The document discusses the evolution of media regulation in the UK, emphasizing the shift from medium-specific censorship to challenges posed by the internet and new media. It notes the complexities of regulating online content and the emergence of self-regulation, highlighting the historical context and ongoing debates about the influence of media on society, particularly in relation to violence. Furthermore, it underscores that as technology evolves, so too must content regulation, which is increasingly focusing on interactive media and video games.

2. Media Regulation: Debates and
Perspectives.
Dr. Richard Berger.
The Centre for Excellence in Media Practice.
Bournemouth University.

3. • Historically, from the 1909 Cinematograph Act onwards,
censorship in the UK has been medium specific.
• The internet and new media has changed that.
• Harder to regulate the internet – global nature etc.
– Differences in US and UK law regarding ‘impartiality’.
– In Sweden it’s not an offence to possess what in the UK would be
deemed unlawful child pornography.

4. • Move towards self-censorship/regulation.
• BBC guidelines for its online writers:
• “Swearing is not big and it’s not clever, so avoid it as
much as possible. If it’s in a quote, always star the
following: c**t, f**k, w**k, F**ing and w**ker. If you
really have to be foul mouthed, these words can be
written in full: shit, bastard, bollocks, arsehole, twat,
piss, sodding etc (eg, “He’s a c**t, that bastard.”).
Obviously all slurs on race and minorities are a
complete no-no.”
• From BBCi’s Style Guide for writers and journalists (Sept 2005).

5. • The Broadcasting Standards Commission (later
replaced by Ofcom) even rated swear words in 2002;
• 1. C**t 11. Shag. 21. Bugger.
• 2. Motherf****r 12. Whore. 22. Balls.
• 3. F**k 13. Twat. 23. Jew.
• 4. W****r 14. Piss Off. 24. Sodding.
• 5. N****r 15. Spastic. 25. Jesus Christ.
• 6. Bastard 16. Slag. 26. Crap.
• 7. Prick 17. S**t. 27. Bloody.
• 8. Bollocks 18. Dickhead. 28. God.
• 9. A***hole 19. P****d Off.
• 10. P**i 20. Arse.

6. • The coalescence of media regulation began in 2003
with the creation of Ofcom.
• Before Ofcom, all UK media was regulated by;
– ITC – Independent Television Commission.
– OfTel – Telecommunications Regulator.
– BSC – Broadcasting Standards Commission.
– RA – Radio Authority.
– OFT – Office of Fair Trading.
– BBFC – British Board of Film Classification.
– BBC – British Broadcasting Corporation.

7. • So, Main problem is that the internet circumnavigates
other media, and the laws that surround and
regulate them.
– The internet can result in pre-trial prejudice, and
contempt of court.
– Some national/local events do have widespread
international appeal.
– http://
www.thesmokinggun.com/doc_o_day/doc_o_day.html
– Now with global 24 hour rolling news, it’s even
harder – many people can get the BBC, and Al-
jazerra.

8. • Another problem with medium specific media
regulation are the ‘media effects’ debate which
trawl in their wake.
• Media effects debate is as old as
cinema/television.
• Many studies to prove links between violence on
screen, and violence in society.
• Most media effects models based on media’s
perceived influence over children.

9. Problems with Media Effects.
• In Moving Experiences (2005) David
Gauntlett argues:
– The effects model tackles social problems
backwards.
– The effects model treats children as inadequate.
– Assumptions within the effects model are characterised by
barely-concealed conservative ideology.

10. Problems with Media Effects.
– The effects model inadequately defines its own objects of
study.
– The effects model is often based on artificial elements and
assumptions within studies.
– The effects model is often based on studies with misapplied
methodology.
– The effects model is selective in its criticisms of media
depictions of violence.

11. Problems with Media Effects.
– The effects model assumes superiority to
the masses.
– The effects model makes no attempt to
understand meanings of the media.
– The effects model is not grounded in
theory.
• Gauntlett, D., 2005. Moving Experiences.
Eastleigh: John Libbey. pp 143-151.

12. Does media effect?
• Censors often act in self-serving ways – political.
• Effects model easy to demolish.
– i.e easy to see conservative ideology, highlighted by David
Gauntlett.
• The popular media can start a news spiral that
creates a ‘folk devil.’
– i.e Child’s Play 3, Crash, etc.

13. But…
• Films, and increasingly videogames, are still being
blamed for violence in society:
– Virginia Tech shootings – April 16th
2007.
– Student Seung-Hui Cho, killed 32 fellow students, and
himself.
– He sent a video and photographs of himself threatening the
massacre to NBC news, the previous day.
– Some newspapers blamed the film OldBoy (Park Chan-Wook,
2003).

15. • However, the BBFC’s steady liberalisation since the
late 1990s, and the creation of Ofcom has led to
more emphasis on ‘self-regulation.’
• Regulation should now be in the hands of the
individuals/parents, not institutions.
• Contradiction?
• Due to the relatively unregulated internet?

16. Online Regulation.
• In 1998 the Culture, Media & Sport select committee
set up an enquiry into online regulation. They
reported:
– Existing broadcasting legislation wouldn’t work, but, new
regulation wasn’t viable because:
– Problems of access.
– Internet/Cyberspace is seen to be integral to economic
growth.
– International medium requires International law.

17. • More self regulation - focus on
‘end-users’
• There are lots of Interest Group
sites, such as Women Halting
Online Abuse, or the Cyberangels net
patrol group.
• ISPs drawing-up codes of practice and many are
doing so, eg AOL and FreeServe.
• Members and subscribers must obey the rules, or be
disconnected – ‘3-strikes’.

18. But…
• In the 1990s, Rupert Murdoch
removed the BBC’s World Service
Television channel from his Star
satellite system.
– Murdoch wanted to tap in to new lucrative Chinese markets.
– The BBC had been critical of Chinese human rights policy in
the wake of the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989.

19. Google & China.
• On the 25th
January 2006 the search
engine Google introduced a system of
self-censorship for its Chinese version.
• For example, if you use www.google.co.uk for an
image search of ‘Tiananmen Square,’ you get…

22. • In February 2010, Google accused China of hacking
its service and announced it was pulling out.
• Further sourced relationships between China and the
new administration in the US.
• So, despite people such as John Gilmore arguing that
the, “Internet treats censorship like
damage, it routes around it,” it is heavily
censored by nation states.

23. • So, despite the UK being the most heavily regulated
nation state in Europe, current content regulation is
being increasingly subverted.
• This is largely due to the internet, which transcends
national boundaries, political institutions and content
legislation.
• A great deal of controversial content can be found
online.

24. • Hate sites:
– www.rotten.com (Grim images. A lot of it is faked).
– www.yourgoingtohell.com/ (Right wing religious hate-site).
– www.rahowa.com (White supremacist site calling for a
‘Racial Holy War’).
– http://www.newamericancentury.org/(Organisation dedicated
to America ruling the entire world!).
– www.narth.com (USA based National Association for
Research and Therapy of Homosexuality).

25. – www.moralityinmedia.org (Right-wing
media watch site).
– http://www.afa.net/(American Family Association).
– http://www.newnation.org/(Racist site, mostly focusing on
immigration).
– www.godhatesfags.com (Reverend Fred Phelps’ site)
– www.wakeupordie.com (Californian Elena
Haskins’ racist website).
– http://www.skrewdriver.net/(Combat 18’s website).
– www.av1611.org/crock.html (Christian site denouncing

26. The future of film and television.
• BBFC’s research has found that audiences are
concerned about violence and drug-taking, rather
than sex.
• Now, more films being passed at ’18’ certificate
featuring explicit sexual scenes.
• Ai No Corrida (Oshima, 1976)
was suddenly passed at ’18’
certificate for video in the
late 90s.

27. • The Pornographer (Bonello, 2001)
was passed at ’18’ certificate, but a
6-second scene of ejaculation was cut.
• Academic and anti-censorship
campaigner, Linda Williams (University
of Southampton) argued that this was
ridiculous.
• A few years later, 9 Songs
(Winterbottom, 2005) was passed at ’18’ uncut for
cinema and video exhibition.

28. • So, what happens online, impacts what other content
providers do – it’s all connected.
– Channel 4 plan to ‘test’ Ofcom’s power by showing the film-
probably on its More4 digital channel.
– This will hugely impact upon television censorship.
– Adult digital channels will probably feel that they can show
more ‘hardcore’ material – only currently available at ‘R18’
certificates from licensed premises.

29. Shortbus.
• In 2007, Shortbus (John
Cameron Mitchell) was
released uncut on DVD in the
UK.
• The film contains some of the most sexually explicit
content ever seen, and was notable for its graphic
depiction of heterosexual and homosexual sex.

30. • So, can the BBFC survive, if content it deems
unacceptable is available online?
• Will Ofcom replace it eventually?
• Or, will regulation shift subtly towards information and
education?

31. Political Impact.
• On the 30th
December 2006, at 6am
in North Baghdad, Saddam Hussein
was hanged.
• Silent images showing the moments leading up to the
execution were released from official sources within
minutes.
• The footage showed a composed Saddam, seemingly
accepting his fate.

32. • However, within hours, footage showing the actual
execution, filmed on a mobile phone, was released
on the internet.
• Also shown on the Middle East news channel Al
Jazeera.
• It was later broadcast (almost) in its entirety on
television news.
• Showed Saddam being taunted.

33. • This caused a problem for the UK government, who
had helped to remove Saddam’s regime, but was
opposed to the death penalty.
• The BBC’s John Simpson called the event no more
than a ‘public execution.’
• In the following days, Deputy PM John Precott and
Chancellor Gordon Brown condemned the execution.
• An embarrassed Prime Minister, Tony Blair, gave a
muted response a few weeks later.

34. • The same debates regarding
censorship have been in circulation
throughout history.
• Successive UK Governments have
attempted to control and regulate
media.

35. • However, it is new forms of interactive media which
will cause concern for the censors of the future.
– In the ‘domestic space’ – like TV/VCR/DVD.
– Popular with children/young people.
– Level of ‘interactivity’ makes these texts potentially more
harmful/influential?
– Voluntary code of classification – at the moment.
– Not subject to the 1984 VRA.
– Videogames have been linked, by right-wing press, to
violence e.g Doom and the Columbine massacre.
– Videogames become more ‘real.’

36. • The current videogame debate is the same as the
‘video nasty’ debate in the 1980s.
• So…
• censorship and regulation will not decline.
• Despite recent changes, the UK is still the most
heavily regulated nation in Europe.

37. • Future content regulation will focus more on
videogames and interactive media.
• Legislation will probably be needed to combat the
increasing fluidity between different – and differently
regulated – media platforms.
richard@cemp.ac.uk.
March 2010.