The document provides an overview of different types of business communication and guidelines for their appropriate use. It discusses emails, memos, letters, reports, phone calls, meetings, and conversations. It also covers topics like active vs passive voice, addresses in text, dates, biased language to avoid, and gender-biased phrases. The document aims to help the reader determine the best communication method for different situations and provide style guidelines.
The document provides guidance on writing formal versus informal letters and language. It discusses differences in formal and informal language including use of contractions, pronouns, prepositions, and vocabulary. Specific tips are provided for writing formally, such as avoiding slang, colloquialisms, contractions, and vague language. The document also includes examples of formal and informal greetings and provides an exercise to identify formal versus informal sentences.
The document provides guidance for analysing text messages by having students identify texting techniques, the purpose of messages, debates around language use, and meaning implied through language. It discusses using thinking squares to explore these elements of text analysis and includes examples of analysing features like informal spelling and capitalization. Students are instructed to write a paragraph exploring social attitudes toward how text messages are affecting language use.
The document discusses the differences between informal and formal email styles. Informal emails to friends and colleagues use casual language like conversations while emails to companies and organizations are more like formal letters. Informal emails may start with just a name or greeting while formal emails use titles and surnames. Informal emails end with casual closings like "talk to you soon" while formal emails end with respectful closings like "sincerely yours".
The document provides guidance on writing business letters for a North American audience. It outlines the typical parts of a business letter, including the sender's address, date, inside address, salutation, body, closing, and enclosures. It emphasizes getting straight to the point, using simple language, employing active and passive voice appropriately, and using nondiscriminatory language.
Lesson 11 Writing Business Letters 1210556377680231 9zheng xinhuan
The document provides guidance on writing business letters for a North American audience. It outlines the typical parts of a business letter, including the sender's address, date, inside address, salutation, body, closing, and enclosures. It emphasizes getting straight to the point, using simple language, employing active and passive voice appropriately, and using nondiscriminatory language.
The ultimate informal letter writing guidemarialuzgobbi
An informal letter is a personal letter written to relatives, friends, or business partners with whom one has a personal relationship. An informal English letter includes an address, date, opening, body, closing, and signature. When writing the body, one should use friendly language and social niceties while adjusting the tone based on the recipient. The opening can be as simple as "Hi [name]" with a comma and should state the reason for writing. Example closing sentences are "I hope to hear from you soon" or "Send my love to...". Signatures for informal letters can be short like "Best wishes" or "Love".
Formal emails use standard English words, complete sentences without contractions or abbreviations, and passive voice. Informal emails use colloquial language, contractions, abbreviations, active voice, emoticons, and informal words like "gonna" instead of formal words like "to request". The document provides examples of formal versus informal language that can be used in emails.
Lachezar Svetozarov Dobrichkov is highly proficient in Bulgarian, English, and German. He has extensive experience using these languages at work as a translator and interpreter, and for study through participating in international scientific conferences and publishing papers in English. He has a C1 proficiency level in all three languages according to the Common European Framework of Reference. For German, he holds a C1 certificate from the Kulturministerkonferenz awarded in 2009.
The document provides guidance on writing formal versus informal letters and language. It discusses differences in formal and informal language including use of contractions, pronouns, prepositions, and vocabulary. Specific tips are provided for writing formally, such as avoiding slang, colloquialisms, contractions, and vague language. The document also includes examples of formal and informal greetings and provides an exercise to identify formal versus informal sentences.
The document provides guidance for analysing text messages by having students identify texting techniques, the purpose of messages, debates around language use, and meaning implied through language. It discusses using thinking squares to explore these elements of text analysis and includes examples of analysing features like informal spelling and capitalization. Students are instructed to write a paragraph exploring social attitudes toward how text messages are affecting language use.
The document discusses the differences between informal and formal email styles. Informal emails to friends and colleagues use casual language like conversations while emails to companies and organizations are more like formal letters. Informal emails may start with just a name or greeting while formal emails use titles and surnames. Informal emails end with casual closings like "talk to you soon" while formal emails end with respectful closings like "sincerely yours".
The document provides guidance on writing business letters for a North American audience. It outlines the typical parts of a business letter, including the sender's address, date, inside address, salutation, body, closing, and enclosures. It emphasizes getting straight to the point, using simple language, employing active and passive voice appropriately, and using nondiscriminatory language.
Lesson 11 Writing Business Letters 1210556377680231 9zheng xinhuan
The document provides guidance on writing business letters for a North American audience. It outlines the typical parts of a business letter, including the sender's address, date, inside address, salutation, body, closing, and enclosures. It emphasizes getting straight to the point, using simple language, employing active and passive voice appropriately, and using nondiscriminatory language.
The ultimate informal letter writing guidemarialuzgobbi
An informal letter is a personal letter written to relatives, friends, or business partners with whom one has a personal relationship. An informal English letter includes an address, date, opening, body, closing, and signature. When writing the body, one should use friendly language and social niceties while adjusting the tone based on the recipient. The opening can be as simple as "Hi [name]" with a comma and should state the reason for writing. Example closing sentences are "I hope to hear from you soon" or "Send my love to...". Signatures for informal letters can be short like "Best wishes" or "Love".
Formal emails use standard English words, complete sentences without contractions or abbreviations, and passive voice. Informal emails use colloquial language, contractions, abbreviations, active voice, emoticons, and informal words like "gonna" instead of formal words like "to request". The document provides examples of formal versus informal language that can be used in emails.
Lachezar Svetozarov Dobrichkov is highly proficient in Bulgarian, English, and German. He has extensive experience using these languages at work as a translator and interpreter, and for study through participating in international scientific conferences and publishing papers in English. He has a C1 proficiency level in all three languages according to the Common European Framework of Reference. For German, he holds a C1 certificate from the Kulturministerkonferenz awarded in 2009.
This document provides guidance on writing letters, emails, and formal correspondence in English. It begins by outlining conventions for informal letters such as starting with "Dear [name]" and ending with "love" or "kind regards." For emails, it recommends including a subject, brief and to-the-point content, and sign-offs like "regards." Formal letters should use "Dear Mr./Mrs./Ms. [surname]" and end with "yours sincerely" or "yours faithfully." The document also gives tips for writing clear, well-structured emails with descriptive subjects and simple language.
Leena Rantanen is a Finnish citizen who is highly proficient in both Finnish and English. She has extensive experience using and improving her English skills through traveling abroad, working in customer service roles, and continuing education over many years. Her self-assessment shows strong skills in understanding, speaking, and writing English at a proficient or independent user level. She aims to work in an international environment where English is the main language.
Material de uso en clase. Referencias bibliográficas de AL SITIO LENGUAS.
MCER- Niveles comunes de referencia: Grilla de autoevaluación
CECR- Niveaux communs de compétences : Grille d’auto-évaluation
CEFR- Common Reference levels : Self-assessment grid
QECR- Níveis comuns de referencia : Grelha para a auto-avaliação
https://www.coe.int/fr/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages/table-2-cefr-3.3-common-reference-levels-self-assessment-grid
La grille d’auto-évaluation illustre les niveaux de compétences décrites dans le Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues (CECR).
Elle propose 34 échelles pour 5 activités : compréhension de l’oral ; compréhension de l’écrit ; prendre part à une conversation ; production orale ; production écrite.
1. The document discusses different types of letters including formal letters, informal letters, and electronic mail (email). Formal letters are for professional communication while informal letters are for personal communication.
2. It describes the typical parts of a letter such as the letterhead, date, inside address, greeting/salutation, body, complimentary close, and signature. It provides examples of how to address the recipient depending on whether their name is known.
3. Samples of different letter styles, formats, and types are presented including friendly letters, cover letters, thank you letters, as well as samples of email. The key differences between hard copy and soft copy letters and between letters and applications are summarized.
Writing formal and informal emails - M. van EijkZadkine
This document provides guidance on writing formal and informal emails. It discusses the different purposes, audiences, and styles of formal versus informal emails. Some key points include:
- Formal emails are for business or important messages, while informal emails are for friends and family. Formal emails require more accurate spelling, punctuation, and grammar.
- The beginning and endings of formal emails should use salutations like "Dear Sir" while informal emails have no set rules. Formal emails also avoid contractions.
- Emails should have an informative subject line, get to the point quickly, and use formatting like bullets for clarity. Personal information or all capital letters should be avoided.
- Both formal and informal emails should use simple grammar
This document provides tips for writing effective emails in English. It recommends keeping emails short and to the point while still including important elements like a clear subject line, greeting, statement of purpose, closing, and contact information. Business emails should appear more formal than casual emails, using proper greetings, thanking the recipient, and including a signature with contact details. Examples are given for both a formal email inquiring about music CD copying services and a more informal email between colleagues.
The document provides an overview of Associated Press (AP) style guidelines for journalism and public relations writing. It discusses the key differences between AP style and academic writing, such as no citations needed and short paragraphs. The document also reviews many AP style rules around capitalization, abbreviations, numbers, word choices and more.
The term formal letter can be used to entail any written letter for a formal purpose, whether that be a recommendation letter, an invitation letter, a complaint letter and so on.
Any communication that is considered to be official enough to be explicitly written or typed in a letter can be called a formal letter.
The document discusses the differences between formal and informal language. Formal language is characterized by complex sentences, impersonality, learned vocabulary, and Latin-derived words. Informal language uses simpler grammar, personal evaluation, and colloquial or slang terms. Examples are given of formal versus informal letters, speech, and common word equivalents. Guidelines are provided for avoiding informal language when writing formally, such as not using contractions, first/second person pronouns, or starting sentences with conjunctions. Common colloquial words and expressions are also identified.
This document discusses the differences between formal and informal English, including idioms, slang, euphemisms, and metaphors. It provides tables that define key terms for each category. Formal English is used for academic writing and speeches, follows standard conventions, and uses precise vocabulary. Informal English is used for everyday conversations, may violate standard rules, and incorporates contractions, slang, and familiar terms. Idioms usually have fixed meanings and cannot be literally translated, while slang terms are non-standard and specific to a group. Euphemisms substitute indirect terms for taboo concepts, and metaphors use figurative language to describe something in terms of something else.
Manar Ahmed Mohamed is an Egyptian national born in 1987. She has over 10 years of experience in office management, public relations, and sales and marketing roles. Her education includes a B.Sc. in Information Systems from Alson Academy in 2008. She is highly committed and a team worker with the ability to learn. She has strong computer skills including Microsoft Office and database programs. She is seeking new career opportunities where she can utilize her organizational skills and experience in planning, computers, and administration.
This document outlines the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) levels for listening, reading, speaking, oral interaction, and writing skills. It provides descriptors of abilities at each of 6 CEFR levels (A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2) for each of the 5 skills. For example, at level B1 for listening, a user can understand the main points of clear standard speech on familiar matters and understand many radio or TV programs on topics of personal interest.
A power point presentation on effective email writing. Email is an essential thing for communication in work-fields so it's important to know how to write an effective email.
This ppt was submitted at Language Laboratory exam in 3rd semester by Ritam Giri, Abhradeep Mondal & Monikanchan Bhuniya.
This document summarizes the key differences between formal and informal letters. Formal letters are used to communicate professionally with people you don't know well, like businesses. They use formal greetings and closings like "Dear [Name]" and "Yours sincerely". Informal letters are for friends and family, with a casual tone and structure that begins with "Dear [Name]" and ends with just the writer's name. Both include an introduction, body, and conclusion but formal letters have a more rigid structure while informal letters have a flexible structure and language.
Check this research on 5 main differences of formal and informal writing. If you need to get more information about it visit this site. http://www.informalessaywriting.com/
Formal, academic, standard and informal english rev june 2020RJWilks
Formal, academic, standard, and informal English have overlapping but distinct meanings. Formal English uses standard phrases commonly found in professional correspondence to establish good relationships, while academic English uses specialized language in particular fields. Standard English uses correct grammar and vocabulary that is easily understood. Informal English is only appropriate with friends and in text messaging. In this course, formal English will refer to language used in professional contexts or for management that establishes good relationships, has no contractions or slang, and is concise and precise.
This document discusses formal and informal language. It provides examples of words labeled as formal, informal, or slang in a dictionary. It then presents sentences using these types of words and asks the reader to identify which is which. Several exercises follow that ask the reader to rewrite sentences in a more neutral tone and choose appropriate words for different situations from a word cloud. In the final part, the reader is asked to provide their own slang words and rewrite sentences using them in a more formal way.
This document provides instructions for writing an email, including the 5 main components: To/From, Subject, Salutation, Body of Message, and Signature. It explains that the To/From should include the email addresses, the Subject should briefly summarize the message, the Salutation can be informal like "Hi" or more formal like "Dear", the Body should clearly convey the main idea in paragraphs, and the Signature should include the author's name. It also provides a sample email to illustrate these components and prompts the reader to write an introductory email to a new friend on a keypal website.
This document discusses choosing the right words when writing and speaking. It covers several topics:
1. The writing process of choosing words, assembling phrases, connecting sentences, and organizing paragraphs.
2. The different types and meanings of words including denotative, connotative, and how the same word can have different meanings depending on context.
3. Using references like dictionaries and thesauruses to help select words and understand meanings.
4. Guidelines for choosing words including using specific words, positive words, and avoiding negative, redundant or complex words. The goal is to communicate clearly and maintain goodwill.
This document provides an overview of business writing principles and best practices. It discusses the key differences between business writing and other types of writing. The document also covers audience analysis, document organization, common writing issues to avoid, and the "7Cs" of effective business communication: courtesy, correctness, completeness, conciseness, concreteness, consideration, and clarity. Business writing should minimize unnecessary details, use clear and simple language, and focus on the needs of the target audience.
This document provides guidance on writing letters, emails, and formal correspondence in English. It begins by outlining conventions for informal letters such as starting with "Dear [name]" and ending with "love" or "kind regards." For emails, it recommends including a subject, brief and to-the-point content, and sign-offs like "regards." Formal letters should use "Dear Mr./Mrs./Ms. [surname]" and end with "yours sincerely" or "yours faithfully." The document also gives tips for writing clear, well-structured emails with descriptive subjects and simple language.
Leena Rantanen is a Finnish citizen who is highly proficient in both Finnish and English. She has extensive experience using and improving her English skills through traveling abroad, working in customer service roles, and continuing education over many years. Her self-assessment shows strong skills in understanding, speaking, and writing English at a proficient or independent user level. She aims to work in an international environment where English is the main language.
Material de uso en clase. Referencias bibliográficas de AL SITIO LENGUAS.
MCER- Niveles comunes de referencia: Grilla de autoevaluación
CECR- Niveaux communs de compétences : Grille d’auto-évaluation
CEFR- Common Reference levels : Self-assessment grid
QECR- Níveis comuns de referencia : Grelha para a auto-avaliação
https://www.coe.int/fr/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages/table-2-cefr-3.3-common-reference-levels-self-assessment-grid
La grille d’auto-évaluation illustre les niveaux de compétences décrites dans le Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues (CECR).
Elle propose 34 échelles pour 5 activités : compréhension de l’oral ; compréhension de l’écrit ; prendre part à une conversation ; production orale ; production écrite.
1. The document discusses different types of letters including formal letters, informal letters, and electronic mail (email). Formal letters are for professional communication while informal letters are for personal communication.
2. It describes the typical parts of a letter such as the letterhead, date, inside address, greeting/salutation, body, complimentary close, and signature. It provides examples of how to address the recipient depending on whether their name is known.
3. Samples of different letter styles, formats, and types are presented including friendly letters, cover letters, thank you letters, as well as samples of email. The key differences between hard copy and soft copy letters and between letters and applications are summarized.
Writing formal and informal emails - M. van EijkZadkine
This document provides guidance on writing formal and informal emails. It discusses the different purposes, audiences, and styles of formal versus informal emails. Some key points include:
- Formal emails are for business or important messages, while informal emails are for friends and family. Formal emails require more accurate spelling, punctuation, and grammar.
- The beginning and endings of formal emails should use salutations like "Dear Sir" while informal emails have no set rules. Formal emails also avoid contractions.
- Emails should have an informative subject line, get to the point quickly, and use formatting like bullets for clarity. Personal information or all capital letters should be avoided.
- Both formal and informal emails should use simple grammar
This document provides tips for writing effective emails in English. It recommends keeping emails short and to the point while still including important elements like a clear subject line, greeting, statement of purpose, closing, and contact information. Business emails should appear more formal than casual emails, using proper greetings, thanking the recipient, and including a signature with contact details. Examples are given for both a formal email inquiring about music CD copying services and a more informal email between colleagues.
The document provides an overview of Associated Press (AP) style guidelines for journalism and public relations writing. It discusses the key differences between AP style and academic writing, such as no citations needed and short paragraphs. The document also reviews many AP style rules around capitalization, abbreviations, numbers, word choices and more.
The term formal letter can be used to entail any written letter for a formal purpose, whether that be a recommendation letter, an invitation letter, a complaint letter and so on.
Any communication that is considered to be official enough to be explicitly written or typed in a letter can be called a formal letter.
The document discusses the differences between formal and informal language. Formal language is characterized by complex sentences, impersonality, learned vocabulary, and Latin-derived words. Informal language uses simpler grammar, personal evaluation, and colloquial or slang terms. Examples are given of formal versus informal letters, speech, and common word equivalents. Guidelines are provided for avoiding informal language when writing formally, such as not using contractions, first/second person pronouns, or starting sentences with conjunctions. Common colloquial words and expressions are also identified.
This document discusses the differences between formal and informal English, including idioms, slang, euphemisms, and metaphors. It provides tables that define key terms for each category. Formal English is used for academic writing and speeches, follows standard conventions, and uses precise vocabulary. Informal English is used for everyday conversations, may violate standard rules, and incorporates contractions, slang, and familiar terms. Idioms usually have fixed meanings and cannot be literally translated, while slang terms are non-standard and specific to a group. Euphemisms substitute indirect terms for taboo concepts, and metaphors use figurative language to describe something in terms of something else.
Manar Ahmed Mohamed is an Egyptian national born in 1987. She has over 10 years of experience in office management, public relations, and sales and marketing roles. Her education includes a B.Sc. in Information Systems from Alson Academy in 2008. She is highly committed and a team worker with the ability to learn. She has strong computer skills including Microsoft Office and database programs. She is seeking new career opportunities where she can utilize her organizational skills and experience in planning, computers, and administration.
This document outlines the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) levels for listening, reading, speaking, oral interaction, and writing skills. It provides descriptors of abilities at each of 6 CEFR levels (A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2) for each of the 5 skills. For example, at level B1 for listening, a user can understand the main points of clear standard speech on familiar matters and understand many radio or TV programs on topics of personal interest.
A power point presentation on effective email writing. Email is an essential thing for communication in work-fields so it's important to know how to write an effective email.
This ppt was submitted at Language Laboratory exam in 3rd semester by Ritam Giri, Abhradeep Mondal & Monikanchan Bhuniya.
This document summarizes the key differences between formal and informal letters. Formal letters are used to communicate professionally with people you don't know well, like businesses. They use formal greetings and closings like "Dear [Name]" and "Yours sincerely". Informal letters are for friends and family, with a casual tone and structure that begins with "Dear [Name]" and ends with just the writer's name. Both include an introduction, body, and conclusion but formal letters have a more rigid structure while informal letters have a flexible structure and language.
Check this research on 5 main differences of formal and informal writing. If you need to get more information about it visit this site. http://www.informalessaywriting.com/
Formal, academic, standard and informal english rev june 2020RJWilks
Formal, academic, standard, and informal English have overlapping but distinct meanings. Formal English uses standard phrases commonly found in professional correspondence to establish good relationships, while academic English uses specialized language in particular fields. Standard English uses correct grammar and vocabulary that is easily understood. Informal English is only appropriate with friends and in text messaging. In this course, formal English will refer to language used in professional contexts or for management that establishes good relationships, has no contractions or slang, and is concise and precise.
This document discusses formal and informal language. It provides examples of words labeled as formal, informal, or slang in a dictionary. It then presents sentences using these types of words and asks the reader to identify which is which. Several exercises follow that ask the reader to rewrite sentences in a more neutral tone and choose appropriate words for different situations from a word cloud. In the final part, the reader is asked to provide their own slang words and rewrite sentences using them in a more formal way.
This document provides instructions for writing an email, including the 5 main components: To/From, Subject, Salutation, Body of Message, and Signature. It explains that the To/From should include the email addresses, the Subject should briefly summarize the message, the Salutation can be informal like "Hi" or more formal like "Dear", the Body should clearly convey the main idea in paragraphs, and the Signature should include the author's name. It also provides a sample email to illustrate these components and prompts the reader to write an introductory email to a new friend on a keypal website.
This document discusses choosing the right words when writing and speaking. It covers several topics:
1. The writing process of choosing words, assembling phrases, connecting sentences, and organizing paragraphs.
2. The different types and meanings of words including denotative, connotative, and how the same word can have different meanings depending on context.
3. Using references like dictionaries and thesauruses to help select words and understand meanings.
4. Guidelines for choosing words including using specific words, positive words, and avoiding negative, redundant or complex words. The goal is to communicate clearly and maintain goodwill.
This document provides an overview of business writing principles and best practices. It discusses the key differences between business writing and other types of writing. The document also covers audience analysis, document organization, common writing issues to avoid, and the "7Cs" of effective business communication: courtesy, correctness, completeness, conciseness, concreteness, consideration, and clarity. Business writing should minimize unnecessary details, use clear and simple language, and focus on the needs of the target audience.
The document provides information on writing business letters, including their purpose and common formats. Business letters are formal written communications between businesses that are usually sent by post or courier. They follow standard formats and include elements like the sender's address, recipient's address, date, salutation, body paragraphs, closing, and signature. The most common format is a block format where all text is left-justified. Business letters are used to request or provide information, thank, remind, apologize, or introduce. Proper planning, writing, proofreading, and formatting are important to ensure an effective business letter.
The document provides information on writing business letters, including their purpose and common formats. Business letters are formal written communications between businesses that are usually sent by post or courier. They follow standard formats and include elements like the sender's address, recipient's address, date, salutation, body paragraphs, closing, and signature. The most common format is a block format where all text is left-justified. Business letters are used to request or provide information, thank, remind, apologize, or introduce. Proper planning, writing, formatting, and proofreading are important to ensure an effective business letter is sent.
The document discusses the basics of communication, including the different forms of communication like reading, writing, speaking, and listening. It also covers concepts like effective communication being a two-way process that requires a sender, receiver, message, and feedback. Barriers to communication are also examined, such as word choice, confusing messages, distractions, and stereotyping. Finally, the document provides tips for good written, oral, and listening skills as well as the importance of active listening.
A letter is said to be informal when it is written in a friendly manner, to someone you are familiar with. Formal letters are written for official or professional communication. On the other hand, informal letters are used for casual or personal communication. There is a manner prescribed for writing formal letters.
Chapter 6 Language & Critical Thinking SoopaWumang
This document discusses how language impacts critical thinking in four key areas:
1) Word choice - the words we use can affect how people react to arguments and allow us to indirectly express feelings.
2) Ambiguity - ambiguous language can cause confusion and lead to overgeneralization or bypassing important details.
3) Definition - clearly defining terms gets people on the same page to avoid confusion. Definitions can be denotative or connotative.
4) Intensity - language with a high intensity level through negative words or abuse can demonstrate poor critical thinking.
The document discusses communication in multicultural settings. It provides tips for both native and non-native English speakers to improve communication. Tips for native English speakers include avoiding confusing questions, slowing speech, and facing those speaking. Tips for non-native speakers include participating in discussions, using dictionaries, and having documents proofread. The document also discusses challenges like differing interpretations of body language and approaches to conflict between cultures.
Word choice is important in writing because it determines whether readers will understand the intended meaning. Using the wrong word can cause sentences to become nonsensical or humorous. Precise word choice is key to clear communication. Writers should avoid wordiness, redundancy, unnecessary repetition, inflated phrases, passive voice, jargon, pretentious language, sexist language, and cliches. Careful attention to denotation, connotation, idioms, and figurative devices also helps ensure meaning is conveyed as intended.
This document provides an overview of business writing principles and formats. It discusses the purpose of business communication to convey information, deliver news, direct, explain or justify, and influence action. It then covers principles of composition including grammar, precise vocabulary, syntax, sentence structure, and paragraph construction. The document also reviews best practices for writing emails, memos, and letters with tips on structure, tone, and content for each format.
This training presentation provides information about writing emails that get results, following email netiquette, and eliminating unnecessary messages.
Effective communication requires clarity, conciseness, and consideration for the recipient through listening skills, choosing an appropriate medium, and employing netiquettes like using a descriptive subject line, proofreading, and including a respectful closing when sending emails. The 7Cs of communication are clarity, conciseness, concreteness, correctness, coherence, completeness, and courtesy. Communication is affected by context, involves a sender-message-receiver process, and relies on feedback.
Day 6--SDP-TPG-Writing Emails Professionally.pptSujatha Singh
This document provides tips for effective business English writing. It discusses the importance of clear, concise, and correct writing. Key tips include using active voice, eliminating unnecessary words, avoiding wasted words and redundancy. Proper punctuation, grammar, and knowledge of the intended audience are also emphasized. Effective business writing focuses on communicating the key points in as straightforward a manner as possible.
This document provides guidance for conversation partners working with ESL students at the Jones Library. It outlines the role of a conversation partner as a guide to help students practice speaking English through informal conversations. Conversation partners meet with students twice a week for 60-90 minutes to discuss topics suggested in the document. The goal is for students to gain confidence speaking English and learn about American culture through an authentic language exchange. The document provides tips for partners such as giving students time to respond, asking questions to encourage speaking practice, and suggesting role plays of common situations to improve communication skills.
This document provides guidelines for maintaining consistent sentence style when writing technical reports. It discusses maintaining subject-verb agreement, consistent verb tense, consistent point of view, and avoiding shifts between these that could introduce ambiguity or confusion for the reader. Specific examples are provided to illustrate violations of these guidelines and how to resolve them to improve clarity. Maintaining a consistent style is important for technical writing to effectively communicate information to the intended audience.
What is an Essay? - How to Write a Good Essay - essayassignmentwriting.comessayassignmentwriting
What is anEssay?
An essay is a formal piece of writing on a particular topic. There are several types of essays, but the requirement of formal tone is mandatory in all essay types.
This document discusses language registers and how they vary based on social context. It defines five registers: frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate. Each register has distinguishing characteristics in terms of formality, participation, syntax, vocabulary and appropriateness for different situations. Moving between registers is common and important for effective communication, but a shift of more than one level may seem inappropriate. Language registers are linked to power dynamics and reflect factors like education, background and authority. Mastering upper registers can provide social and career advantages, as expectations exist for how those in power positions communicate.
NCV 2 Language Hands-On Support Slide Show - Module 1Future Managers
This slide show complements the learner guide NCV 2 Language Hands-On Training by Frieda Wade, published by Future Managers Pty Ltd. For more information visit our website www.futuremanagers.net
Writing Effective Communication, Memos and LettersAngelicaGepes1
The document provides guidance on effective communication through memos, letters, and writing. It discusses the importance of clear communication and outlines several tips for improving writing skills, including knowing your goal, using an appropriate tone, explaining actions clearly, using simple language, being concise, writing in an active voice, and proofreading for grammar. It also defines letters and discusses etiquette and formats for both personal and business letters. The key aspects of a business letter are identified as the heading, inside address, salutation, body, complimentary close, signature, and optional enclosures.
Explore the key differences between silicone sponge rubber and foam rubber in this comprehensive presentation. Learn about their unique properties, manufacturing processes, and applications across various industries. Discover how each material performs in terms of temperature resistance, chemical resistance, and cost-effectiveness. Gain insights from real-world case studies and make informed decisions for your projects.
2. introduction
The primary tools for communicating information in business include e-mail messages, memos,
letters, reports, phone calls, meetings, and conversations. To determine which is the best to use in
a given situation, start by asking yourself the following questions:
How much information do I have to pass along?
How many people will receive the message?
How quickly does it need to reach them?
How much time do the recipients need to respond to it?
How formal should the presentation be?
Is the message confidential?
How are people likely to respond to it?
E-mail Messages
Because of its speed and informality, e-mail is ideal for routine communication between
coworkers. For instance, an e-mail message is usually the best means of announcing a new
policy, introducing a recent hire, informing colleagues of a meeting time, and reminding an
employee of an approaching deadline. E-mail messages are also useful for day-to-day or
extremely timely exchanges with people outside the company. Because of their low cost, they
often are preferred for communicating with overseas contacts.
Memos
Although e-mail messages are now used instead of memos for most intercompany
communication, memos are still suitable for notes sent to people higher in the company
hierarchy, especially in conservative companies.
The memo is also appropriate for lengthy, formal communications to coworkers that may
eventually be circulated to your supervisors or to contacts in other companies.
Letters
The letter is now used primarily for formal correspondence with clients, customers, and others
outside the company, particularly people you have not met.
Imagine, for instance, that you need to ask for advice or information from someone you do not
know personally. The person will likely give a letter more attention than an e-mail message
because a letter conveys an added element of formality and courtesy.
Reports
A complex document of more than ten pages, especially one that will be shown to outside
contacts, is best presented as a report. A routine report can be easily produced using a word
3. processor and a laser printer. Important reports for potential clients, stockholders, or others you
might want to impress usually should be professionally designed and printed, often in full color
on heavy or glossy paper.
Phone Calls, Conversations, and Meetings
The main advantage of a phone conversation is that it allows both parties to respond to each
other immediately. If you and a coworker have several questions for each other, asking them in a
single phone call is usually less time-consuming than exchanging a long series of e-mail
messages. Personal matters or topics that might elicit a highly emotional response are best
discussed in person. As common sense will tell you, sending an e-mail or memo reading “You’re
fired!” is not the most delicate or responsible way of dealing with a difficult situation.
Face-to-face meetings are usually the safest way of communicating confidential information.
Meetings are also useful when a quick group decision is needed on a particular problem or issue.
Important side benefits of meetings are that they allow employees in different departments or
divisions to become acquainted and can often foster a sense of shared mission among coworkers.
Active vs. Passive Voice
A verb in the active voice emphasizes the person or thing that performs the action the verb
describes.
Bobby threw a ball.
Jane called Loraine on the phone.
A verb in the passive voice emphasizes the person or thing that receives the action.
A ball was thrown by Bobby
Loraine was called on the phone by Jane.
When to Use the Active Voice
When to Use the Active Voice Generally the active voice will produce a more concise and more
powerful sentence than the passive. An active construction immediately identifies the sentence’s
subject so readers can quickly understand and visualize who is doing what.
Because of its clarity, the active voice is almost always the best choice in documents that are
intended primarily to communicate information, such as business letters and memos.
When to Use the Passive Voice
When to Use the Passive Voice Using the passive voice is not always a mistake, however.
Inserting an occasional passive sentence into a document lends some variety to your sentence
construction. A passive construction is also frequently used when the subject of a sentence is
obvious or unimportant. In this sentence, the subject is unstated. A reader, though, would have
no problem assuming that the police arrested George and discovered his fingerprints. In this
sentence, the receiver of the action (George) is more significant than the actor (the police), so a
passive construction places emphasis on the proper person.
4. If the role of the officers was of crucial importance, the sentence would be more forceful if stated
in the active voice.
Addresses in Text
When a street address appears in text, spell out all words even if their abbreviated forms are
familiar.
Incorrect: 315 N. Buckingham St.
Correct: 315 North Buckingham Street
Exceptions to this rule are the words northwest, northeast, southwest, and southeast. When they
follow a street name, use the two-letter abbreviations for these directions (NW, NE, SW, SE).
Note that both letters should be set as capitals without punctuation or spaces between them. A
comma should be added after the abbreviation when a city or town name follows.
Matthew lives at 430 South Nathan Road NW, Springfield.
Express numbers in addresses as numerals, except for a numbered street preceded by a street
number.
42nd Street
But: 9112 Forty-Second Street
Set e-mail addresses in all lowercase letters. If embedded in text, they may be italicized to make
them easier for the reader to see them as a single unit. In all other contexts, however, they should
be set in roman type.
Dates
In text express the day and year of a date in numerals. Spell out and capitalize the name of the
month.
Incorrect: He was born on 12/8/60.
Correct: He was born on December 8, 1960.
Or: He was born on 8 December 1960.
Day-Month-Year vs. Month-Day-Year
The elements of a date are ordered in one of two sequences: day-month-year or month-day-year.
Day-month-year dates have no internal punctuation. Month-day-year dates include a comma
before and after the year. (If the date is followed by another punctuation mark, however, omit the
comma after the year.)
Month and Year Only
In a date consisting of only a month and year, do not insert a comma before or after the year.
5. Month and Day Only
In a date consisting of only a month and day, express the day as a cardinal number (e.g., 2, 17,
28) even though it is read as an ordinal (e.g., 2nd, 17th, 28th).
Day Only
If the day stands alone, it may be expressed as an ordinal numeral or spelled out in words.
Ethnically and Racially BiasedWords and Phrases
Words used to describe people of an ethnic or a racial group should be chosen carefully. A
sensitive approach involves more than just eliminating obvious slurs, which are, of course,
inappropriate in all spoken or written English. It also requires that you consider the perspective
of the group described and try as much as possible to represent its members as they want to be
represented. The following guidelines are tools to help you avoid inadvertently using terms or
labels for ethnic and racial groups that could be considered offensive.
Do not mention a person’s ethnicity or race unless it is relevant.
Before citing a person’s race or ethnicity, ask yourself if there is a reason that your readers need
to know this information. If there is not, omit the reference.
Be as specific as possible.
Avoid using a term that includes a broad range of peoples if you are talking only about a specific
group. For instance, do not label a group as Asian if it includes only Laotians or as Hispanic
Americans if it is made up entirely of Mexican Americans. Use the more specific name instead.
Use the name the group itself uses.
It is always preferable to describe an ethnic or a racial group by the term its members use. If the
term is widely unfamiliar and your document is for a large audience, you may choose to note in
parentheses the name by which the group is more generally known.
Do not use dated terms.
Some terms that were commonly used in the past to refer to American racial or ethnic groups are
now considered at best old-fashioned and at worst offensive. The list below notes the terms that
are now most widely accepted as well as ones that should no longer be used.
People of African ancestry: African Americans and blacks (with a lowercased b) are generally
acceptable, although each has its critics. Afro-Americans is not likely to offend, but it has so
fallen out of use that it is inappropriate in most contexts. Negro and colored should be avoided.
Native peoples of North America: Native Americans and American Indians are both considered
acceptable terms and may be used interchangeably. (Keep in mind, though, that some people are
6. uncomfortable with both of these phrases.) Wherever possible, use the names of specific tribes or
groups in place of these general terms. In Canada, the terms natives, Natives, and native peoples
are common, but these are too unfamiliar in the United States for use in documents intended for
an exclusively American audience
.
People of Asian ancestry: Asian Americans, although not offensive, is often criticized for being
too general. Wherever possible, use instead a more specific term such as Japanese Americans or
Vietnamese Americans. Do not use Oriental or Asiatic, both of which are now considered
derogatory; use Asian instead.
Spanish-speaking peoples of Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central and South America: Hispanic
Americans is usually acceptable, but use a more specific term (e.g., Haitian Americans) if
appropriate. Some groups prefer the term Latino to Hispanic in referring to people of Latin
American ancestry. Chicano is sometimes used as a synonym for Mexican American, but you
should use the term only with extreme caution. It is considered an ethnic slur by many people.
Re-examine accepted expressions.
Stereotypes lurk in some common and seemingly harmless phrases that refer to specific ethnic
and racial groups. For instance, Indian giver, Dutch courage, and welsher are still used without
thought to the negative qualities they ascribe to American Indians, the Dutch, and the Welsh. The
stereotypes suggested by these phrases may be largely forgotten (does anyone now consider
Wales to have more than its share of swindlers?); even so, they are still offensive and, therefore,
should not appear in informal or formal writing.
See also Biased Language; Gender-Biased Words and Phrases; Nationalities, Peoples, and Races
Gender-Biased Words and Phrases
In the past decade, English word usage has changed dramatically in the area of gender-biased
language. Readers have become far more sensitive to words and phrases that are biased against
women or reinforce offensive male and female stereotypes. Many writers, particularly those
creating documents used in the workplace, have recognized an obligation to treat both genders
fairly and accurately through the language they use to represent them.
Following the guidelines below can help ensure that your writing is free of overt gender bias. An
even more basic step you can take, however, is to become accustomed to thinking carefully
about your choice of language as your write. Always ask yourself whether the words you use
could be construed as offensive to either gender; if you suspect they could be, take the time to
rethink and rewrite.
Identifying Genders
Before identifying a person’s gender, determine whether it is essential that your readers know
this information. If it is not, leave the identification out.
7. Words and Expressions Including Man
Whenever possible, find substitutes for words and expressions that include the word man but are
applied to people of both genders. Also, use expressions that contain other gender-specific words
with caution.
Nouns with Feminine Endings
Avoid describing a woman with a feminine version of a noun; especially a word formed with one
the following endings:
e: blonde, brunette euse: chanteuse, masseuse ette: suffragette, usherette enne: comedienne,
equestrienne ess: actress, stewardess ix: aviatrix, executrix
Use instead a general term that could be applied to someone of either gender; for instance,
author for authoress or unmarried person for bachelorette.
Demeaning Words
Avoid nouns that promote gender stereotypes or that describe people of either gender in a
demeaning way. Also, seek out alternatives for adjectives that are almost always assigned to only
one gender. For instance, fickle and catty are usually reserved for women, while hen-pecked and
castrated are generally used to describe men.
Woman as an Adjective
If necessary, you can use the word woman as a modifier. The word lady, however, inevitably
sounds condescending when used in this way.
Using Girl and Boy
Use the words girl and boy only to refer to a child. Young woman and young man are appropriate
for a teenager; woman and man, for an adult.
Describing Physical Appearance
Bias often creeps into identifications of people: The physical appearance of a woman is often
described, whereas a man’s is rarely mentioned. Avoid describing how a woman looks unless
there is a compelling reason to do so.
Phrases with a Feminine and a Masculine Noun
Before using a phrase such as men and women or girls and boys, ask whether there is a reason
that the two genders need to be considered separately. If not, use instead a general term that
includes persons of both genders, such as people, human beings, or children.
8. If you do need to list both a feminine and masculine noun, make sure that the terms are
comparable. In such phrases, the masculine noun too often appears before the feminine noun. To
avoid this subtle bias, consider occasionally listing the feminine noun first.
Slang
The word slang is applied to informal words and phrases of the most recent vintage. Like most
innovations, slang expressions are often fresh and exciting—hence the temptation many writers
feel to use them to add energy to their work.
Unfortunately, the strengths of slang terms are directly related to their weaknesses as
communication tools. Because slang is so new, the broader your audience, the more likely your
readers will be unfamiliar with the meaning of a slang expression. If your audience is
multicultural or multigenerational, the probability rises that slang you find provocative will be
little more than gibberish to the people reading your work. Despite its appeal, slang is usually
best left out of written documents, both informal and formal.
The list below includes some commonly heard words and phrases that are widely considered to
be slang:
badmouth bean counter big bucks bigwig bush-league cash cow cheapskate circular file
deadbeat dirty pool ego trip eighty-six fall guy fast buck free lunch gofer golden parachute goof-
off gravy train gung ho headhunter heave-ho high roller hired gun idiot-proof kickback (when
used to mean the return of money paid as part of a secret agreement or coercive sale) knee-jerk
loose cannon low-ball megabucks number cruncher panic button power trip quick fix rainmaker
(when used to mean a person capable of getting things done, particularly in politics or business)
rookie (when used to mean a person who is inexperienced, or new at something) rubber check
schmooze sellout (when used to mean a person who has betrayed another person or a cause for
personal gain) short fuse snow job song and dance (when used to mean a complicated story used
as an excuse or a deception) sound bite spin control stressed-out veep walking papers whistle
blower whole hog windbag (when used to mean a braggart or longwinded person)
Word Choice
When you speak, your expression, a hand gesture, or the inflection of your voice can say nearly
as much as your words. In written documents, however, words alone must convey every nuance
of meaning. Only by selecting your words thoughtfully and purposefully can you be sure that
your readers will truly understand what you intend to say.
The list below offers eight factors worth considering whenever you are trying to choose the right
word for a particular context.
Conciseness
Some writers make the mistake of believing that the more words they use, the more authority
their writing will have. In fact, no readers appreciate having to wade through wordy prose. They
tend to give much more weight to economical writing, in which the presence of every word can
be justified. (See Wordy Phrases for more information.)
9. Connotation
Be alert to not only a word’s denotation (dictionary definition) but also its connotation—the set
of ideas that is associated with it. For instance, psychiatric hospital and madhouse are synonyms,
but the former conjures up an image of an organized institution while the latter suggests a den of
chaos and squalor.
Familiarity
A word may communicate your meaning exactly, but if your readers have never heard it before,
it is obviously not a good choice. Although you cannot know the exact range of your readers’
vocabulary, you can usually make some assumptions about their familiarity with many words. A
common foreign phrase, for instance, will likely be understood by a doctoral candidate but leave
a junior high school student baffled. The same student may have no trouble with a slang
expression that would be meaningless to someone from another country. If you suspect that your
audience could be unfamiliar with a word, use a more universally known synonym instead.
Formality
You would naturally use a different vocabulary in a note to your best friend than in a memo to
your company’s president. The reason has to do with levels of formality. Your friend would
expect you to use informal language and slang. The same words, however, might make the
company president question whether you take your job seriously enough. Determining the proper
level of formality is sometimes difficult. If in doubt, err on the side of formality: Standard words
and proper grammar and punctuation are unlikely to offend any reader. (See Informal Words and
Phrases and Slang for a discussion of when informal language is appropriate.)
Freshness
Your readers’ attention is likely to stray if you litter your work with too many overused words or
phrases. Keep your writing fresh by trying to find new ways of saying things instead of relying
on trite expressions. (See Clichés for examples of phrases to be avoided.)
Precision
Avoid using vague words. Writing, for example, that a lecture was “interesting” is to say little.
Entertaining, informative, or controversial are all better choices because these adjectives provide
more precise information. When choosing between synonyms, think carefully about the small
ways in which their definitions differ, and select the word that most closely fits your meaning.
Simplicity
Almost always, the simplest word or phrase you can use to make a point is the best. Simple
language is likely to be understood by the broadest possible audience. It also has the advantage
of never seeming mannered or pretentious.
10. Sound
Even when reading silently, you are sensitive to the sound of words. You hear in your head the
way combinations of vowels and consonants flow together. A group of short words will make
you read quickly, but you will instinctively slow down when you encounter a series of
multisyllabic ones. Be conscious of the rhythm of your prose: Sometimes it will dictate which
word from a group of synonyms will have the greatest impact in your work.
Wordy Phrases
One of the most prevalent errors in word choice is using a wordy phrase when a single word
would suffice. Too often, insecure writers mistakenly believe that extraneous words give their
writing an air of authority; in fact, readers are far more likely to be annoyed than impressed by
wordiness, particularly in business documents. Note the difference in the readability of the two
sentences below:
At the present time, I am of the opinion that we have the ability to meet our quota in the near
future. [22 words]
I now think we can meet our quota soon. [9 words]
At less than half the length of the first sentence, the second is far easier to read and understand.
The list below includes some of the most commonly used wordy phrases. Whenever possible,
substitute the words in the parentheses for these phrases in your own writing.
after the conclusion of (after) any and all (any) as a result of (because of) as long as (if, since) at
the present time (now) at this time (now) by means of (by) by the name of (named) by the time
(when) come in contact with (meet) draw attention to (show) due to the fact that (because) during
the time that (while) first and foremost (first) for the amount of (for) for the purpose of (to) has
occasion to be (is) has the ability to (can) if and when (if) in a serious manner (seriously) in a
timely fashion (quickly) in advance of (before, in front of) in connection with (with, concerning)
in lieu of (instead of) in order to (to) in receipt of (have) in regard to (about) in spite of the fact
that (although) in the event that (if) in the near future (soon) in the vicinity of (near) in this day
and age (today) insofar as (as) is of the opinion (thinks) large in size (large) large number of
(many) of great importance (important) on account of (because) on the part of (by) one of the
reasons (one reason) prior to the time that (before) provided that (if) put in an appearance
(attend) small in size (small) small number of (few) still and all (still) take action on (act) take
into consideration (consider) the fact that (that) with the exception of (except, except for)
Jargon
Jargon is vocabulary used exclusively by a particular group, such as the members of a profession
or a subculture. Although jargon sometimes communicates new ideas, it also serves to separate
people inside the group from people outside of it. By its very definition, jargon is only
understood by a select few and is therefore usually not the most effective tool available to you
for communicating your ideas.
11. Medicine, law, education, the military, the entertainment world, and most academic disciplines
have their own jargons. The jargons of bureaucracy and business, however, are probably the
most widespread and are thus the jargons many people know best and are most tempted to use.
In many business settings, using jargon is almost required, but you should try to avoid it as much
as possible. While some of your colleagues may see jargon as the badge of true insider, many
others will regard it as pretentious, smug, and evidence of a lazy mind.
The list below includes examples of business jargon that have been resoundingly derided in
recent years:
bottom line: The bottom line is that he should be fired.
use instead: main point or result
communication: You should send a communication to his firm.
use instead: a specific method of communication (e.g., a letter, a telephone call, an e-mail, etc.)
credentialed: The applicant is properly credentialed.
use instead: has (have) credentials
dialogue (as a verb): We need to dialogue about the problem.
use instead: have a discussion
expedite: What can we do to expedite the process?
use instead: speed up or accelerate
facilitate: A manager should facilitate her staff’s efforts.
use instead: help or make easier
feedback: Let me know your feedback.
use instead: response
impact (as a verb): How will this impact our deadline?
use instead: affect or have an effect on
implement: Implement this plan as soon as possible.
use instead: put into action
in the affirmative: The supervisor replied in the affirmative.
use instead: yes
input: I would like to have your input.
use instead: opinion
interface: We need to interface with other departments.
use instead: interact
12. leverage: To get approval on the plan, we need more leverage.
use instead: clout, power, or authority
liaise: You should liaise between the two departments.
use instead: act as a liaison
optimize: What should we do to optimize morale?
use instead: improve
parameters: We need to set precise parameters.
use instead: limits
prioritize: I need to prioritize my goals.
use instead: set priorities (among)
proactive: A proactive approach will allow us to continue to dominate the market.
use instead: a phrase that suggests anticipation of future events (e.g., “anticipating what may
happen in the future” instead of “a proactive approach”)
process: We should all participate in the decision-making process.
use instead: a more direct phrase (e.g., “making the decision” instead of “the decision-making
process”)
same: If you took my stapler, please return same.
use instead: it or that
scenario: If the market shifts, what scenario will follow?
use instead: events or sequence of events
time frame: I will finish the report within an acceptable time frame.
use instead: period of time
utilize: How should we best utilize this information?
use instead: use
viable: Let me know if this plan is viable.
use instead: feasible
13. Paragraphs
A paragraph is a group of sentences that relate to the same main idea. Paragraphs are the building
blocks of all documents. Creating coherent and well-developed paragraphs, therefore, is one of
the most important skills for any writer to learn.
Using a Topic Sentence
Although the main idea of a paragraph may be merely implied, it is more often stated outright in
a topic sentence. In primarily informational documents, such as business letters and memos,
paragraphs usually begin with a topic sentence followed by sentences that explain or support it.
The second most common position for a topic sentence is the end of a paragraph. In this case, the
final sentence draws a conclusion from the details offered by the previous sentences.
Organizing Your Ideas
Wherever you position the topic sentence, you should present the information in a paragraph in a
logical order. Common methods of organizing material within a paragraph include
presenting a sequence of events in chronological order
describing the spatial relationship between items in the same place
moving from specific ideas to a generalization that they suggest
moving from a generalization to specific ideas that support it
The information you want to convey should dictate the way you organize a paragraph. A variety
of organizing techniques can keep the structure of your paragraphs from becoming too stale and
predictable. On the other hand, a series of similar points are often best presented in a parallel
format. Too much variety can at times be more confusing than enlivening, especially in business
documents.
Making Transitions
As important as arranging sentences in the appropriate sequence is establishing thoughtful and
smooth transitions between the sentences. Without adequate transitions, the reader may not be
able to see how the ideas presented in a paragraph relate to one another.
Among the ways to create transitions between sentences are
inserting transitional words and phrases
using repeated phrases and parallel constructions
using the same subject (or words that refer to the same subject)
referring to the topic discussed at the end of one sentence at the beginning of the next
14. Length of Paragraphs
To lend variety to a document, use paragraphs of several different lengths. In most cases, your
paragraphs will naturally range from three to eight sentences long. If you are discussing a
complicated point, you may be tempted to keep all related points in the same paragraph.
Remember, though, that a reader’s attention is likely to wander without the relief of an
occasional paragraph break. A very short paragraph of one or two sentences can jar the reader
and therefore is a good device for emphasizing a point or signaling an abrupt change of thought.
In a printed document, too many short paragraphs can make your prose seem choppy and your
argument hard to follow. If a document will be read on a computer, however, using many short
paragraphs is usually preferable because they are much easier to read on-screen.
Formatting Paragraphs
Mark the beginning of each new paragraph by indenting its first word slightly from the left
margin or inserting an extra line space between it and the previous paragraph. Either of these
methods is acceptable for most documents, but do not use both in one document.
Planning a Document
Before you put pencil to paper or fingers to keyboard, always take some time to plan what you
want to say, how you want to present it, and whom you want to reach. In many cases, only a few
minutes of thought will be enough to clarify your goals in writing a document.
To make sure you have a solid plan, ask yourself the following questions:
What is the purpose of the document?
A document may be used for many purposes—for instance, to inform, persuade, entertain, or all
of these at once. Think about why you are writing your document and what impact you want it to
have.
Who is my audience?
Being able to identify your readership is the first step to serving them well. Consider, for
instance, the background of your readers. How well do they know the material you are writing
about? If they are familiar with it, they will be bored and annoyed by lengthy background
information; if they are not, they will be lost without it. Think, too, about your relationship to
your readers. A letter to a board of directors should obviously have a different tone and different
content than one to your best friend.
What format should I use?
Be sure to choose the format that is most appropriate for your message. You may be accustomed
15. to sending memos, but perhaps what you want to say is better suited to the informality and short
length of an e-mail message. Also think about how the document will be read. If it will be
reviewed on-screen, for instance, using short paragraphs and a large font size will make it easier
to read.
How long should the document be?
If you have been asked to write the document by an employer or instructor, you may have little
choice in the matter. If the length is up to you, though, make a careful evaluation of how much
space you need before starting to write. Also consider your readers. Do they really want to read a
20-page report, or would they rather you condense your most important points into a 2-page
memo.
Do I have all of the necessary information?
If you are writing on a tight schedule, you may feel compelled to start writing before you have
all the facts you need. Instead of producing a document full of gaps and unanswered questions,
ask yourself honestly if you have done enough research. If not, consult other sources before
proceeding any further.
How much time do I have?
If you have a formal deadline, assign a chunk of the time available to each stage of the writing
process: outlining, writing a first draft, writing a revision, editing, and proofreading. Unless you
have a schedule, you may be tempted to skimp on one or more steps, and your document will
likely suffer. If you have not been given a deadline, make your own, and vow to stick to it.
Researching a Document
In the broadest sense, researching means collecting all of the information you need to write a
document. Many documents—such as routine business memos and correspondence—require
little research. For instance, you may need only to refer to an old file for the date of a meeting or
ask coworkers a few questions dealing with their specific areas of expertise.
Although research is a relatively minor matter in writing these types of documents, you should
not ignore it completely. Even if most of the content of the document will be drawn from your
own ideas and experience, be sure to ask yourself whether consulting other sources would help
you bolster your argument or form a more accurate conclusion. If it might, do more research
before you start to write.
16. Defining Your Subject
Research will require much more time and attention if you are writing a lengthy document, such
as a business or school report. Before plunging into researching your topic, first make sure that
you have a clear idea of what it is. If your subject is too vaguely defined, in the end your
document is bound to reflect your confusion and uncertainty.
Also beware of choosing a subject too all-encompassing for the length of your document and the
period of time you have to write it. If, taking these factors into consideration, the scope of your
document seems too broad, try to narrow it by consulting a few general sources to get a better
sense of the subtopics within the subject. If you still have trouble making your subject specific
enough, ask your employer, your instructor, or someone else knowledgeable on the subject for
help.
Planning Your Research
Just as important as narrowing the scope of your subject is narrowing the scope of your research.
Research into nearly any topic could continue indefinitely, but most likely you do not have an
endless amount of time to devote to it. Before beginning, determine how long you can afford to
spend researching. Keep in mind that some forms of research can take far longer than others. If
your research requires only a quick trip to a local library, you can safely put aside as little as a
few hours for researching. However, if you must conduct a series of interviews with a number of
people, you may need several weeks or even several months just to accommodate your subjects’
schedules. Your familiarity with your subject will also affect your research time. If you do not
know your subject well, schedule as much extra time as you can. In researching, you will very
likely unearth new information that may require you to stop and rethink your subject and your
approach to it.
Writing a First Draft
Some writers feel most comfortable writing relatively finished initial drafts. Others prefer to
write freely on their first effort, writing as quickly as possible without worrying about how rough
their prose is. Whatever your preference, keep in mind that at the draft stage time spent making
every sentence flawless can be wasted time. When you revise your draft, you will often need to
reorder sentences or cut entire paragraphs or even larger sections that break the flow of your
argument. You are likely to regret an hour spent making one paragraph perfect if later you
realize it does not belong in the finished document at all.
Of course, you should not ignore proper spelling, punctuation, and word choice completely as
you write an initial draft. Getting these right from the start will ultimately save you time and
energy. Keep in mind, though, that the most important goal of a first draft is to sketch out a
structure in which your ideas are presented in a logical sequence. Topics should flow from one to
another easily, with smooth transitions between them.
17. Starting to Write
For most people, beginning a first draft is the most difficult step in writing a document. Even
experienced writers find themselves frozen when they first confront an empty screen or a blank
sheet of paper.
If you have trouble beginning to write, try free associating—typing out anything about your topic
that comes to your mind. Writing even a few random phrases or sentences can help you relax and
provide assurance that you do in fact have something of worth to say about your subject.
Another way to start writing is to begin with the material you know best, even if it belongs in the
middle of the document. Once you feel surer of yourself, you can go back and draft the
beginning.
If neither of these techniques works, try talking to someone else or even to yourself about what
you want to say in your document. Hearing your own words out loud can focus your thinking
and help you develop the right tone for your work.
Working with an Outline
In the frenzy of composing a first draft, you may accidentally veer off into tangents and asides.
To keep yourself on track, refer to your original outline from time to time. If you find that what
you are writing is far afield from the outline’s content or structure, stop for a moment and ask
yourself whether it is your draft or your outline that is off-course.
If your draft seems right, rethink and revise your outline based on your new ideas before you
begin to write again. If your outline still makes sense, discard the parts of the draft that do not
follow it, and force yourself to stick to the outline more closely as you continue writing.
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18. Public Opinion
INTRODUCTION
Public Opinion, attitudes, perspectives, and preferences of a population toward events, circumstances,
and issues of mutual interest. It is characteristically measured by the sample survey or public opinion
poll.
OPINION FORMATION
Public opinion is shaped both by relatively permanent circumstances and by temporary influences.
Among the former are the ideas that characterize the popular culture of a given place at a given time.
In the U.S., for example, the youth-oriented culture of the late 20th century affects the attitudes of
many people toward aging and the elderly. Other fairly permanent circumstances such as race,
religion, geographical location, economic status, and educational level can strongly influence the
opinions of an individual or a particular group about many subjects. Certain temporary factors also
affect the public's attitudes. Among these are the impact of current events; the opinions of influential
or authoritative persons; the effect of the mass communications media; and the concerted campaigns
of public relations professionals (see Public Relations).
HISTORY
The systematic measurement of public attitudes is a 20th-century development. Although occasionally
opinion polls were conducted before the 1930s, they were generally neither systematic nor scientific.
They dealt with unrepresentative samples or used methods that made certain people far more likely to
be included in the poll than others. For example, in “straw polls” the only people counted were those
who volunteered to take part.
Public opinion polling improved vastly in the 1930s when business and educational organizations
began to develop methods that allowed the relatively unbiased selection of respondents and the
systematic gathering of data from a wide cross section of the public. By present-day standards these
polls were crude, but their results were in some ways useful. Among the pioneers were George H.
Gallup, Elmo Roper, and Archibald M. Crossley.
Two events encouraged polling agencies to further refine their methods. In 1936 a poll conducted by
the Literary Digest incorrectly determined that the Republican candidate, Alf Landon, w ould win the
U.S. presidential election. The error arose largely because of biases that caused wealthy people to be
overrepresented in the poll. In the 1948 election, most polls mistakenly predicted a victory for the
Republican candidate, Thomas E. Dewey, over President Harry S. Truman, again because poor people
were underrepresented and also because the polling agencies missed last-minute changes of attitude
19. among the voting public. Since 1948 techniques of public opinion research and polling have improved
considerably. Efforts are now made to select respondents without bias, to improve the quality of
questionnaires, and to train able and reliable interviewers.
USES
Opinion polls are generally accepted as useful tools by business, political organizations, the mass
media, and government as well as in academic research. Hundreds of public opinion polling firms
operate around the world. Best known in the U.S. are the organizations, such as the Gallup Poll and
Harris Poll, the findings of which regularly appear in major newspapers.
In business, polls are used to test consumers' preferences and to discover what it is about a product
that gives it appeal. Response to commercial polls aid in planning marketing and advertising strategies
and in making changes in a product to increase its sales (see Marketing).
In politics, polls are used to obtain information about voters' attitudes toward issues and candidates,
to put forward candidates with winning potential, and to plan campaigns. Polling organizations have
also been successful in predicting the outcome of elections. In addition, by polling voters on election
day, it is often possible to determine the probable winner even before the voting booths close.
Newspapers, magazines, radio, and television are heavy users of public opinion polling information,
especially political information that helps to predict elections or gauge the popularity of government
officials and candidates. The public's attitude toward various social, economic, and international issues
is also considered newsworthy.
Governments use opinion polls to tap public sentiment about issues of interest. In addition,
government agencies use polling methodology to determine unemployment rates, crime rates, and
other social and economic indicators.
Polls have been employed extensively in academic research, particularly in the social sciences, where
they have proven valuable in studying delinquency, socialization, political attitudes, and economic
behavior. Among the prominent organizations that primarily serve academic research purposes are the
Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan and the National Opinion Research Center at the
University of Chicago.
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Public opinion polling involves procedures to draw a representative sample of the population under
study. If, for example, one is studying the attitudes of all adults in the U.S., the survey organization
would seek to draw up a list of the entire adult population of the country and then select at random a
sample to be surveyed. When proper techniques are used and the sample is large enough—1000 to
1500 people—the results obtained are likely to be very close to the results one would get if the entire
population were surveyed. Thus, if 60 percent of the sample says it approves of the president's
20. policies, statistical theory shows that if the entire population were surveyed, the probability is 95
percent that between 58 to 62 percent of the people would express the same approval as the sample.
The criterion of excellence in a sample is representativeness, not size.
Sampling is vital to the validity of an opinion poll. In practice, however, sampling can be a complicated
procedure involving a great deal of estimation and guesswork. The population to be surveyed usually
cannot be precisely enumerated. Efforts must be made to break down the population into sampling
units of approximately equal size. A certain amount of interviewer discretion is necessary, and
complications arise when a proposed respondent is not at home, has moved, or is unwilling to be
interviewed. Often only about two-thirds of the intended respondents are actually interviewed and
give valid responses. When mail questionnaires are used, problems of nonresponse are higher.
Great care must be used when fashioning the questionnaire or interview schedule, and testing the
questions before using them in the field is always advisable. Ideally, questions should be short, clear,
direct, and easily comprehended. Apart from such an obvious necessity as trying to avoid bias, many
subtle problems arise in framing a question. A word or phrase, for example, may mean different
things to different people. In making a question simple enough to be understood by everyone , the
issue may be so oversimplified that it has no meaning to the more sophisticated respondent.
Sometimes the order in which questions are asked can affect the response. In addition, the tone or
wording of the question may alter the measured response: A study once found that the percentage of
the public in favor of “forbidding” speeches against democracy was 16 points lower than the
percentage in favor of “not allowing” such speeches.
Other problems can be traced to interviewer effects. Age, sex, class, or racial differences between the
respondent and the interviewer can sometimes affect the respondent's answer.
Once the opinion data have been gathered, the analyst must seek to find meaning in the results,
keeping in mind the problems of sampling variability, question-wording biases, and interviewer
effects. The results are tabulated and analyzed using various statistical techniques to determine
patterns. Much successful analysis involves comparison: comparing subgroups of the population as
they react to the same question; comparing the results of surveys conducted at different times to
discover opinion trends; and comparing the responses to different questions. Because of comparison-
based analysis, the survey often is divided into small subgroups for comparison—for instance,
educated, politically active women with educated, politically active men.
CRITICISMS OF THE RESEARCH
Criticisms of public opinion research come from a variety of sources. Many people simply are not
convinced that the opinions of a small sample of the population are a viable representation of the
opinions of the whole. On this matter, however, the polling agencies can point to the science of
statistics and also to decades of experience from which it can be shown, for example, that the same
question asked on two different sample surveys at the same time will almost always generate similar
21. results. Other criticisms deal with sample procedures that, for reasons of economy or expediency,
sometimes use outdated population data or make compromises with rigorous statistical requirements.
Even assuming that the basic poll data are valid, analyses of the data may be casual and superficial.
In some cases, the raw data are simply presented as the public's “opinion” on an issue without deep
and careful analysis to probe nuance and possible bias. The subtle influence of variations in question
wording on the measured response is often ignored.
In the political area, criticism sometimes focuses on the appropriateness of opinion polling, rather than
on its validity. It is argued that elected officials may be too willing to act on what a poll says their
constituents think rather than deciding the issues on their merits. Some experts believe that polls may
influence voters to favor certain political candidates who seem to be enjoying a notable popularity at
the moment. The information that a certain candidate is far ahead in the polls may discourage people
from voting at all or encourage them to vote for that candidate and thus may affect the results of the
election.