gas. However, the economics of IGCC are currently challenging due to high capital costs compared to traditional coal plants. The document concludes by recommending Nigerian energy policies to support investments in cleaner coal technologies like IGCC.
1. 3
Natural Gas Dependence and Electricity
Vulnerability in Nigeria
Abiola AkandeandBabatolaBickersteth
Abstract
Natural gas is becoming the fastest-growing fossil fuel and one of the sources of
electricity generation in Nigeria. This study examines the over-dependence on
naturalgasfor electricity generation inNigeria between1999 and2012. Thestudy
employed the gas supply security index (GSSI) derived from four indicators of
security of gas supply, with a higher index indicating higher gas supply that might
leadtovulnerabilityinelectricity generation.TheresultsrevealedthatNigeriawas
least and most vulnerable in 2000 and 2005 respectively. In 2012, the GSSI was
0.83, making it the second mostvulnerable among the years considered. This was
duetothenation’sover-relianceonnaturalgasforelectricitygenerationaswellas
itsgreaterexposuretogeopoliticalrisks.Oncethereisanydisruptioninnaturalgas
supply,theresultanteffectisfluctuationsinelectricitygeneration.Thestudysuggests
thatgovernmentshouldtargetotherpossiblesourcesforpowergenerationtomitigate
natural gas supply disruption.
3.1 Introduction
Natural gas is the fastest-growing fossil fuel and one of the sources of power
generation in the 21st century (IEA, 2014). With advances in industrialization in
emerging markets, population growth and electricity access continue to increase
62
2. NaturalGasDependence andElectricityVulnerabilityin Nigeria 63
along withrising livingstandards. Asaresult, global electricityusage isprojected to
rise annually. Electricity demand is rising twice as fast as overall energy use, and is
likely to increase by more than two-thirds between 2011 and 2035. In 2012, 42 per
cent of primary energy used was converted into electricity (IEA, 2014).2
In most
developed and developing countries, electricity is seen as an essential source of
energy for many activities and acts as a catalyst for socio-economic development
(Nakawiro, Bhattacharyya and Limmeechokchai, 2007; Ayodele, 1999; 2001; IEA,
2002 and Samuel and Lionel, 2013). Electricity plays a multi-faceted role in an
economy; it is a productive input that facilitates economic growth process by its
direct influence on the productivity of other factors of production. Its availability
and quality directly affect the degree to which households can enjoy most of the
comfort and quality of living provided by modern society (IEA, 2012). Electricity
availability and accessibility is one of the fastest ways to alleviate rural poverty,
boost productivity among women and accelerate education and health outcomes;
especially among people living in rural and semi-urban centres. Nigeria, being a
commercial and economic stakeholder in Africa, requires about 120,000MW of
electricity to become an industrialized nation (Adenikinju, 2013).3
Gas has been touted as the cheapest and easiest option for power generation.
Moreover,Nigeria isblessed withabundant gasassets withinthe NigerDelta region
whereit isfound in reservoirs orproduced alongwith oilas associatedgas. However,
the Nigerian government has established price controls to keep a cap on gas prices,
making gas prices artificially low, creating market imperfections and negative
externalities. The gas industry has played a significant role in Nigeria’s overall
economic performance having arobust agenda on gas usage which places emphasis
on the use of gas for power generation. Furthermore, its vision of an aggressive gas-
basedindustrial growthwill invariablyboost further growth of electricity demand.
As at 2011, electricity generation from hydropower represented 20.9 per cent of
Nigeria’s total production (Trading Economic, 2014)4
while natural gas accounted
for theremaining 79.1 percent. Electricity productionfrom natural gashas steadily
increased over the years. Many power plants that were built before and during the
ongoing National Integrated Power Plants (NIPP) project to improve electricity
generation in Nigeria are dependent on natural gas as a feedstock.5
As the country
adds new capacities to meet the demand for electricity, the additional capacity
would require a significant increase in natural gas supply for the power sector.
Electricitygeneration in Nigeria isvastly relianton natural gas; thus, ahigh share of
natural gas in power generation raises concerns of security of electricity supply and
could even make the country vulnerable to high gas dependence in its power
generation over time.
Studies (Olomola and Adejumo, 2006; Adedipe, 2004; Adeniyi, 2011; Adeniyi
et al, 2011; Muhammad et al, 2010; Ogundipe and Ogundipe, 2013) abound in the
3. 64 FutureEnergy PolicyOptions:Assessment,Formulation andImplementation
literature which assess oil volatility in Nigeria, but little attention has beengiven to
gassupply securityin thecountry that emphasizes theelectricity sector.This paper
attempts toaddress this gap inthe literature.Thepaperaims toassess theimpact of
natural gas dependence on power generation and how it can make the Nigerian
economy vulnerable over time. Furthermore, the paper analyses how gas supply
security will affect power generation over time, especially since natural gas is the
major feedstock for electricity generation. The paper is divided into six sections.
Following this introduction, section 3.2 presents a range of stylized facts on the
nation’s power h=generation. Following this in section 3.3 is the literature review;
and then section 3.4, which provides the methodology used in the study. Section
3.5 is based on the vulnerability analysis, while section 6 presents the conclusion of
the paper.
3.2 Stylized Facts
Nigeria is endowed with abundant gas reserves but the enormous challenge facing
the country is how to use this resource for economic growth especially in power
generation. Thecountry’s agendaon gasutilization isrobust becauseit placesgas at
the coreof thenation’s powergeneration endeavour.Thus, its vision ofan aggressive
gas-based industrial growth will invariably boost further growth of electricity
demand. Electricity generation in the country currently stands at4,044MW on
account of improved gas supply to generation stations and the rise in the water
levels at the various hydro stations (Business Day, 4 September 2014). The
4,044MW generated as at September 2014, later dropped to 3500MW6
by
16 December 2014 presumably due to shortage in gas supply.
The main source of electricitygeneration in Nigeriahas shifted over time. First,
it was coal that predominated, followed by oil, then hydro and now gas. The
dominance of coal ended in 1997, followed by hydro and natural gas; thus natural
gas has remained the pre-eminent source of fuel for electricity generation (OECD/
IEA, 2014).7
Indeed, natural gas has been promoted as “a noble fuel” for enhancing
electricity generation in the country because it is reliable, available in abundance,
easy to manage, flexible, and more environment-friendly. This has fostered the
greaterinvolvement of government andthe oilcompanies in the developmentof the
gas market in the country. Consequently, a lot of gas projects were developed to
exploit the country’s enormous gas reserves and reduce the large quantum that is
flared. Many gas-to-power plants were built and the ongoing National Integrated
PowerProjects (NIPP) wereinauguratedto improveelectricity generationin Nigeria
using gas as feedstock.8
Therefore, electricity production from natural gas has increased steadily over
the years, rising from about 5.94 per cent in 1971 to 63.3 per cent in 2011 (CIA,
2014). Nevertheless, there seems to be a real challenge with supplying gas to the
4. NaturalGasDependence andElectricityVulnerabilityin Nigeria 65
power plants. For example, gas pipelines and infrastructure are being sabotaged
and vandalized continually just as low gas prices and technical faults further
constrain the power plants. Also, there are uncertainties and increasing regulation
around gas prices. The consequence is a significant drop in electricity generation as
shown in the power sector polls that NOI Polls conducted in November 2014. The
surveyshowsthat 63 percent ofNigeriansreceivedlessthanfivehoursof continuous
power supply daily,while the majority (72 per cent) spent alot more on alternative
energy sources (Vanguard, 24 July 2013; 28 January 2014).9
Figures 3.1and 3.2 complement eachother in reporting the sources of fuel used
to generate electricity in the country. It also reveals the transitional trend over the
years. Figure3.2 showsthat coaland hydroweretherespective dominant sources in
the 1970s and 1980s. Then came the era of oil which ended in 1997, thereby paving
the wayfor natural gas to dominate the scene. Thus, coal, oil, gas and hydro sources
accounted for0.1 percent, 13.7percent, 53.7per centand 32.5 percent, respectively,
ofpowergenerationin 1990.By1993,coalwasno longerusedforelectricity generation
in the country while the share of oil and gas fell to 13.5 per cent and 48.1 per cent,
respectively. This automatically raised the share of hydro source of energy to 38.4
per centin the same year. Another dramatic turn was witnessed in 1997when oil
accounted for 0 per cent of power generation. This reduced the major sources of
electricitygeneration from four totwo,namely,gasandhydro, thus exerting pressure
on these remaining twosources which accountedfor 80.3 per cent and 19.7per cent,
respectively, in 2012 (EIA, 2014).
Figure 3.1. Nigeria Generation Electricity Fuel Sources (1970-2012).
Source: OECD/IEA, 2014.
5. 66 FutureEnergy PolicyOptions:Assessment,Formulation andImplementation
Naturalgasistraditionallyusedmostlyforcooking andheating intheresidential
and commercial sectors. In the industrial sector, fertilizer plants use natural gas as
rawmaterial,just asthepowersector usesit forelectricity generation.Theelectricity
sector is among the key users of natural gas, accounting for 53 per cent and 80 per
cent of natural gas consumption in 1990 and 2012, respectively (IEA, 2014). This
huge share of the electricity sector is attributed to government policies which gave
it priority in gas allocation in Nigeria (Ige, 2014).
It wasobserved thattheelectricitysectorhasshown fastergrowth ingasdemand
during the post electricity reforms period and the same has been attributed to the
failure ofelectricity markets.Thepowersector isby farthe largestuser ofnatural gas
with around 40 per cent of global gas demand as the fuel contributes to meeting
incremental power demand and produces less CO2
than coal. Industrial sector uses
roughly 24 per centof totalgas consumption and theresidential/commercial sector
uses 22 per cent. Other uses include energy industry consumption which accounts
for about 10 per cent (IEA, 2014).
Figure 3.2. Share of Fuel Sources for Electricity Generation in Nigeria (1990-2012)
Source: IEA, 2014
As in most developed countries, natural gas is seen as the fastest global
commodity for generating electricity owing to its attributes of environmental
friendliness, high efficiency and least cost (Cabalu and Manhutu, 2009; BP, 2014).
This has made other sources of generation highly expensive compared to natural
gas. Natural gashelps to drive the electricity sectorin Nigeria;hence, thenation has
built her electricity base on a mono-fuel supply mix with the commodity resident
in the most fragile and volatile zone – the Niger Delta region (this is prior to the
adventofBokoHaraminNigeria).Thezoneis alsocharacterizedbyincessant pipeline
6. NaturalGasDependence andElectricityVulnerabilityin Nigeria 67
vandalism which has resulted in fluctuations in electricity supply in Nigeria, thus
raising concerns for gas supply security.
Nigeria has failed to maintain a balanced electricity mix as compared to other
gas exporting countries. Figure 3.3 reveals the share of electricity mix in the Gas
Exporting Countries Forum (GECF). It reveals that Russia has the most balanced
electricitymix, followedby Iran. Both Nigeriaand Egypt have themost imbalanced
electricity mix and both have a disproportionate dependence on natural gas for
their electricity supply (Adegun, 2014).
Figure 3.3. Electricity Mix of the Selected Natural Gas Exporting Countries
Source: Adegun (2014) Wikipedia (list of power plant, 2014)
3.3 Literature Review
Over the past decade, much of the work done on energy security has focused on oil
and has been carried out mainly in developed countries. However, of the few ones
done in Nigeria, most used descriptive analysis while others placed emphasis on
energy as a whole. The gap thus created by this analytical method and the area of
emphasis has necessitated this study.
Bhattacharyya et al (2008) examined the electricity capacity expansion in
Thailand, an analysis of gas dependence and fuel import reliance. They adopted the
traditionalelectricitycapacity planningusingtheWienAutomaticSystem Planning
version IV. They found that high gas dependence in power generation makes the
Thai economy vulnerable over time.
Cabalu (2009) similarly examined the indicators of security of natural gas
supply in Asia (Japan, Korea, China, India, Singapore and Thailand). He found that
both India and China are moderately less vulnerable to gas supply disruptions
because they produced gas domestically as against other countries that relied on
7. 68 FutureEnergy PolicyOptions:Assessment,Formulation andImplementation
imported gas for energy generation. Also, the two countries have a balanced energy
mix such that the share of natural gas as fuel source is relatively small compared to
other countries.
Sonya (2012) examined gas supply security for selected European countries
(UK, Germany, Spain,Ireland, Netherlands,France, Italyand Greece).Theresearch
adopted gas supply security indicators such as gas intensity, net gas imports
dependency and domestic production to consumption and geopolitical risks for all
the countriesin 2000 and 2010. Also, it explored hownatural gashas evolvedfor the
selected countries over the years. The research found that UK had the highest level
of gas supply security in 2000 while the pendulum swung to Netherlands by 2010.
During the period of study, France, Italy and Greece had improved in terms of gas
supply security while Ireland remained highly vulnerable and most susceptible
among all the countries under study.
Cabalu andAlfonso (2013) examined theenergy securityin sixAsian countries10
using agas supply security index that cut across 1996 to 2009. Theyfound out that
both China and India are the least vulnerable to natural gas security. This can be
attributed to the fact that both countries produced natural gas domestically and it
accountedfor aminor shareof their energy mix as comparedto othercountries. The
over-reliance and huge exposure of Thailand electricity sector to natural gas made
the country the most vulnerable with greater exposure to geopolitical risks in the
country.
Borok et al (2013) examined energy security in Nigeria with emphasis on oil.
Theyarguedthat oilandgasarevitaltotheNigerianeconomy becausethey accounted
for about 80 per cent of government revenue,90 per cent of exports and90 per cent
foreign exchange earnings. They evaluated the challenges facing the oil and gas
sector in terms of its availability, accessibility and utilization using a descriptive
analysis. In similar view, Agbaeze et al(2014) explored Nigeria’s dependency on oil.
They adopted descriptive analysis and argued that Nigeria’s economy is highly
volatileto internationaloil priceshocks becauseoil constitutesthe bulk of Nigeria’s
oil export, revenue and foreign earnings.
Biresselioglu et al (2014) investigated the natural gas supply security in 23
importing countries11
from different regions of the world. They employed the
principal component analysis (PCA) to evaluate the gas supply security index.
They focused more on two supply securities for all the selected countries on yearly
basis between 2001 and 2013. They found that the greatest consumers of gas by
volume and thegreatest dependence on imports are not certainly the most exposed
to supply security shocks. The results reveal that the most natural gas import-
dependent countriesarealsothe securecountries, whichare Spain,France, Belgium,
Italy and UK, while Brazil, Mexico and the US are the less secure and have the
highest levelsof importdependence byasinglesupplier ofnatural gas. Furthermore,
8. NaturalGasDependence andElectricityVulnerabilityin Nigeria 69
Hungary, Slovakia, UAE, Iran and Finland are the least secure countries. They
ascertained that for the period under study, Spain and France remained the most
secure countries and concluded that diversification has a great impact on natural
gas supply security.
Kamsamrong et al (2014) examined an assessment of energy security in
Thailand’s power generation. They employed the ESSI and found that coal power
plants produced the highest emission which raised the unit cost of electricity.
We have found from the reviewed literature that most studies were done in
developedcountries withscanty worksin developingcountries, andmost especially
in Nigeria. The few works done adopted descriptive analysis, to the best of our
knowledge. The over-exposure of the electricity sector to natural gas has raised
concerns and necessitated this study.
3.4 Methodology
The literature on oil shocks in the 1970s and 1980s and the recent dwindling in oil
prices have revealed how vulnerable the world’s economy could be to supply
disruptions and oil price fluctuations. The Nigerian electricity sector is vulnerable
to disruptions caused by insufficient gas supply, vandalism, technical faults and
increasedinsecurity in the NigerDelta by limiting thecontinuous supply of natural
gas to the electricity sector. This study employs the gas supply security indicators
(GSSI) as postulated by Cabalu (2009) and has been widely used by different
authors (Bhattacharyya et al, 2008; Sonya, 2013).
GSSI provides combined quantitative indicators which are easy to compute,
making it a preferred method. It also captures the main components of gas supply
security and takes into consideration the interactions and interdependence among
the various indicators. Each of the indicators allows for aggregation to create a
composite indicator (GSSI). It is derived as the root mean square of the scaled
values of four indicators of security of gas supply (Gnansounou, 2008). These
indicators are gas intensity (G1
), gas dependency (G2
), ratio of domestic gas
production to consumption (G3
) and geopolitical risk (G4
). The GSSI helps to
capture the sensitivity of the Nigerian electricity sector to development in the
international and domestic gas market, with a higher index indicating higher gas
supply insecurity and vulnerability of the electricity sector in Nigeria. For this
purpose, the indicators were modified, as against the literature, to address the
objectives of this study.
The G1
measured the ratio of domestic gas consumed (GC) in an economy to
gross domestic product (GDP). It implies the amount of natural gas required to
produceadollar’sworthofgoodsandservices.Also,it explainshowthegasconsumed
locally is used efficiently in producing the economy’s output. The gas intensity
(G1
) is computed as:
9. 70 FutureEnergy PolicyOptions:Assessment,Formulation andImplementation
1
GC
G
GDP
(1)
Thegasintensityofthecountryisexpressedastheratiooftotalnaturalgasconsumed
to GDP in Nigeria.
It is expressed as the ratio of natural gas to produce electricity to GDP. The
Nigerian GDPis measuredin USdollar andsourced from IEA. Therelative indicator
for Nigeria associated with G1
(N1) is estimated as:
1 1
1
1 1
( )
( ) ( )
t
t
G Min G
Max G Min G
(2)
The relative indicator, 1t results in projection of 1tG that lies between 0 and 1. The
low value of 1t implies that attime (t) Nigeria is less vulnerableor less insecure to
supply shocks compared to other years in the study.
Secondly, the G2
is expressed as the ratio of electricity generated from natural
gas (GTP) to total electricity produced (TEP) in the economy. This is one of the
modifications that makes this work different from other conventional methods.
This is used to capture the degree of electricity generation dependency on natural
gas consumption.
TEP
GTP
G21 (3)
Where GTP is the natural gas to power at time t and TEP is the total electricity
generated in Nigeria at time t, which is expressed as a percentage. Similarly, the
relative indicator for various time t associated with G2
((N2)) is computed as:
)()(
)(
22
221
21
GMinGMax
GMinG
(4)
The modified indicator lies between 0 and 1 such that the values consider both
extremes. The values 0 and 1 are assigned to express the least and most vulnerable
ofthe selectedsecurity of supply indicators,respectively, for Nigeria for the various
years under study.
Thirdly, we consider G3
, which measured the ratio of domestic gas production
to total domestic gas consumption. Cabalu (2009) argued that domestic gas
production is one of the best yardsticks of a country’s capacity to survive with
short-term supply disruption than domestic reserves, as production excludes gas
from stranded reserves which cannot be tapped immediately. It is expressed as:
10. NaturalGasDependence andElectricityVulnerabilityin Nigeria 71
GC
GP
G31 (5)
Where GP is the domestic natural gas production in Nigeria over the selected time
frame and GC is the total natural gas consumed (total final consumption). The
computation of G3
is quite different from other previous indicators since it is
negatively related to gas supply vulnerability or security. To accommodate this
negative relationship, t is adjusted to ensure that it is consistent with GSSI design.
Thus, high G3
andlow(N3)is preferable.Therelativeindicator fortime (t)associated
with G3
(N3) is computed as:
)()(
)(
33
313
31
GMinGMax
GGMax
(6)
Lastly, weconsidered the geopoliticalrisk (G4
) using theadjusted Shannon Weiner
Newman Index which accounts for the political stability of the supply source of
natural gas in Nigeria. The index is modified as follows:
)(41 iiInmmG ( 7)
Where mi
represents the political stability in natural gas producing areas (Niger
Delta) in Nigeria. The number of cases of vandalism on natural gas pipelines was
used asaproxyto capturethisvariable. AlowG4t
denotes higherexposuretosecurity
supply risk. It is relatively related to security of natural gas supply for the period
under study. The relative index for the same period is calculated as:
)()(
)(
44
414
41
GMinGMax
GGMax
(8)
After all the four indices were derived, we then computed the gas supply security
index(GSSI) for the selectedyears. TheGSSI forthe selectedyears canbe calculated
as the root mean square of the four relative indicators discussed above. The GSSI
ranges lies between 0 and 1 in which zero and one means the highest and lowest
relative level of gas supply security, respectively. The GSSI is computed as:
4/2
2
2
3
2
2
2
1 GSSI (9)
3.5 Data Analysis and Interpretation
The methodology used here was adopted for Nigeria based on data derived for the
years 1999, 2000, 2005, 2008, 2010 and 2012. Data on GC, GTP, TEP, GP and GDP
were obtained from IEA Energy Balance of Nigeria (IEA, 2013). The GDP is quoted
in US dollars. The number of cases of pipeline vandalism was used as a proxy for
11. 72 FutureEnergy PolicyOptions:Assessment,Formulation andImplementation
political stability factor in the NigerDelta wherenatural gasis producedin Nigeria.
The individual gas security indicators are shown in Table 3.1. It reveals the areas of
strength andweakness ofthe indicatorsand howthey tend to influence the relative
indicators overtime. Thereafter,wepresentTable3.2which showsthe resultsof the
analysis of relative indicators for gas supply security between 1999 and 2012 for
Nigeria.
Table 3.1. Individual Gas Supply Security Indicators for Nigeria Between 1999 and 2012
Source:Author’scomputation.
From Table 3.1, natural gas intensity, G1, was zero for all the years considered
which was measured in cubic metres per unit of GDP (in $US). The share of
natural gas in electricity generation over time, G2, measured in percentages, shows
an upward movement over the years considered in the study. This depicts a huge
relianceon naturalgas forelectricity generation.In 1999,the contributionof natural
gas to electricity generation accounted for about 62 per cent, and kept increasing
overtime.
G3represents theratio ofnatural gasproduction tonatural gasconsumption in
Nigeria. G3 was low in 1999 and rose to about 10.86 in 2012, owing to gas
monetization and gas-to-power initiatives. The geopolitical risk, G4, reflected the
level of vandalism in areas where natural gas is found. The individual gas supply
security indicators were used to compute the relative indicators between 1999 and
2012 for Nigeria.
Table3.2. RelativeIndicators for 1999-2012
Source:Author’scomputations
G1(m3
/$) G2 (%) G3 G4
1999 0.00 61.79 6.65 0.64
2000 0.00 61.78 10.50 0.00
2005 0.00 67.00 7.03 1.00
2008 0.00 72.90 12.70 0.96
2010 0.00 75.60 21.94 0.93
2012 0.00 80.29 10.86 0.98
N1 N2 N3 N4
1999 0.32 0.00 1.00 0.64
2000 0.38 0.00 0.75 0.00
2005 1.00 0.28 0.98 1.00
2008 0.49 0.60 0.60 0.96
2010 0.00 0.75 0.00 0.93
2012 0.56 1.00 0.72 0.98
Average 0.46 0.44 0.68 0.75
12. NaturalGasDependence andElectricityVulnerabilityin Nigeria 73
Note: N1
is the relative indicator or scaled value for G1
(gas intensity); N2
is the relative
indicator or scaled value for G2
(gas dependency on electricity generation); N3
isthe relative
indicator or scaled value for G3
(ratio of domestic gas production to total domestic gas
consumption); N4
is the relative indicator or scaled value for G4
(geopolitical risk).
This paper estimated the GSSI for Nigeria between 1999 and 2012. The final
values of the GSSI for the six years that natural gas was utilized with a drastic
reduction in gas flaring in Nigeria is shown in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4. Comparison of GSSI for the Selected Years in Nigeria 1999-2012
Source: Author’scomputations, 2015.
From Figure 3.4, year 2000 is revealed to be the least vulnerable in the event of
anatural gas supply disruption. It shows that GSSI was the lowest at 0.42, ranking
it first among other years in the study. The reason for this might be attributed to
weak N2
and N3
where the strength lies in N1
and N4
. This implies that the gas
dependency for electricity generation and geopolitical risk for the concerned years
wasweakorlowasagainst otheryearsin the study,and hencenot relianton imports.
With hydro and natural gas being the main sources of energy for power generation
in Nigeria,gas intensity of theeconomy’s GDPwaslow.However, in 2000, Nigeria’s
natural gasconsumption rosefaster than any otherfuel dueto thegas monetization
initiatives of the Nigerian Gas Master Plan and other gas-to-power strategies that
had positioned initially flared gas towards electricity generation.
In 1999, the GSSI was0.62, ranking it the third among the selected years under
study. The gas intensity was low because a large volume of natural gas was flared
and it was reflected by N1
. Also its share of total domestic consumption is high
relative tototal domesticproduction ascapturedby N3.
Thehigh indicatorwitnessed
in N3
canbe attributedto thegas monetizationpolicy that ledtoutilization through
13. 74 FutureEnergy PolicyOptions:Assessment,Formulation andImplementation
LNG exports to Asia and other parts of Europe. However, the gas intensity waslow
and geopolitical risk was high in the region as captured by N1
and N4
respectively.
The GSSI rose to 0.87 in 2005 which was the highest recorded under the period
of study and later declined to 0.68 and 0.59 in 2008 and 2010, respectively. The
significant valuesrecordedcan beattributed to gasintensity (N1)
,gassupplysecurity
(N3
) and geopolitical risk (N4
) respectively. The gas intensity and geopolitical risk
wererelatively high due tohigh pricesof naturalgas atthe internationalmarket and
pipelinevandalism activitiesin the region where gas isfound, respectively; hence an
increase in natural gas dependency for electricity generation. This implies that the
share of natural gas in electricity generations is weakand lowand began to increase
till 2012.
There was a significant improvement in GSSI for year 2008 and 2010 that
accounted for 0.68 and 0.59, respectively. For both years, gas supply security (N3
)
and geopolitical risk (N4
) improved, which made Nigeria less vulnerable as awhole
but electricitygeneration washighly vulnerable dueto high dependencyon natural
gas. This was obvious in the results as N2
has witnessed an upward trend since
2005. Theworldfinancial meltdownled to alowdemand forgas atthe international
market which resulted in low gas intensity in 2000 and raised its domestic usage
towards achieving the gas-to-power strategy for Nigeria.
In 2012, the GSSI deteriorated to 0.85 compared to 0.59 in 2010, which made
Nigerian electricity generation highly vulnerable to natural gas dependency in the
event of natural gas supply disruption. This ranked fifth among other years in the
study and the strength lies in all thefour indicators of GSSI. This has raised natural
gas as the main source of fuel for power generation in Nigeria so as to drive the
nation’s economy.
However, thefollowing deductionwasarrivedat in the courseof this study: Gas
monetization led to the utilization of natural gas and reduction in gas flaring in
Nigeria over time. In addition, natural gas has become a viable and dominant fuel
sourcefor electricitygeneration in Nigeria. Therefore,natural gassupply disruption
andover dependencyon naturalgas willfurther makethe Nigerianelectricity sector
more vulnerable.
3.6 Conclusion and Recommendation
There were fluctuations in GSSI over the years in which the two extremes are 0.46
and 0.88 in 2000 and 2005, respectively, compared to the overall average of 0.76. In
2012, all the indicators were high which led to high GSSI that accounted for about
0.84. The overall average GSSI was 0.76 with strength in gas supply security (N3
)
and geopoliticalrisk (N4
) which accountedfor 0.68and 0.75,respectively. Therefore,
theelectricity sectorandtheexport marketi.e.,theLNGexports,arethekey demand
drivers for natural gas in Nigeria. With the increase in demand and supply for
14. NaturalGasDependence andElectricityVulnerabilityin Nigeria 75
naturalgas andmultiple playersenteringthemarket anddwindling crudeoil prices,
the Nigeriangovernment must be proactive in ensuring sustainability, availability,
security and diversification of the electricity-mix away from natural gas which
currently accounts for a bulk of the electricity generation and domestic gas
consumption in the country.
The following recommendations were made to promote the need to diversify
electricity mix in Nigeria. Firstly, there is need to diversify the Nigerian electricity
fuel source mix from natural gas and embrace other sources such as renewables.
Secondly, the government shouldimplement policiesto addresspipeline vandalism
in the country particularly in the areas where natural gas is found. Thirdly, the
government should improve and emulate best practices for all the component
indicators.
Endnotes
1. Abiola is a doctoral research student at Centre for Petroleum Economics and Law
(CPEEL), University of Ibadan.
2. http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Current-and-Future-Generation/World-Energy-
Needs-and-Nuclear-Power/
3. Cited from Punch newspaperreport entitled “Nigeria needs120,000MW of electricity
for industrialization”, dated Thursday, 18 April, 2013, p. 33.
4. Cited from article written by Yinka Abraham titled “renewable energy options for
embedded generation“ of the BusinessDaynewspaperdated 26 August, 2014filed under
power West Africa Energy.
5. HowtodevelopNigeriaGasMarket,TheGuardian newspaperdatedFriday,13Dec., 1996.
6. See http://www.today.ng/news/power-supply-drops-to-3500mw-due-to-gas-
challenges/
7. Electricity generation by fuel for Nigeria, www.iea.org/statistics
8. HowtodevelopNigeriaGasMarket,TheGuardian newspaperdatedFriday,13Dec., 1996.
9. See http://www.punchng.com/business/business-economy/power-supply-hasnt-
improved-with-privatisation-survey/
10. Japan, Korea, China, India, Singapore and Thailand.
11. US, Mexico, Austria, Spain, France, Belgium, Italy, UK. Hungary, Slovakia, UAE,
Iran, Finland, Brazil,Poland,Germany, CzechRepublic, Greece,Ireland, Netherlands,
Turkey, Singapore and Thailand.
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