3. *The living matter is composed of mainly six elements
carbon 50%
hydrogen 10%
oxygen 20%
nitrogen 8.5%
phosphorus 2.5% and
sulfur 0.8%.
These elements together constitute about 90% of the
dry weight of human body.
Several other functionally elements are
Ca 4%, K 1%, Cl 0.4%, Mg 0.1%,
Fe 0.01%, Cu 0.1%, Co 0.3%, Na 0.4%,
I 0.00005%, and Mn 0.001% .
4. Electrolytes are also play important role
K+, Na+, Cl-, Mg,2+ Fe2+, I-.
Biomolecules are
DNA ( Deoxynucleotide)
RNA (Ribonucleotide)
Proteins, (amminoacids),
Polysaccharides (glucose)
and Lipids. (Fatty acids)
Chemical composition for a human body weight is 65kg
the percentage of biomolecules is
protein-17%,
Fat-13.8%,
carbohydrates-1.5%,
water- 61.6% and minerarals-6.1%.
5. CARBOHYDRATES
* Carbohydrates are the widely distributed
compound in plants and animals kingdoms.
* Plants can be build up carbohydrates from carbon
dioxides and water in present of light in the chloroplast
cell by photosynthesis.
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
* Many plants and animals contain large quantities of
carbohydrates as reserve food material
* Simples carbohydrates are also known as sugar or
saccharides and ending names of most sugars is ose.
SUN light
energy
(glucose)
6. General characteristics
• The term carbohydrate is derived from the
french word : hydrate de Carbone, that composed
with C, H, and O
• (CH2O)n when n = 5 then C5H10O5
• not all carbohydrates have this empirical formula:
deoxysugars, aminosugars
• carbohydrates are the most abundant organic
compounds found in nature.
7. Different types of carbohydrates
Mono saccharids (glucose, galactose and fructose)
Oligosaccharids (maltose, lactose and sucrose)
• Polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, inulin, gums)
• Glycoproteins and proteoglycans (hormones, blood
group substances, antibodies)
• Glycolipids (cerebrosides, gangliosides)
• Glycosides
• Mucopolysaccharides (hyaluronic acid)
• Nucleic acids
8. Functions
• sources of energy(dietary source)
• intermediates in the biosynthesis of other basic
biochemical's like (fats and proteins)
• associated with other, such as glycosides, vitamins and
antibiotics)
*form structural tissues in plants and in microorganisms.
. (cellulose, lignin, murein)
• participate in biological transport, cell-cell recognition,
activation of growth factors, modulation of the
immune system
carbohydrates are participate in a wide range of functions
9. Sugars Non Sugars
Sweet in taste Tasteless
Soluble in water Insoluble in water
Crystalline in appearence Amorphous in nature
Example: Glucose, Sucrose Example: Starch
General Classification:
Carbohydrates are 3 types
1.Based on their nature
2.Based on their Reactivity
3.Based on their number
•Based on their nature, carbohydrates are of two types
namely Sugars and Non Sugars
10. Reducing Sugars Reducing Non Sugars
Free Functional Groups Functional groups not free
Can participate in chemical
reactions
Will not participate in
chemical reaction
Eg: Glucose Eg: Sucrose
•Based on their Reactivity:
Carbohydrates are of two types namely
1. Reducing sugars: ( containing free functional group)
2.Non reducing: (no free functional group) carbohydrates.
•
11. Sugars Non Sugars
Monosaccharides Single Sugar Unit
Disaccharides Two Monosaccharide units
Oligosaccharides Three to Six
Monosaccharide units
PolySaccharides More than six
Monosaccharide units
•Based on their Composition or based on their number:
• Number of individual sugar units present, carbohydrates
are of four types namely
12. Classification of carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides (monoses or glycoses)
• Trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses
(glucose, galactose and fructose)
• Oligosaccharides/ Disaccharides
• Di, tri, tetra, penta, up to 9 or 10
• Most important are the disaccharides
(lactose, maltose, sucrose)
• Polysaccharides or glycans
• Homopolysaccharides
• Heteropolysaccharides
• Complex carbohydrates
(starch, glycogen, cellulose)
13. Monosaccharides
• Monosaccharides contain a single polyhydroxy
aldehyde or ketone unit also known as simple
sugars (saccharo is Greek for“sugar”)
(e.g., glucose, galactose and fructose).
• Monosaccharides are classified according to the
number of carbon atoms they contain 1carbon
/2carbon , whether aldose CHO or ketosC=O:
• No. of Class of carbons Monosaccharide
3C triose
4C tetrose
5C pentose
6C hexose
14. • Most of monosaccharoids (99%) are straight
chain compounds
•
Triose : Those with 3 carbon atoms, are called triose
e.g. glyceraldehyde is an aldotriose and dihydroxy
acetone is a kettriose .
•
Significance:
These two sugars are intermediates in Glycolysis pathway
concerned with conversion of glucose to pyruvate
16. Tetroses:
•Those with four are called tetroses such as erythrose
(Aldotetrose) and erythrulose (Ketotetrose)
Biological significant:
This is intermediate in HMP shunt pathway, associated
with Inter conversion of sugars
17. Pentoses
Those with five carbon atoms are called pentose's viz.
Aldopentoses such as xylose and ribose and ketopentoses
such as xylulose and ribulose etc.
•1. Ribose is an essential constituent of RNA and Vitamin riboflavin
•2. Xylose is an essential constituent of Gums and Glycoproteins
•3. Ribulose and Xylulose are intermediate in HMP shunt pathway
18. Hexoses:
Those with six carbon atoms are called hexoses
aldohexoses ketohexose.
*Glucose is the most readily metabolizable sugar present
in the human body. Glucose sugar is called sugar fuel of life.
*Fructose is the sweetest sugar, it’s constituent of honey.
*Mannose is an important constituent of gums and
glycoproteins
Galactose is considered as the backbone of lipids.
19. Properties of monosaccharids
• Differences in structures of sugars are
responsible for variations in properties
• Physical
• Crystalline form; solubility; rotatory power
• Chemical
• Reactions (oxidations, reductions, condensations)
• Physiological
• Nutritive value (human, bacterial); sweetness;
absorption
20. Physical Properties of Monosaccharides:
• Most monosaccharides have a sweet taste (fructose
is sweetest; 73% sweeter than sucrose).
• They are solids at room temperature.
• They are extremely soluble in water:
– Despite their high molecular weights, the
presence of large numbers of OH groups make
the monosaccharides.
– Glucose can dissolve in minute amounts of water
to make a syrup (1 g / 1 ml H2O).
21. D- AND L- Configuration
*Biologically active Sugars are normally belongs to
two series namely D and L Series.
*D sugars are biologically active and L sugars are
biologically inactive.
* Differentiate a D sugar from a L sugar the
penultimate carbon or the last but one carbon
atom is considered.
*In the D sugars OH group is on the penultimate
carbon is on Right
*In the L sugars OH group is on the penultimate
carbon is on left
*All D sugars are obtained from D- Glyceraldehyde
and L sugars are from L-Glyceraldehyde.
23. Organic Compounds Optical activity
Optically
Inactive (Achiral)
Optically
Active (Chiral)
Measurement of Optical
Activity :
Polarimeter
COOH
CH3
OH
H
COOH
COOH
OH
H
OH
H
24. Chiral And without Chiral Compounds
Many molecules are chiral with chiral centers
There are several molecules which are
Achiral with chiral centers
COOH
CH3
OH
H
COOH
COOH
OH
H
OH
H
25. Optical Activity:
Most biologically important molecules are
chiral and hence are optically active.
• A levorotatory (–) substance rotates polarized light
to the left. [E.g., l-glucose; (-)-glucose]
• A dextrorotatory (+) substance rotates polarized
light to the right. [E.g., d-glucose; (+)-glucose]
• Molecules which rotate the plane of of polarized
light are optically active.
•when a compound is a equal mixture like
dextroro and levo, then the final rotation comes to
zero. Such a mixture is called Racemic Mixture.
E.g.; Glucose is dextrorotatory and Fructose is levorotatory.
27. polarimetry
Magnitude of rotation depends upon:
1. the nature of the compound
2. the length of the tube (cell or sample
container) usually expressed in decimeters (dm)
3. the wavelength of the light source employed;
usually either sodium D line at 589.3 nm or
mercury vapor lamp at 546.1 nm
4. temperature of sample
5. concentration of analyte in grams per 100 ml
30. Specific Rotation [α]D
[α] = α / cl
a = observed rotation
c = concentration in g/mL
l = length of tube in dm
Dextro rotation designated as “d” or (+),
clockwise rotation
Laevo rotation designated as “ l ” or (-),
counter anti clockwise rotation
31. Specific Rotations of some
Common Organic Compounds
Compound [a]D No. of Chiral
centres
Penicillin V +233.0 3
Sucrose +66.5 10
Camphor +44.3 2
Cholesterol -31.3 8
Morphine -132.0 5
32. Optical isomerism
• A property exhibited by any compound whose
mirror images are non-superimposable
• Asymmetric compounds rotate plane polarized
light
35. Epimerization:
*The shift of configuration at a specific carbon atom other than
C1, C5 and C6 with respect to Glucose is called Epimerization
and the resulting compounds are called. epimers.
.
In the structure of Glucose,
when there is a shift of
configuration at 2nd carbon
atom Mannose is formed
when there is a shift of
configuration at 3rd carbon
atom Allose is formed
when there is a shift of
configuration at 4th carbon
atom Galactose is formed.
