Borobodur book

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Celestial Mysteries of the
Borobodur Temple
Dr. Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN
CONSULTANT Human Resource and Administration, FDCM ESSELWORLD GOREWADA ZOO Pvt.
Ltd
Indo Swedish Author’s Collective, Stockholm SWEDEN and Nagpur INDIA

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Iti’pi so bhagava araham, sammā sambuddho, vijjā caranasampanno, sugato,
lokavidhūanuttaro
puri sadammasā rathi satthā deva-manussānam, buddho, bhagavā’ti.
Dhammādāsa
‘What, O Ānanda, is the Mirror of the Dhamma?
Here a noble disciple asks the Buddha.Buddha reflecting on His virtues says:
“Thus, indeed, is the Exalted One, a Worthy One, a fully Enlightened One,
Endowed with wisdom and conduct, an Accomplished One, Knower of the
worlds, an Incomparable Charioteer for the training of individuals, the Teacher
of gods and men, Omniscient, and Holy.”

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Celestial Mysteries
of the Bodobodur Temple
DrUday Dokras

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Borobodur Temple
Dr. Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN
CONSULTANT Human Resource and Administration, FDCM ESSELWORLD GOREWADA ZOO Pvt. Ltd..
Indo Swedish Author’s Collective, Stockholm SWEDEN and Nagpur INDIA

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Borobodur Temple
Indo Swedish Author’s Collective. STOCKHOLM.SWEDEN

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Gautama Buddha-Hindu version
rst Edition 2020
Copyright 2020 Uday Dokras. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by means of electronic, mechanical, photocopy, micro-film,
recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the copyright holder.
ISBN No. applied for. Cost US $150. I N R 1500/- Euro 120

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C O N T E N T S
 Contents page 9
 Acknowledgment & Introduction page 10
 Forward P. 41
Part I Architectural Design Concepts of the Borodudur pp 40
 CHAPTER 1 Foreword 41
 C H A P T E R 2 The Temple as a Mandala- p 60
 C H A P T E R 3. Reliefs in the Borobudun Templed pages 79
 CH A P T E R 4- Stupa Design Elements p 119
 C H A P T E R 5. Indian Design Influences on Borobudur pages 127
 PART II Mysteries Solved page 153
 C H A P T E R 6. Temple Triad p 155
 C H A P T E R 7. Archeoastronomy p 180
 C H A P T E R 8 Mathematics and Numerology 192
 CHAPTER 9 Fractals & Lotus-Design Elements of Borobodur page 201
 CHAPTER 10 The Temple as a Mandala page 222
 About the Author page 243
 Pre-publication Reviews Page 448-452

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Acknowledgement and Introduction
The Buddha’s Daily Routine
“The Lord is awakened. He teaches the Dhamma for awakening.”
– Majjhima Nikāya
What now is Birth? The birth of beings belonging to this or that order of beings, their being born, their
conception and springing into existence, the manipulation of the aggregates of existence, the arising
of sense activity:-this is called birth.
And what is Decay? The decay of beings belonging to this or that order of beings; the getting aged,
and frail, grey and wrinkled; the failing of their vital force, the wearing out of the senses:-this is called
decay.
And what is Death? The parting and vanishing of beings out of this or that order of beings, their
destruction, disappearance, death, the completion of their life-period, dissolution of the aggregates of
existence the discarding of the body:-this is called death.
-Gautama Buddha
One April day, on a morning just like every other morning, I had a sudden realization: I was in danger
of wasting my life. As I stared out the rain-spattered window of a city bus, I saw that the years were
slipping by. ‘What do I want from life, anyway?’ I asked myself. ‘Well … I want to be happy.’ But I
had never thought about what made me happy or how I might be happier.” That was when I first
became interested in developing my interests- in story telling. I have written 9 books and more than
60 papers. Each book is a collection of my papers forming 1 chapter for each.This is one of those
stories. Here I solve the mysteries of the greatest and biggest Buddhist temple in the world.This book
is a consolidation of several papers examining the mysteries of the Java temple.A reference to the
literature in Indonesia or meeting knowledgable people there would have made for a better book. Be
ai it may, the advantage of this book is a consolidation of all Borobodur material on the web and

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classification of it in a systematic manner to explain some of the phenomenon associated with the
temple and its origin,design,construction and “histology”.
For more than 1500 years, from the Indian subcontinent to the islands of the Indonesian archipelago
and Indonesiathe Hindu Mandir hereinafter known as temple to facilitate recognition of a common
denominator has embodied and symbolized the Hindu worldview at its deepest level and inspired the
greatest architectural and artistic achievements in Hindu Asia. Dr Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan-former
President of India and a renowned Sanskrit scholar once said that,"Buddhism, in its origin at least, is
an offshoot of Hinduism."
Explaination for why Large Stupas or Temple complexes were built.Hinduism has a long history and
continued development over the course of more than 3000 years. The term Hindu originally referred
to those living on the other side of the Indus River, but by the eighteenth century it became
exclusively related to an Indic religion generally.Though Hindus adhere to the principles of the
Vedas, , unlike the Christian or Islamic traditions, they do not adhere to a single text. Hinduism’s
emphasis on the universal spirit, or Brahman, allows for the existence of a pantheon of divinities
while remaining devoted to a particular god.
For Hindu worshipers, the concept of bhakti is important. Bhakti is the devotion, honor and love one
has for god. The physical actions, which one takes to express one’s bhakti can be done in a number of
ways such as through darshan and puja.
Darshan means auspicious sight. By making a pilgrimage to see a god at a temple or shrine, the
practitioner is going there specifically to take darshan or glimpse of the idol lodged in a temple.
Temples marked the transition of Hinduism from the Vedic religion of ritual sacrifices to a religion of
Bhakti or love and devotion to a personal deity. Temple construction and mode of worship is
governed by ancient Sanskrit scriptures called agamas, of which there are several, which deal with
individual deities.
Hindu Kings took god's name as it was auspicious and showed that his status was equal to that of
god's and also through rituals it shows that one god (the king) worships the other god (heavenly god).
Large temples were built by kings and the smaller ones were built by nobles or
subordinate kings.From the 6 th and 7 th Century, the Hindus ,Jains and Buddhists began to use stone

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as building material. Which makes me come back to the question_ Why did Buddhists build temples
like Hindus?
Sometime in 6th or 5th century B.C.E Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama. Prince and his
biography has very much become a part of the foundation of the Buddhist teachings. It is said that he
lived a cloistered life of ease and abundance. At the age of 29 years he came across a sick man, an old
man, a dead man and an ascetic. Siddhartha had never seen these unpleasant aspects of life before,
and was profoundly moved and confused. He could no longer ignore the existence of suffering in the
world and live his life of privilege, knowing that old age and death are our inevitable fate. It was at
this time that he choose to depart from his sheltered life to become an ascetic and find the truth to the
universe.
Fasting Buddha Shakyamuni, 3rd-5th century Kushan period, Pakistan/ancient Gandhara
(Metropolitan Museum of Art)
He removed his jewels and rich robes forever, cut his hair and went into the forest and became an
ascetic where he studied with a variety of sages and yogis, but he was unsatisfied with their teachings.
He also practiced several types of self-mortification—most importantly starvation, because he wanted
to concentrate exclusively on his spiritual advancements. These searches proved fruitless and he
finally came to the realization that the Middle Path (avoiding extremes) was the path towards

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enlightenment. The middle path teaches adherents to avoid extremes. For Siddhartha that meant
neither a life of luxury as a prince nor starving himself.
He traveled to a town in northern India called Bodh Gaya, where he sat under a type of tree called a
bodhi tree and vowed to remain there until he reached enlightenment. After remaining in that spot in
deep meditation for 49 days, he was tested one night by the demon god, Mara (a symbol of
ignorance—he is not evil, just deluded). Mara tried to disrupt Siddhartha’s meditation and sent his
beautiful daughters to tempt him. Siddhartha remained unmoved, kept his meditation and thus passed
this final trial and gained enlightenment. At the moment of his enlightenment, he came to be known as
Buddha, which translates from the Sanskrit as “enlightened one.”
Akhand Bharat: The Indian cultural sphere or Indosphere is an area that is composed of the many
countries and regions in South and Southeast Asia that were historically influenced by Indian culture
and the Sanskrit language. The term Greater India is used to encompass the historical and geographic
extent of all political entities of the Indian subcontinent, and the regions which are culturally linked to
India or received significant Sanskritisation and Indian cultural influence. These countries have been
transformed to varying degrees by the acceptance and induction of cultural and institutional elements
of India. Since around 500 BCE, Asia's expanding land and maritime trade had resulted in prolonged
socio-economic and cultural stimulation and diffusion of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs into the region's
cosmology, in particular in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. In Central Asia, transmission of ideas were
predominantly of a religious nature.
By the early centuries of the common era most of the principalities of Southeast Asia had effectively
absorbed defining aspects of Hindu culture, religion and administration. The notion of divine god-
kingship was introduced by the concept of Harihara, Sanskrit and other Indian epigraphic systems
were declared official, like those of the south Indian Pallava dynasty and Chalukya
dynasty. These Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès in his work Histoire ancienne
des états hindouisés d'Extrême-Orient, were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity
and administrative stability.
To the north, Indian religious ideas were accepted into the cosmology of Himalayan peoples, most
profoundly in Tibet and Bhutan. Buddhist monasticism extended into Afghanistan, Uzbekistan and
other parts of Central Asia, and Buddhist texts and ideas were readily accepted in China and Japan in

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the east. To the west, Indian culture converged with Greater Persia via the Hindukush and the Pamir
Mountains.
The same style of Hindu temple architecture was used in several ancient temples in South East Asia
including Angkor Wat, which was dedicated to Hindu god Vishnu and is shown on the flag of
Cambodia, also Prambanan in Central Java, the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia, is dedicated
to Trimurti — Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma.
Borobudur took shape of a giant stone mandala crowned with stupas and believed to be the
combination of Indian-origin Buddhist ideas with the previous megalithic tradition of
native Austronesian step pyramid. The Austronesian peoples are a large group of various peoples
in Taiwan, Island Southeast Asia, Micronesia, coastal New Guinea, Island Melanesia, Polynesia,
and Madagascar, that speak the Austronesian languages. The nations and territories predominantly
populated by Austronesian-speaking peoples are sometimes known collectively as Austronesia.
Based on the current scientific consensus, they originate from a prehistoric seaborne migration from
Taiwan, at around 3000 to 1500 BCE, known as the Austronesian expansion (although there are
competing hypotheses that place their origins within Island Southeast Asia itself). Austronesians were
the first people to invent maritime sailing technology (most notably catamarans, outrigger
boats, lashed-lug boat building, and the crab claw sail) which enabled their rapid dispersal into the
islands of the Indo-Pacific. They assimilated (or were assimilated by) the earlier Paleolithic Australo-
Melanesian Negrito, Orang Asli, and Papuan populations in the islands at varying levels of admixture.
They reached as far as Rapa Nui, Madagascar, and New Zealand at their furthest extent, possibly also
reaching the Americas. They were the most widespread group of peoples with shared linguistic
ancestry prior to the colonial era.
By the beginning of the first millennium CE, most of the Austronesian inhabitants in Maritime
Southeast Asia began trading with India and China. The adoption of Hindu statecraft model allowed
the creation of Indianized kingdoms such
as Tarumanagara, Champa, Butuan, Langkasuka, Melayu, Srivijaya, Medang Mataram, Majapahit,
and Bali. Between the 5th to 15th century Hinduism and Buddhism were established as the main
religion in the region.

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The most ubiquitous common feature of Austronesian structures is the raised floor. The structures are
raised on piles, usually with the space underneath also utilized for storage or domestic animals. The
raised design had multiple advantages, they mitigate damage during flooding and (in very tall
examples) can act as defensive structures during conflicts. The house posts are also distinctively
capped with larger-diameter discs at the top, to prevent vermin and pests from entering the structures
by climbing them. Austronesian houses and other structures are usually built in wetlands and
alongside bodies of water, but can also be built in the highlands or even directly on shallow water.
If Hindu dynasties began to build magnificent temples in their land, could theose kings who lived in
the Indosphere be far behing? Parallel developments in Temple building followed in both “India” and
Indosphere countries.But how the austere teachings of the Gautama Buddha were quickly forgotten in
a Chase to do better than other Kinds in the temple building sphere points to the giant egoistic
traditions of all kings in the “Greater India- colored ofcourse by what the Architect(meticulously
collected by emissaries sent by the Kings to fetch them) and the gargantum size of the ego of the
rulers.
Hence behold the temples in India- the Angkor Vat in Cambodia or the Borobodur in Indonesia.” I
can do better and Bigger and Grander and Cleaverer than you” The earliest archaeological evidence
for the presence of Buddhist stupas dates to the late 4th century BCE. In India, Sanchi, Sarnath,
Amaravati and Bharhut are among the oldest known stupas.
During Ashoka's reign in the 3rd century B.C.E., the Mahabodhi Temple (the Great Temple of
Enlightenment where Buddha achieved his knowledge of the dharma—the Four Noble Truths)
was built in Bodh Gaya, currently in the Indian state of Bihar in northern India though the Tawang
Monastery, located in Tawang city of Tawang district in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, is the
largest monastery in India and second largest in the world after the Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet.
The label is immaterial. Even the label ‘Buddhism’ which we give to the teachings of the
Buddha is of little importance. The name one gives it is inessential. What is a name? That
which we call rose by any other name would smell as sweet.
(Walpola Rahula, p.5)

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Like any other religious tradition, Buddhism has undergone a number of different transformations that
have led to the emergence of many different Buddhist schools.
1000 armed Buddha from China
How the different Buddhist schools developed over time after the death of the Buddha is a
challenging topic obscured by the lack of sufficient sources but they do point to changes that are
somehow artificial from the viewpoint of the early Buddhist communities. In reality it is a gradual
shift rarely experienced, rarely lived through, by any one person. A series of gradual, almost
imperceptible changes, from the perspective of those who read about many centuries in one glance,

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could be actually a massive change which no monk or lay person ever actually experienced. This
could account for the reason why specific first-hand records on this matter are virtually non-existent.
There were disagreements among the Buddha disciples even during his lifetime. After the Buddha’s
death, tradition says, a disciple named Subhadra rejoiced at the fact that the Buddha’s followers would
now be free to do as they liked. There are also accounts of the first council held soon after the
Buddha’s death, where a group of early Buddhists led by Purana rejected the consensual
understanding of the teachings of the Master and insisted on transmitting the teachings as Purana
himself had heard it. It is quite probable that these accounts are not literally true, but what seems to be
clear is that the element of dissent was present in the Buddhist community from a very early stage.
Centuries after the death of the Buddha, those who followed his teachings had formed settled
communities in different locations. Their growth and geographical dispersion led complexity in their
institutional organizations.Monks expanded and elaborated both doctrine and disciplinary codes,
created new textual genres, developed new forms of disciplines, and eventually divided into a number
of different schools. Geographical separation, language difference, doctrinal disagreements, selective
patronage, the influence of non-Buddhist schools, loyalties to specific teachers, the absence of a
recognized overall authority or unifying organizational structure and specialization by various
monastic groups in different segments of Buddhist scriptures are just some examples of factors that
contributed to sectarian fragmentation.
The term Mahayana is a sanscrit word which literally means “Great Vehicle”. It is an umbrella term
given to a group of Buddhist schools. Its origin can be found probably around 100 BCE in northern
India and Kashmir, and then it spread east into Central Asia, East Asia and some areas of Southeast
Asia. The term Mahayana was originally used by only a small movement (perhaps the least significant
one at that time) in opposition to the formal, scholastic approach to Buddhist practice. Its formative
period is not totally clear and equally unclear is when this Mahayana label was actually used outside
of texts to designate this self-conscious, independent Buddhist movement. It can be said with certainty
that the Buddhist schools embedded in China, Korea, Tibet and Japan belong to the Mahayana
tradition.

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It is challenging for scholars to present a general characterization of Mahayana Buddhism. In part this
is because Mahayana Buddhism is not one thing, but rather, it seems to be a mixture of Buddhist
visions, sometimes overlapping and contradictory. In part, too, scholars no longer accept the
traditional account of Mahayana history. The Mahayana development used to be presented as a
suspiciously simple straightforward chain of events. It was held that the Buddha’s teachings were
originally organized, transmitted and more or less developed into what was referred to as early
Buddhism. This Early Buddhism was referred to as Hinayana, Theravada or simply “monastic
Buddhism”. Around the beginning of the common era, a Mahayana historical account said, this early
form of Buddhism was followed by the Mahayana tradition, which was considered a major break in
the development of Buddhism. This account left the impression that Mahayana replaced the earlier
Buddhist traditions, which is clearly not true. The emergence of the Mahayana was a far more
complex affair than this linear model suggests, and the so-called early Buddhism or Hinayana (which
in strict terms should be referred to as mainstream Buddhism) not only persisted, but also flourished,
long after the beginning of the common era.
The diversity that prevents scholars presenting a general characterization on Mahayana Buddhism as a
whole, is not seen as a scandal by Mahayanists, but rather, as a strength to be proud of. Mahayanists
see this as a sign of adaptation, as a virtue that is unique among religious traditions, which enables the
teachings to be adapted to the needs of the hearers, and thereby, indicating the wisdom and
compassion of the Buddha. Scholars, on the other hand, insist that this looseness and adaptability of
its doctrinal base is a weakness in Buddhism, contributing to its eventual absorption by other
traditions, as happened in India, where Buddhism was eventually absorbed by Hinduism. However,
even the danger of being absorbed does not seem to bother Mahayanists.:
Hinduism is about understanding Brahma, existence, from within the Atman, which roughly means
"self" or "soul," whereas Buddhism is about finding the Anatman — "not soul" or "not self." In
Hinduism, attaining the highest life is a process of removing the bodily distractions from life,
allowing one to eventually understand the Brahma nature within. In Buddhism, one follows a
disciplined life to move through and understand that nothing in oneself is "me," such that one dispels
the very illusion of existence. In so doing, one realizes Nirvana.
In this book we explain the cultural, religious, geographical and architectural significance of the
temple of Borobodur and as the title suggests, demystify the mystique surrounding this monumental

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shrine. The Borobudur Temple Compounds is one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world,
and was built in the 8th and 9th centuries AD during the reign of the Syailendra Dynasty. The
monument is located in the Kedu Valley, in the southern part of Central Java, at the centre of the
island of Java, Indonesia.
The main temple is a stupa built in three tiers around a hill which was a natural centre: a pyramidal
base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular platforms and, at the
top, a monumental stupa. The walls and balustrades are decorated with fine low reliefs, covering a
total surface area of 2,520 m2
. Around the circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing
a statue of the Buddha.
Buddhist Cosmology: The vertical division of Borobudur Temple into base, body, and superstructure
perfectly accords with the conception of the Universe in Buddhist cosmology. It is believed that the
universe is divided into three superimposing spheres, kamadhatu, rupadhatu, and arupadhatu,
representing respectively the sphere of desires where we are bound to our desires, the sphere of
forms where we abandon our desires but are still bound to name and form, and the sphere of
formlessness where there is no longer either name or form. At Borobudur Temple, the kamadhatu is
represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five square terraces, and the arupadhatu by the three
circular platforms as well as the big stupa. The whole structure shows a unique blending of the very
central ideas of ancestor worship, related to the idea of a terraced mountain, combined with the
Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana.
Triad: The Temple should also be seen as an outstanding dynastic monument.The Borobudur Temple
Compounds consists of three monuments: namely the Borobudur Temple and two smaller temples
situatued to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur. The two temples are Mendut Temple, whose
depiction of Buddha is represented by a formidable monolith accompanied by two Bodhisattvas, and
Pawon Temple, a smaller temple whose inner space does not reveal which deity might have been the
object of worship. Those three monuments represent phases in the attainment of Nirvana.

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The temple was used as a Buddhist temple from its construction until sometime between the 10th and
15th centuries when it was abandoned. Since its re-discovery in the 19th century and restoration in the
20th century, it has been brought back into a Buddhist archaeological site.
Criterion (i): Borobudur Temple Compounds with its stepped, unroofed pyramid consisting of ten
superimposing terraces, crowned by a large bell-shaped dome is a harmonious marriage of stupas,
temple and mountain that is a masterpiece of Buddhist architecture and monumental arts.
Criterion (ii): Borobudur Temple Compounds is an outstanding example of Indonesia’s art and
architecture from between the early 8th and late 9th centuries that exerted considerable influence on
an architectural revival between the mid-13th and early 16th centuries.
Criterion (vi): Laid out in the form of a lotus, the sacred flower of Buddha, Borobudur Temple
Compounds is an exceptional reflection of a blending of the very central idea of indigenous ancestor
worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The ten mounting terraces of the entire
structure correspond to the successive stages that the Bodhisattva has to achieve before attaining to
Buddhahood.
Integrity
The boundaries contain the three temples that include the imaginary axis between them. Although the
visual links are no longer open, the dynamic function between the three monuments, Borobudur
Temple, Mendut Temple, and Pawon Temple is maintained.
The main threat to the ensemble is from development that could compromise the extraordinary
relationship between the main monument and its wider setting and could also affect the Outstanding
Universal Value of the property. The approach to the property has to a degree already been
compromised by weak developmental regulations.
Tourism also exerts considerable pressure on the property and its hinterland.
There is a growing rate of deterioration of the building stone, the cause of which needs further
research. There is also a small degree of damage caused by unsupervised visitors.
The eruption of Mount Merapi is also considered as one of the potential threats because of its deposit
acidic ash as happened in 2010.
Authenticity
The original materials were used to reconstruct the temple in two phases in the 20th century: after the
turn of the century and more recently (1973-1983). Mostly original materials were used with some

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additions to consolidate the monument and ensure proper drainage which has not had any significant
adverse impact on the value of the property. Though the present state of Borobudur Temple is the
result of restorations, it retained more than enough original material when re-discovered to make a
reconstruction possible. Nowadays the property could be used as a Buddhist pilgrimage site. Its
overall atmosphere is, however, to a certain degree compromised by the lack of control of commercial
activities and the pressure resulting from the lack of an adequate tourism management strategy.
Protection and management requirements
The protection of the property is performed under Indonesian Law No. 11/2010 concerning Cultural
Heritage and its surrounding cultural landscape. It is executed under a National Strategic Area and the
Spatial Management Plan by the Ministry of Public Works in accordance with the Law concerning
Spatial Management No. 26/2007 and Governmental Regulation No. 26/2008 concerning National
Spatial Planning and will be enforced further by another presidential regulation regarding the
Management for the Borobudur National Strategic Area that is still being drafted by the Ministry of
Public Works.
The legal and institutional framework for the effective management of the property is regulated by a
Presidential Decree Number 1 Year 1992. The established zones within the World Heritage property
are respectively under the responsibility of the Borobudur Heritage Conservation Office under
Ministry of Education and Culture, of state-owned institute PT. Taman Wisata Candi Borobudur
under the Ministry of Enterprises, and of the local governments (Magelang Regency and Central Java
Province). A study on the integrated management of Borobudur Temple Compounds has been
conducted, including attention for the ecosystem, social and cultural aspects, ecotourism, public and
private partnership and organisational feasibility study. This study is the basis of the still to be
developed visitor management approach.
In order to ensure consistency between the 1992 Presidential Decree and the 1972 JICA Master Plan
zone-system indicated in the World Heritage nomination dossier and to strengthen the regulations
regarding development, a New Presidential Regulation is still being formulated by a Coordinating
Board (14 Ministries and local authorities as well as representatives of local communities) and by
formalizing the role of the proposed Management Board into the wider zones. In addition, the

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protection of the property has been ensured by the regular financial contribution by the national
budget.
Monitoring programs has been effectively executed to monitor the growing rate of deterioration of
building stone and also damage by unsupervised visitors. A research is being conducted to determine
the long- term impact of deposit acidic ash of eruption of Mount Merapi to set further protection and
conservation management of the property. Furthermore, a risk preparedness plan will be formulated in
2012.
The Borobudur Heritage Conservation Office has conducted community development programs
targeting especially at the youth to raise their awareness. In improving and empowering local
community as specialist guide for Borobudur Temple Compounds, several training programs have
been conducted. The community development related to economical sector (small enterprises that
produce traditional handicrafts, culinaries, etc) have already being conducted by the municipalities of
Magelang Regency and Central Java Province.
The Borobudur Temple is considered by many to be a wonder of the ancient world. We all probably
have heard raves of its majestic landscapes at the break of dawn, the timeless beauty of its reliefs, or
the “spiritually enlightening” physical challenge of reaching its top.
No written Records: Even though Borobudur is the most important tourist site on Java, there is no
written record of who built it or of its intended purpose. There are no inscriptions or dates on the
monument—which was partially covered by a lava flow when it was rediscovered—and so historians
must guess as to when it was probably built. Since it is a monument built on a grand scale, it would
seem unusual that no ruler or dynasty takes credit for the structure. Borobudur is the world’s largest
Buddhist temple and acknowledged as one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world. Yet, no
one knows who built it.
Three-dimensional diagram of the universe and a visual representation of Buddhist teachings:
This magnificent temple is a three-dimensional diagram of the universe and a visual representation of
Buddhist teachings. From above, the design of Borobudur resembles a mandala (a Hindu pattern used
in meditation), leading to speculation that the complex was built by Indian Buddhists who were
influenced by Hindu beliefs.

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Mandala: Viewed from the ground, the mandala comes together to form a mountain of stone.
Pilgrims today and yesterday would climb Borobudur level by level, drawing closer and closer to
complete infusion by divine wisdom. Essentially, the pilgrim can experience nirvana on earth.
Borobudur has the mound shape of a stupa, the most typical Buddhist structure honouring Buddha. It
is made of square and round terraces, topped by a dome-like structure.
Standing 13 centuries old, the largest Buddhist monument in the world is bound to have mysteries. It
is hard enough to fathom its 100-year construction in the 8th and 9th centuries, and such perfect
structures produced with such simple technology. Nobody knows who ordered the construction of
Borobudur, though tradition credits it to the Syailendra Dynasty, which probably meant two to three
kings including Samaratungga. And apart from the temple’s obvious religious functions, researchers
have long hypothesised surprising alternative functions.
Professor Agus Aris Munandar 1
, a University of Indonesia archaeologist who has been studying
Javanese temples for 30 years, confirms that there are many unsolved mysteries of Borobudur. Some
of them indicate how mindbogglingly intelligent ancient Indonesians were.
“There is so much finesse in Borobudur that early Dutch archeologists refused to believe that
Javanese people made it. It must have been the Indians who came to Java to spread Hinduism and
Buddhism,” said Prof Agus. “But Indian [polymath] Rabindranath Thakur visited Java in the early
20th century and said, “I see India everywhere in Java, but I do not know where,” meaning that as
much as there are strong Indian influences in Javanese temples, they are also very different from
Indian ones.
According to Prof Agus, one of the greatest mysteries of Borobudur is the hidden base, also
known as the Mahakarmavibhanga. Hundreds of beautifully carved relief panels are completely
covered a couple of metres underground, except for a section in the southeast, which the Japanese
detonated in the 1940s out of curiosity. Previously, Dutch archaeologists had unearthed it for research
and re-covered it.
There are two theories for why the Mahakarmavibhanga is buried. “The first theory reckons that when
the construction of Borobudur was completed, the foundation turned out unstable. So to prevent

24
collapse, the builders had to fasten the foundation from all directions,” said Prof Agus, adding that
this is the theory he supports.
The second theory speculates religious reasons. The Mahakarmavibhanga portrays despicable human
acts such as torture, decapitation, robbery, and begging – thus deemed inappropriate for laymen’s
eyes. But violence only makes up a small percentage of these reliefs. Borobudur can be divided into
three levels from the bottom to the top: Kamadhatu (realm of desire-filled common people),
Rupadhatu (life on earth in which the soul has been purged of all desires), and Arupadhatu (the soul’s
departure from the body and uniting with the gods in Nirvana). Which leads to another marvel: the
holy stupas on the Arupadhatu level and the superstition that touching the Buddha through the holes
would make wishes come true. “Buddhist scholars philosophise the shadows of the form. Only
Buddha’s shadows are visible, because Buddha exists in another realm, like a relic housed in a stupa,”
said Prof Agus. “Likewise, nobody sees the sheltered Buddha relics on Borobudur, except its curious
shadows under the sunlight or a full moon.”
Levels of Intimacy: Prof Agus is perhaps best known for researching the proxemics of Borobudur’s
relief panels. In communication science, proxemics is the personal space between individuals, which
indicate the level of intimacy. In Borobudur, proxemics refers to the most comfortable distance and
angles to perceive each panel in its entirety and fully understand their message. The closer the
distance required to achieve this, the higher the spiritual level (i.e. “closer ” to Buddha) of the
audience for whom the panel is intended.“It took us 10 expeditions to fully decode Borobudur,” said
Prof Agus. “Buddhist scriptures happen to refer to the 10 stages of Bodhisattva. I don’t think it’s a
coincidence that Borobudur is designed as such that it would take 10 times to find its ‘path of
Enlightenment.'”
While we’re on proxemics, note that the inter-stupa distances are unequal. However, on a top-view
blueprint of Borobudur, the stupas look orderly positioned. Borobudur is meant to resemble a mandala
– an elaborate meditation circle within a square, with symbols of the gods strategically coordinated to
create harmonious patterns.
This phenomenon has been researched by Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB)’s archaeoastronomy
team. According to ITB astrophysicist Evan Irawan Akbar, the stupas’ unequal spaces were supposed

25
to mark the lengths of a gnomon’s shadows during different times of the year. In other words,
Borobudur was a giant sundial. Except that if this hypothesis were true, the gnomon that casts the
sundial’s shadow is missing, and its dimensions remain unknown.
Prof Agus said that ancient Indian stupas often had chatras (umbrella-like structures) and yasthis
(pillars on which the chatras are erected). A now missing yasthi could have functioned as a gnomon
for this hypothetical Borobudur sundial, he said. In the 19th century, the Dutch set a gnomon on top of
Borobudur, but removed it after being struck by lightning. The locals never liked it anyway, and its
basis on an unproven hypothesis gave the Dutch no strong reason to keep it there.
Astronomical Observatory: Nevertheless, Borobudur may have served as an ancient astronomical
observatory. A 1930s study by Dutch ethnoarchaeologist J.L.A. Brandes found that the 8th century
Javanese mastered astronomy, which dictated agricultural and maritime practices. ITB
archaeoastronomers also found the importance of celestial orientation in the construction of
Borobudur.
Due to the earth’s rotation and the bobbing on its axis, the stars visible from the skies of the North
Pole changes every couple centuries. “When Borobudur was constructed, Polaris was visible from
Java. Gunadharma (the architect traditionally credited for building Borobudur) would ascend on
Mount Menoreh and instruct his builders to align the construction to the ‘true north’ star that shifts
neither east nor west,” said Evan. Nevertheless, today’s north on the magnetic compass would not
match Borobudur’s north back then because it was affected by the earth’s rotation.
Another astronomical curiosity of Borobudur is the ship reliefs on the East. They depict a sailed
double outrigger canoe underneath celestial objects, presumably commemmorating a voyage to
Africa. Back then, ancient Indonesians crossed an unmapped ocean without a compass, depending
solely on the stars for navigation. In 2003-2004, a wooden replica of the Borobudur ship sailed the
Cinnamon Route from Jakarta to Accra (Ghana) to demonstrate the trans-Indian Ocean trading links
ancient Indonesians fostered with ancient Africans. Now housed in the Samudra Raksa Museum in the
north side of the Borobudur Archaeological Park, the ship is a testament of millennia-old Indonesian
maritime and astronomical genius.

26
Lotus: The puzzles of Borobudur are many still. Some are scientifically plausible, such as the
temple’s resemblance to a lotus floating in a now dried ancient lake basin. Others are mythical, such
as the urban legend that Gunadharma slept on Mount Menoreh and became the sleeping giant-
shaped mountain now visible from Borobudur. Scholars don’t have the answers. But perhaps it is
those riddles that keep drawing people back to Borobudur with awe. They’re called mysteries for a
reason.
The Mystery of the Borobudur Temple and the Numbers 1
The temple when observed mathematically there are interesting mystery that leads from number one,
some of the numbers that were in the temple when in total the numbers will always produce the
number one what's the story, before telling a mystery figure one needs to know about the level of
Ranas Buddhist spiritual in Borobudur temple.
Depth of the first is Kamadhatu which says that the world is still controlled by kama or lust. The
lower part is mostly covered by piles of stones were made to strengthen the construction of the temple
the second level is rupadhatu that the world has been able to break free from lust but still tied to
appearance and shape of the area the are four shoulder terraces formed korang kriling that of the walls
were decorated gallery relief floor of the square at 4 corridor that 1,400 images reliefs long-reliefs
whole second half kilometer with 1,212 decorative panels third level is Arupadatu is the highest level
that symbolizes a lack of form perfect in this area of the floor plan is a circle which symbolizes that
the man had been free from all desires of bond forms and shapes but have not reached nirvana.
The first temple of Borobudur has 10 levels if in total the 1 plus 0 result 1 number one more appear in
the area Arupadatu this area is an area 4 topmost level of the temple, on the first level there is one
temple to the second level, there are 16 temples third level there are 24 temples level to 4 there are 32
temples number of temples that are in the area are 73 pieces arupadhatu if in total the 7 and 3 the
result is 10 and if in totalizing again 1 to 0 the result is 1. the figure of one of the last to appear on the
total number of the statue Borobudur temple there are 505 statues there when the numbers in total the
results also number one.

27
Stones: Though built in 750 BC by the royal dynasty which at that time embraced Buddhist religion,
the development was very mysterious because people in the 7th century have not met the calculation
of architecture are high but Borobudur was built calculation sophisticated architecture, up to now
none who can explain how the construction and history of this Borobudur temple. Already many
scientists from all over the world who come but none of them managed to reveal the mystery of the
construction of Borobudur. One of the questions that led researchers curious is from where the large
stones in the temple of Borobudur and the like where arrange them with precision and architecture is
very neat. There are estimates that the rock came from volcanoes but how to bring it out of the
volcano to the location of the temple was given its location on the hill.
Textbook of Buddhism: Some scholars think that this massive monument is a gigantic textbook of
Buddhism to help people to achieve enlightenment. To read this Buddhist textbook in stone requires a
walk of more than two miles. The walls of the galleries are adorned with impressive reliefs illustrating
the life of Buddha Shakyamuni and the principles of his teaching. Representing the existence of the
universe, Borobudur perfectly reflects the Buddhist cosmology, which divides the universe into three
intermingled separate levels. The three levels are Kamadhatu (world of desire), Ruphadatu (world of
forms), and Arupadhatu (world of formlessness).
Teaching Tool: Borobudur monument was an ancient teaching tool and a realization in stone of the
search for wisdom, in the Mahayana Buddhist tradition.
Cosmic Syatem:The terraces symbolise the three levels of the Buddhists’ cosmological system: the
world of desire, the world of form without desire and the world of formlessness. These layers also
depict the three steps of spiritual growth towards salvation. Borobudur at that time, speculated that
Borobudur may have originally been a holy place of pilgrimage for believers of the Mahayana branch
of Buddhism. Monks from the nearby monastery would have led pilgrims along the galleries, using
the carved panels to illustrate the stories of their faith and the way of the Buddha as they circled their
way to the top of the monument.
Lacking further historical information, Raffles was unable to determine the exact date of Borobudur's
construction. But he knew that in the 13th and 14th centuries, Islam had replaced Buddhism as the

28
island's religion, and he thought it unlikely that Borobudur would have been built since then. Also,
ancient records showed that in the 10th century, the region around Borobudur had been mysteriously
deserted, and all construction in central Java had stopped then. From the detailed carvings, Raffles
concluded that Borobudur had been built sometime between the eighth and tenth centuries, during a
period of relative peace in East Asia, after the nomadic and religious invasions had run out of steam.
It was in 1835 that the site was cleared. Some efforts were made to restore and preserve the colossal
monument since then. Unfortunately, in 1896 the Dutch colonial government gave away eight
containers of Borobudur stones, including reliefs, statues, stairs and gates, as presents for the King of
Siam who was visiting Indonesia. A restoration program undertaken between 1973 and 1984 returned
much of the complex to its former glory, and the site has since become a destination of Buddhist
pilgrimage. On January 21, 1985 the temple suffered minor damage due to a bomb attack. In 1991,
Borobudur was listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.
Hidden Base: In 1885 J.W. Ijzerman Chairman, an archaeologists of the Archeological Society in
Yogyakarta discovered a ‘hidden base’ that was located behind the exterior wall of the lowest terrace,
it has been built around the monument with 160 stone reliefs, 157 of which were covered and just 3
visible. In 1890-91, the complete ‘hidden base’ was exposed, photographed and encased again. Why
the reliefs were ever covered up remains a mystery. There are various theories circulating, varying
from structural explanations (the cover plates created a stronger base for the stupa) to iconographic
ones (the sight and significance of the pictures was not supposed to be visible to everyone).
Landfall:It is thought that during construction Borobudur experienced a landfall that threatened the
entire building. To prevent the whole monument from collapsing, the Kamadhatu level was closed
and made into a new base that holds Borobudur steady. This discovery brings about renewed efforts
to safeguard Borobudur from vandalism and natural threats. The hidden base of Borobudur was
originally the first level, which contains the gallery of Kamadhatu level.The content of these hidden
reliefs is loosely based on a Sanskrit Buddhist text called the Mahakarmavibhangga ("Great
Exposition of the Law of Karma"). Buddhism postulates that for every cause there is an effect. Those
who undertake good actions generate good effects, while those who initiate wrongful actions generate
bad effects. Although the person committing the act may not immediately realize the results generated

29
by his or her actions, the karmic effect will eventually play out, if not in this life then in a future
existence or reincarnation. The Sanskrit-based Mahayana edition of the "Great Exposition of the Law
of Karma" has never been fully translated into English.
Walking the Twisting Path
The temple is actually a stupa that one is supposed to walk in a certain pattern, in a mandala fashion,
to the summit. It consists of nine stacked platforms—six square and three circular—and is topped by a
central dome which is not to be climbed. The stupa has many staircases and walkways. The temple is
decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72
Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa that is a stone screen. They look very much like
life-size Buddhas inside a small flying saucer! A few of the Buddha statues inside the perforated stupas
have had the outer stone stupa removed so that the Buddha statue can be clearly seen and photographed.
The stonework is exceptional. Hourglass-style keystone cuts can be seen on some of the walls where
stones have been removed. It has been estimated that Borobudur was a building project on such a scale that
it took many generations to complete the artificial stone mountain. Borobudur is built in the shape of a
gigantic mandala-yantra that is meant to be walked by a pilgrim seeking enlightenment.
Artificial Lake and the Lotus Sutra: One early suggestion by archaeologists when they began to study
Borobudur was that the huge stupa-hill was surrounded by an artificial lake. In this vision, Borobudur was
to have been the symbol of a lotus flower coming out of the lake. This would have meant that pilgrimages
to Borobudur would have begun by boat. However, modern Indonesian historians largely reject the idea of
a lake being created.
Currently, historians prefer to ascribe Borobudur to the Sailendra (also spelled Shailendra) dynasty that is
said to have begun circa 760 AD, some decades after the origin of the Srivijayan Empire in Sumatra.
However, the Sailendra dynasty itself is shrouded in mystery, and like those of Srivijaya, its origins seem
unclear to modern historians, who are unsure where these master seafarers came from.
Mysterious Sailendra Dynasty
Current understanding has it that “the Shailendras are [a] thalassocracy and ruled maritime Southeast Asia,
however they also relied on agriculture pursuits through intensive rice cultivation on the Kedu Plain of
Central Java. The dynasty appeared to be the ruling family of both the Medang Kingdom of Central Java
for some period and Srivijaya in Sumatra.” Suddenly, in 700 AD, Java has an organized thalassocracy that

30
now spans eastward to New Guinea? Where did this network of Hindu seaports, rivers and rice paddies
come from? I think they are offshoots of the seafaring Cham or Champa. The Sailendra dynasty, like
Srivijaya in nearby Sumatra, was the result of the Cham Empire breaking up into smaller states. Later,
in the various naval wars that went on starting around 700 AD, these warring Hindu-Buddhist
kingdoms would even attack the Champa heartland in southern Vietnam. These wars, which included
Angkor Wat and the Cambodians, were ultimately civil wars carried on by the large fleets that were
based on Sumatra and Java as well as up the Mekong River in Cambodia. Essentially, the larger Cham
Empire came to an end with these breakaway Hindu states starting in 650 AD, but it would seem that
Borobudur was already inexistence before this breakup. No one really seems to know the who and
when of Borobudur—but they do know its purpose: it is a megalithic site for Buddhist pilgrimage
Researching Origins
According to sources: “Although the rise of the Shailendras occurred in Kedu Plain in the Javanese
heartland, their origin has been the subject of discussion. Apart from Java itself, an earlier homeland in
Sumatra, India or Cambodia has been suggested. The latest studies apparently favor a native origin of the
dynasty. Despite their connections with Srivijaya in Sumatra and [the] Thai-Malay Peninsula, the
Shailendras were more likely of Javanese origin.”
“According to Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, an Indian scholar, the Shailendra dynasty that established
itself in the Indonesian archipelago originated from Kalinga in Eastern India. This opinion is also shared
by Nilakanta Sastri and J. L. Moens. Moens further describes that the Shailendras originated in India and
established themselves in Palembang before the arrival of Srivijaya’s Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa. In 683,
the Shailendras moved to Java because of the pressure exerted by Dapunta Hyang and his troops.”
“In 1934, the French scholar Coedes proposed a relation with the Funan kingdom in Cambodia. Coedes
believed that the Funanese rulers used similar-sounding ‘mountain lord’ titles, but several Cambodia
specialists have discounted this. They hold there is no historical evidence for such titles in the Funan
period.”
“Other scholars hold that the expansion of [the] Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya was involved in the rise of
the dynasty in Java. Supporters of this connection emphasize the shared Mahayana patronage, the
intermarriages, and the Ligor inscription. The fact that some of Shailendra’s inscriptions were written in
old Malay, suggests Srivijaya or Sumatran connections. The name ‘Selendra’ was first mentioned in [the]
Sojomerto inscription (725) as “Dapunta Selendra.” Dapunta Selendra is suggested as the ancestor of [the]

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Shailendras. The title Dapunta is similar to those of Srivijayan King Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, and the
inscription—although discovered in Central Java (north coast)—was written in old Malay, which
suggested the Sumatran origin or Srivijayan connection to this family”
The Cham People
In the book, The Lost World of the Cham , black, Hindu Cham people—known to have populated the coast
of central Vietnam in the second century AD and later—probably also were a dominant force in the region
in the centuries BCE. Ancient Chinese texts mention a land of Funan to the southwest, probably in what is
today Cambodia, Indonesia, and the Malaysian peninsula. It is my opinion, based on the research presented
in the book, that these lands were loosely ruled by the master seafaring civilization of the Cham. So, the
various claims that the mysterious Sailendra dynasty came from India, Cambodia or Sumatra means to me
that they are part of the Cham. It may well be that the Cham originated at Kalinga in eastern India.
Religious Blending
One of the questions that historians have in trying to figure out who built Borobudur and when, is why a
gigantic Buddhist monument would be built by a largely Hindu dynasty? Did the Hindu and Buddhist
rulers of Java circa 700 to 800 AD intermingle and allow a crossover of their faiths? Buddhism is merely a
reform of Hinduism, largely doing away with the caste system and giving its faithful more freedom with
less ritual. The same gods, such as Shiva and Brahma, plus historical characters such as Krishna and Rama
from the Mahabharata and Ramayana are important to Hindus as well as Buddhists.
With the Cham, Buddhism and Hinduism were melded together and Hindu temples were built at the same
time as Buddhist ones. This was apparently going on in Java as well, and in fact, the Hindu Prambanan
Temple is very near to Borobudur and is said to have been built in the ninth century. Prambanan has been
called the most beautiful Hindu temple outside of India. The Sailendras may have built both Borobudur
and Prambanan. Historians are confused as to whether the Sailendras were Hindus or Buddhists.
“There is confusion between Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The Sailendras were
known as ardent followers of Buddhism, though stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto suggest they may
have been Hindus. It was during this time that many Hindu and Buddhist monuments were built on the
plains and mountains around the Kedu Plain.”

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The Records are Silent
Without any formal record of any kind of the building of Borobudur—an astounding feat for any
architect and builder—historians theorize that construction began sometime around 760 AD (but it
may be earlier) and that the site was abandoned around 928 AD when volcanic eruptions covered
much of the site with volcanic ash. It is thought that the Buddhist kings of the Sailendra dynasty of
central Java were the builders, however, they left no inscriptions. This dynasty may have been
affiliated with the Buddhist Cham of central Vietnam as well as the Cham of Angkor Wat in today’s
Cambodia. I must personally conclude that Borobudur was built by the Cham before the Sailendra
dynasty, and was probably already in existence by 400 AD, if not earlier.
It is not known when the active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased. During a
period sometime between 928 and 1006 AD, King Mpu Sindok moved the capital of the Medang
Kingdom (part of the Sailendra dynasty) to the region of East Java after a series of volcanic eruptions.
Historians tend to think that this influenced the abandonment, as portions of Borobudur were covered
by lava flow.Borobudur is likely to have been built during a time of regional peace, which was when
the Cham ruled the entire area, prior to 650 AD.
The enormous temple lay hidden for centuries under volcanic ash and thick vegetation, and the site
became the subject of folklore associated with bad luck. The facts behind its abandonment remain a
mystery, but perhaps further archeological work in these under-studied places will provide some
answers.

33
Intricate and impressive carvings at Borobudur.
When we see the reality of Borobudur's dimensions, whether it is the size of the monument itself of
reflect it has on us, it is not surprising that we tend to wonder why this temple was built. How was it
possible to pile up thousands of stone blocks to create such a magnificent structure, while at that time
people had no knowledge of sophisticated tool and equipment? How did they carve the thousands of
reliefs to produce a work of art?
Many attempts have been made to uncover the mystery surrounding the Borobudur temple since its
rediscovery in 1814. As a result of the efforts to save it that have been carried on for a century as well
as two restorations, the real Borobudur can now be seen. Yet the monument remains a mystery.
Stone Architecture
Carving stone and especially constructing a holy temple would require an extraordinary amount of
enthusiasm, sincerely, perseverance, stick-to-it-eveness, firmness, and one's entire physical and

34
mental effort, challenging one's creative ability. And this was demonstrated to us by our forefathers
twelve centuries ago.
Observe, for instance, the walls of the galleries. These are not only blocks of stones piles up to form
straight, high and long walls, uninteresting if we have to circle around them from level to level. They
have been worked into beautifully carved walls, with finely cut corners with neat upper frames and
rows of niches containing statues.
Observe also the gateway. They have been crafted into impressive posts and doorsteps, decorated with
mythological scorpion to ward off disaster. And look at the gutters: even though the are only gutters
to carry away rain water, they have been done with care, with an artistic touch.
Study the relief, which are of two kinds, narrative and decorative. The decorative reliefs have added
luster to the rows of reliefs in various ways, as the beginning or end of row of pictorial reliefs, as an
intermezzo to the scene or as fill-ins of the remaining surfaces. What a splendid design! Scene after
scene, with figure appearing on the walls or balustrades in accordance with the nature of the story,
carefully carved to make the figures stand out.
Then miraculously, the figures come alive! The walls tell about the life of Buddha Gautama ( as told
in the book of Lalitawistara), about the Bodhisattva (the Jataka and Awadana stories), and about the
travels of Prince Sudhana - Kumara in his search for the highest knowledge of the absolute truth (the
book of Gandawyuha). And theses wonderful stories cover a length of 3000 meters!
Then observe the Stupas! It is amazing how the 72 stupas on the round terraces are arranged on
circular rows. The large number of stupa on higher terrace, in the end there being only one left, the
supreme stupa on the pinnacle. The walls of the many stupas which at first are perforated, have fewer
and fewer openings until in the end they become solid, without openwork, there being only one left,
the central stupa at the top. The Buddha statues, which at first can be seen through the openings in the
walls sitting inside the stupas, gradually become visible, vanishing into the main stupa.
Note the ground plan! The Borobudur Temple consists of five square and four circular terraces

35
arranged concentrically. The terraces whose shape is basically square have been developed into a
remarkable multi-sided design, beautifully arranged and together with the circular terraces, forming a
most harmonious concentric composition.Observer attentively from the top to bottom, the
arrangement of the terraces presents a remarkable picture, of a one-sided figure (the round shape of
the central stupa) slowly becoming larger as though it is transformed into an extraordinary square.
Looking at it from the bottom up, you see the transfiguration of a multisided design developing into a
circular one, changing gradually from level to level.
Looking down from the top, it might appear as though the Buddha (formless) is descending from
heaven to be present in this fleeting world, incarnating as a Bodhisattva in order to convey
his Dharma (teachings) to mankind. Conservely, looking up from the bottom, it appears that the way
to self liberation from Samsara is through continuous self-purification, from stage to stage, until
Nirwana is attained.As stated previously, the buried foot of the temple can be regarded as a terrace or
level; the foot is the lowest level, which means that Borobudur is actually a ten-story structure. The
foot can not be seen by visitors, since it was covered by a foundation of stone that functioned as a
platform for a procession. The way the foot is covered is unique, the stone having been laid with
calculation and artistry. The board platform provides ample space for people preparing for a
procession and also serves to enhance the beauty and harmony of the temple.
Art as expression
If art can be interpreted as an expression, the Borobudur is a convincing example. From the above
description it can be felt that this monument is meant to express the philosophy of Buddhism, and at
the same time serve as a symbol of ancestor worship. In the hands of the builders the design was
executed with true devotion.
It is quite impossible that such a beautiful creation as Borobudur was carried out by the builders
without a feeling of love; scene after scene of the narrative reliefs, whose number exceeds a
thousands, a great number, indeed, for that age, carved by hand, were executed with consistently great
artistry, not to speak of the statues of the Dhyani Buddhas, which are able to express universal peace
and all parts of which were executed with precision and grace. All of these reveal an artistic
expression based on the awareness that construction of the temple was a sacred task, a deep

36
consciousness of the greatness of the religion, and extreme respect for the ancestors.
Art Being a Means of Communication
In order for art to be accepted by society and become part of it, it should be communicative, and in
this case Borobudur is a prime temple. While present-day tourists come to visit because of a desire to
see a temple on a hilltop, a storied structure full of reliefs and statues renown for their beauty and
interest, it is very reasonable to assume that the visitors of olden times were motivated by the desire to
gain a deeper knowledge of their religion, and live it through the carved scene that tell a story and can
be seen and touched.
The series of panels, especially when the iconography is clear and precisely executed, can indeed
become a reliable of communication, since they easily create a spiritual bond between the observer
and the scenes observed. Through the level of temple that must be climbed and the sculpted scene
displayed along the passages, pilgrims learn about the noble deed of the Buddha or Bodhisatwa. The
form and content of the entire structure seem to lead the pilgrim to steep into the meaning of self-
liberation from Samsara.
Does the above description not cause you to feel that there is contact between the artistic and the
mysterious?

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A few short quotations from the Mahakarmavigghanga in English are available from various
sources.In one, the Buddha tells the young Brahmin Shuka that there are a total of eighteen
benefits to be derived from the building a Stupa. "What are these eighteen?

38
One will be born as the child of a great king
One will have a noble body
One will become beautiful and very attractive
One will have sharp sense faculties One will be powerful and famous
One will have a great entourage of servants
One will become a leader of men
One will be a support to all
One will be renowned in the ten directions
One will be able to express oneself in words and verses extensively
One will receive offerings from men and gods
One will possess many riches
One will obtain the kingdom of a universal monarch
One will have long life
One's body will be like a collection of vajras
One's body will be endowed with the major marks and the minor signs (of a Buddha) One
will take rebirth in the three higher realms
One will swiftly attain complete nirvana
This book is my Stupa.
To build this, I thank my friend Kerry Penny, contemporary British Landscape Artist whose
work inspires me and she generously donates her paintings to ornate my books. The covers -
both front and back and some pictures inside are her extraordinary work.
R E F E R E N C E S
1. Munandar, A. A. (2016). BOROBUDUR TEMPLE: THE INTERCHANGE OF HUMANITY VALUES
AND ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTHEAST ASIA. International Review of
Humanities Studies, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.7454/irhs.v1i2.8

39
PART I
Architecture and Design Concepts of the Borobudur
The Dhamma teaches:
Be like a lion that trembles not at sounds.
Be like the wind that does not cling to the meshes of a net.
Be like a lotus that is not contaminated by the mud from
which it springs up.
Wander alone like a rhinoceros

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CHAPTER 1
FOREWORD
The Buddha says:—“
They who speak much are blamed. They who speak a little
are blamed. They who are silent are also blamed. In this
world there is none who is not blamed.”
Based on inscriptions found on some of the stones of the monument, archaeologists agree that
construction of Borobudur was probably begun around 760 AD and completed by about 830, the
Golden Age of the Sailendra dynasty, under the reign of King Samaratunga. Sailendras were of
foreign origin, either from South India or from Indo-China, and ruled Sumatra and Java from the 8th
through the 13th centuries. Under their rule, the islands were major centers of Buddhist scholarship.
The Javanese had been carving stone statues and inscriptions since about 400 AD, but between 700
and 900 AD, many of the Island's greatest shrines were erected.

42
Javanese society of that time must have been healthy and wealthy enough to support an endeavor
such as the building of Borobudur. It would have required plentiful manpower to haul the stone – as
much as 45,700 cubic yards taken from nearby streams and rivers, all fitted perfectly together without
mortar. Skilled craftsmen would have been needed to carve the images, which were completed after
the stones were in place, and abundant agricultural resources to provide food.
By the middle of the 9th century, Borobudur was completed with a large monastery at the southwest
foot of the hill. "Today it takes a trained eye to see Borobudur from a distance," says Asian art
historian, Jan Fontein.
"But we know that, in ancient times, this stone was covered with a kind of white plaster – called
"plaster as hard as diamond" or "vajalaypa" – which may have been a base for colors and just as the
pilgrim who went to Chartres saw the cathedral rise up from miles away, so the pilgrim who came to
Borobudur may have seen the monument in ancient times, hours before he reached it."
Records from the 9th and 10th centuries show that Borobudur was a center of pilgrimage for about
150 years during a short but intense period of Buddhism. Chinese coins and ceramics found at
Borobudur from the 11th to the 15th centuries suggest that pilgrims continued to visit Borobudur
during that time. nearby village of Bore; most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed
Javanese language, the monument should have been named “BudurBoro”. Raffles also suggested
that Budur might correspond to the modern Javanese word Buda (“ancient”)—i.e., “ancient Boro”.
However, another archaeologist suggests the second component of the name (Budur) comes from
Javanese term bhudhara (“mountain”).
The construction and inauguration of a sacred Buddhist building—possibly a reference to
Borobudur—was mentioned in two inscriptions, both discovered in Kedu, Temanggung Regency. The
Karangtengah inscription, dated 824, mentioned a sacred building named Jinalaya (the realm of those
who have conquered worldly desire and reached enlightenment), inaugurated by Pramodhawardhani,
daughter of Samaratungga. The Tri Tepusan inscription, dated 842, is mentioned in the sima, the (tax-
free) lands awarded by Çrī Kahulunnan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and maintenance
of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra. Kamūlān is from the word mula, which means “the place of
origin”, a sacred building to honor the ancestors, probably those of the Sailendras. Casparis suggested

43
that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra, which in Sanskrit means “the mountain of combined virtues of the
ten stages of Boddhisattvahood”, was the original name of Borobudur.
The emblem of Central Java province and Magelang Regency bears the image of Borobudur. It has
become the symbol of Central Java, and also Indonesia on a wider scale
Borobudur, or Barabudur (Indonesian: Candi Borobudur romanized: Candhi Barabudhur) is a 9th-
century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang Regency, not far from the town of Muntilan,

44
in Central Java, Indonesia. It is the world's largest Buddhist temple. The temple consists of nine
stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central dome. It is decorated with
2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues,
each seated inside a perforated stupa.
Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple design
follows Javanese Buddhist architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous cult of ancestor
worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The temple demonstrates the influences
of Gupta art that reflects India's influence on the region, yet there are enough indigenous scenes and
elements incorporated to make Borobudur uniquely Indonesian. The monument is a shrine to the Lord
Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The pilgrim journey begins at the base of the monument
and follows a path around the monument, ascending to the top through three levels symbolic
of Buddhist cosmology: Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rūpadhātu (the world of forms)
and Arūpadhātu (the world of formlessness). The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive
system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades.
Borobudur has one of the largest and most complete ensembles of Buddhist reliefs in the world.
Evidence suggests that Borobudur was constructed in the 9th century and subsequently abandoned
following the 14th-century decline of Hindu kingdoms in Java and the Javanese conversion to
Islam.[7]
Worldwide knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles,
then the British ruler of Java, who was advised of its location by native Indonesians.[8]
Borobudur has
since been preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken
between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO, followed by the monument's
listing as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Borobudur is the largest Buddhist temple in the world, and ranks with Bagan in Myanmar and Angkor
Wat in Cambodia as one of the great archeological sites of Southeast Asia. Borobudur remains
popular for pilgrimage, with Buddhists in Indonesia celebrating Vesak Day at the monument.
Borobudur is Indonesia's single most visited tourist attraction.
Like the rest of Southeast Asia, Indonesia seems to have been most strongly influenced by India from
the 1st century CE. The islands of Sumatra and Java in western Indonesia were the seat of the empire
of Sri Vijaya (8th-13th century), which came to dominate most of the area around the Southeast Asian
peninsula through maritime power. The Sri Vijayan Empire had adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana

45
Buddhism, under a line of rulers named the Sailendra. The Sailendras was the ardent temple builder
and the devoted patron of Buddhism in Java. Sri Vijaya spread Mahayana Buddhist art during its
expansion into the Southeast Asian peninsula. Numerous statues of Mahayana Bodhisattvas from this
period are characterized by a very strong refinement and technical sophistication, and are found
throughout the region. One of the earliest Buddhist inscription in Java, the Kalasan inscription dated
778, mentioned about the construction of a temple for the goddess Tara.
The statue of Prajñāpāramitā from Singhasari, East Java, on a lotus throne.
Extremely rich and refined architectural remains are found in Java and Sumatra. The most
magnificent is the temple of Borobudur (the largest Buddhist structure in the world, built around 780-
850 AD), built by Sailendras. This temple is modelled after the Buddhist concept of universe,
the Mandala which counts 505 images of the seated Buddha and unique bell-shaped stupa that
contains the statue of Buddha. Borobudur is adorned with long series of bas-reliefs narrated the holy
Buddhist scriptures. The oldest Buddhist structure in Indonesia probably is the Batujaya stupas at
Karawang, West Java, dated from around the 4th century. This temple is some plastered brick stupas.
Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-
Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the
area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese "sacred" place and has been dubbed "the garden of Java" due
to its high agricultural fertility. During the restoration in the early 20th century, it was discovered that
three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are positioned along a straight

46
line. A ritual relationship between the three temples must have existed, although the exact ritual
process is unknown.
However, Buddhist art in Indonesia reach the golden era during the Sailendra dynasty rule in Java.
The bas-reliefs and statues of Boddhisatva, Tara, and Kinnara found in Kalasan, Sewu, Sari,
and Plaosan temple is very graceful with serene expression, While Mendut temple near Borobudur,
houses the giant statue of Vairocana, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani.
aBuddhist religious architectuare developed in the Indian subcontinent. Three types of structures
are associated with the religious architecture of early Buddhism: monasteries (viharas), places to
venerate relics (stupas), and shrines or prayer halls (chaityas, also called chaitya grihas), which later
came to be called temples in some places.
The initial function of a stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of Gautama Buddha.
The earliest surviving example of a stupa is in Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh).
In accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-
grihas (prayer halls). These are exemplified by the complexes of the Ajanta Caves and the Ellora
Caves (Maharashtra). The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar is another well-known example.
The pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupas.
A characteristic new development at Buddhist religious sites was the stupa. Stupas were originally
more sculpture than building, essentially markers of some holy site or commemorating a holy man
who lived there. Later forms are more elaborate and also in many cases refer back to the Mount Meru
model.
One of the earliest Buddhist sites still in existence is at Sanchi, India, and this is centred on a stupa
said to have been built by King Ashoka (273–236 BCE). The original simple structure is encased in a
later, more decorative one, and over two centuries the whole site was elaborated upon. The four
cardinal points are marked by elaborate stone gateways.
As with Buddhist art, architecture followed the spread of Buddhism throughout south and east Asia
and it was the early Indian models that served as a first reference point, even though Buddhism
virtually disappeared from India itself in the 10th century.

47
Decoration of Buddhist sites became steadily more elaborate through the last two centuries BCE, with
the introduction of tablets and friezes, including human figures, particularly on stupas. However, the
Buddha was not represented in human form until the 1st century CE. Instead, aniconic symbols were
used. This is treated in more detail in Buddhist art, Aniconic phase. It influenced the development of
temples, which eventually became a backdrop for Buddha images in most cases.
As Buddhism spread, Buddhist architecture diverged in style, reflecting the similar trends in Buddhist
art. Building form was also influenced to some extent by the different forms of Buddhism in the
northern countries, practising Mahayana Buddhism in the main and in the south
where Theravada Buddhism prevailed.
Ancient lake hypothesis
Speculation about a surrounding lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among
archaeologists in the 20th century. In 1931, a Dutch artist and scholar of Hindu and Buddhist
architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a hypothesis that the Kedu Plain was once a lake and
Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake.[15]
It has been claimed that
Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor
of a dried-out paleolake.
Dumarçay together with Professor Thanikaimoni took soil samples in 1974 and again in 1977 from
trial trenches that had been dug into the hill, as well as from the plain immediately to the south. These
samples were later analysed by Thanikaimoni, who examined their pollen and spore content to
identify the type of vegetation that had grown in the area around the time of Borobudur's construction.
They were unable to discover any pollen or spore samples that were characteristic of any vegetation
known to grow in an aquatic environment such as a lake, pond or marsh. The area surrounding
Borobudur appears to have been surrounded by agricultural land and palm trees at the time of the
monument's construction, as is still the case today. Caesar Voûte and the geomorphologist Dr J.J.
Nossin in 1985–86 field studies re-examined the Borobudur lake hypothesis and confirmed the
absence of a lake around Borobudur at the time of its construction and active use as a sanctuary.
These findings A New Perspective on Some Old Questions Pertaining to Borobudur were published in
the 2005 UNESCO publication titled "The Restoration of Borobudur".
Architect: Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple was designed
in Javanese Buddhist architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous cult of ancestor worship

48
and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana.The temple also demonstrates the influences of Gupta
art that reflects India’s influence on the region, yet there are enough indigenous scenes and elements
incorporated to make Borobudur uniquely Indonesian. The architect Gunadharma, considered by
many today to be a man of great vision and devotion. Gunadharma or Gunadarma is claimed as the
name of the architect of Borobudur, the ninth-century Buddhist monument in Central Java, Indonesia.
Many sources say that he came from Nepal , and was born in the province of Lalitpur, Patan of Nepal
in the 16th century. His art style included Javanese Buddhism architecture. His most fmaous creation,
Borobudur, is the largest Buddhist temple in the world
The temple has been described in a number of ways. Its basic structure resembles that of a pyramid,
yet it has been also referred to as a caitya (shrine), a stupa (reliquary), and a sacred mountain. In fact,
the name Śailendra literally means “Lord of the Mountain.” While the temple exhibits characteristics
of all these architectural configurations, its overall plan is that of a three-dimensional mandala—a
diagram of the cosmos used for meditation—and it is in that sense where the richest understanding of
the monument occurs.
Aerial photo of Borobudur (Tropenmuseum Collection)

49
Construction: Construction
A painting by G.B. Hooijer (c. 1916—1919) reconstructing the scene of Borobudur during its
heyday
Borobudur was likely founded around 800 CE. But there is no written record of who built it or of its
intended purpose. The construction time has been estimated by comparison between carved reliefs on
the temple’s hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters during the 8th and 9th
centuries. This corresponds to the period between 760 and 830 CE, the peak of the Sailendra dynasty
in central Java, when it was under the influence of the Srivijayan Empire. The construction has been
estimated to have taken 75 years and been completed during the reign of Samaratungga in 825.

50
There is confusion between Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The Sailendras were
known as ardent followers of Buddhism, though stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto suggest they
may have been Hindus. It was during this time that many Hindu and Buddhist monuments were built
on the plains and mountains around the Kedu Plain. The Buddhist monuments, including Borobudur,
were erected around the same time as the Hindu Shiva Prambanan temple compound. In 732 CE, the
Shivaite King Sanjaya commissioned a Shivalinga sanctuary to be built on the Wukir hill, only 10 km
(6.2 mi) east of Borobudur.
Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because Sanjaya’s
immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his permission to the Buddhist followers to build
such temples. In fact, to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist
community, as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 CE. This has led some archaeologists to
believe that there was never serious conflict concerning religion in Java as it was possible for a Hindu
king to patronize the establishment of a Buddhist monument; or for a Buddhist king to act
likewise. However, it is likely that there were two rival royal dynasties in Java at the time—the
Buddhist Sailendra and the Saivite Sanjaya—in which the latter triumphed over their rival in the 856
battle on the Ratubaka plateau. This confusion also exists regarding the Lara Jonggrang temple at the
Prambanan complex, which was believed to have been erected by the victor Rakai Pikatan as the
Sanjaya dynasty’s reply to Borobudur, but others suggest that there was a climate of peaceful
coexistence where Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang.
Some 1,200 years ago builders carted two million stones from local rivers and streams and fit them
tightly together without the aid of mortar to create a 95-foot-high (29-meter-high) step pyramid.
More than 500 Buddha statues are perched around the temple. Its lower terraces include a
balustrade that blocks out views of the outside world and replaces them with nearly 3,000 bas-relief
sculptures illustrating the life and teachings of the Buddha. Together they make up the greatest
assemblage of such Buddhist sculpture in the world.
Climbing Borobudur is a pilgrimage in itself, meant to be experienced physically and spiritually
according to the tenets of Mahayana Buddhism. As the faithful climb upward from level to level,
they are guided by the stories and wisdom of the bas-reliefs from one symbolic plane of

51
consciousness to the next, higher level on the journey to enlightenment. But Borobudur was
mysteriously abandoned by the 1500s, when the center of Javan life shifted to the East and Islam
arrived on the island in the 13th and 14th centuries. Eruptions deposited volcanic ash on the site and
the lush vegetation of Java took root on the largely forgotten site.
Architecture: From Darkness to Light: The idea of moving from the darkness into the light is the
final element of the experience of Borobudur. The temple’s pathway takes one from the earthly realm
of desire (kamadhatu), represented and documented on the hidden narratives of the structure’s
earthbound base, through the world of forms (rupadhatu) as expounded on the narratives carved along
the four galleries set at right angles, until one finally emerges into the realm of formlessness
(arupadhatu) as symbolized and manifested in the open circular terraces crowned with 72 stupas.

52
However, the symbolization of enlightenment these stupas represent is not intended to be merely
aesthetic. Buddhist stupas and mandalas are understood as “spiritual technologies” that harness
spiritual “energies” in the creation of sacred space. The repetition of form and the circumabulatory
progress of the pilgrim mimic, and thereby access, the cosmological as a microcosm. The clockwise
movement around the cosmic center reproduces the macrocosmic path of the sun. Thus, when one
emerges from the dark galleries representing the realms of desire and form into the light of the
“formless” circular open air upper walkways, the material effect of light on one’s physical form
merges concomitantly with the spiritual enlightenment generated by the metaphysical journey of the
sacred path.
Light, in all its paradoxes, is the ultimate goal. The crowning stupa of this sacred mountain is
dedicated to the “Great Sun Buddha” Vairocana. The temple sits in cosmic proximity to the nearby
volcano Mt. Merapi. During certain times of the year the path of the rising sun in the East seems to
emerge out of the mountain to strike the temple’s peak in radiant synergy. Light illuminates the stone
in a way that is intended to be more than beautiful. The brilliance of the site can be found in how the
Borobudur mandala blends the metaphysical and physical, the symbolic and the material, the
cosmological and the earthly within the structure of its physical setting and the framework of spiritual
paradox.
Borobudur and the concept of path in Buddhism
Paths have been pervasive in human civilization. We are all familiar with the streets, trails, and lanes
along which we routinely travel. Ancient Roman roads are utilized in some places even today. In
contemporary computer culture we follow “paths” on webpages as we find our way to the information
or experience we are searching for or find unexpectedly. There are simulated paths in complex first-
person virtual reality video environments, where role-playing games formulate their content around
the path to be conquered. The idea of path is an important concept in Buddhism, and is essential in
understanding the meaning and purpose of one of the most remarkable and impressive monuments in
the world: Borobudur.

53
Borobudur, Indonesia (photo: Claire André, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
Located on the island of Java in Indonesia, the rulers of the Śailendra Dynasty built the Temple of
Borobudur around 800 C.E. as a monument to the Buddha (exact dates vary among scholars). The
temple (or candi in Javanese, pronounced “chandi”) fell into disuse roughly one hundred years after
its completion when, for still unknown reasons, the rulers of Java relocated the governing center to
another part of the island. The British Lieutenant Governor on Java, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles,
only rediscovered the site in 1814 upon hearing reports from islanders of an incredible sanctuary deep
within the island’s interior.

54
photo: Wilson Loo Kok Wee (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
Set high upon a hill vertically enhanced by its builders to achieve a greater elevation, Borobudur
consists of a series of open-air passageways that radiate around a central axis mundi (cosmic
axis). Devotees circumambulate clockwise along walkways that gradually ascend to its uppermost
level. At Borobudur, geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct adherents toward the ultimate
goal of enlightenment. Meticulously carved relief sculptures mediate a physical and spiritual journey
that guides pilgrims progressively toward higher states of consciousness.
The entire site contains 504 statues of the Buddha. 1460 stone reliefs on the walls and opposite
balustrades decorate the first four galleries, with an additional 1212 decorative reliefs augmenting the
path. The relief sculptures narrate the Buddha’s teachings (the Dharma), depict various events related
to his past lives (Jataka tales), and illustrate didactic stories taken from important Buddhist scriptures
(sutras). Interestingly, another 160 relief sculptures adorn the base of the monument, but are
concealed behind stone buttresses that were added shortly after the building’s construction in order to
further support the structure’s weight. The hidden narrative reliefs were photographed when they were
discovered in the late 19th century before the stones were put back to help ensure the temple’s
stability.

55
Borobudur, photo: Gildardo Sánchez (CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
Moving past the base and through the four galleries, the devotee emerges onto the three upper
terraces, encountering 72 stupas each containing a three-dimensional sculpture of a seated Buddha
within a stone latticework. At the temple’s apex sits the large central stupa, a symbol of the
enlightened mind.
The archaeological excavation into Borobudur during reconstruction suggests that adherents of
Hinduism or a pre-Indic faith had already begun to erect a large structure on Borobudur's hill before
the site was appropriated by Buddhists. The foundations are unlike any Hindu or Buddhist shrine
structures, and therefore, the initial structure is considered more indigenous Javanese than Hindu or
Buddhist.

56
Design
Borobudur ground plan taking the form of a Mandala
The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage.The journey
for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path around the monument and ascends
to the top through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology: Kāmadhātu (the world of desire),
Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness).
Zone 1: Kamadhatu (The phenomenal world, the world inhabited by common people)
Borobudur’s hidden Kamadhatu level consists of 160 reliefs depicting scenes of Karmawibhangga
Sutra, the law of cause and effect. Illustrating the human behavior of desire, the reliefs depict robbing,
killing, rape, torture and defamation. A corner of the covering base has been permanently removed to
allow visitors to see the hidden foot, and some of the reliefs.

57
Zone 2: Rapudhatu (The transitional sphere, humans are released from worldly matters)
The four square levels of Rapadhatu contain galleries of carved stone reliefs, as well as a chain of
niches containing statues of Buddha. In total there are 328 Buddha on these balustrade levels which
also have a great deal of purely ornate reliefs. The Sanskrit manuscripts that are depicted on this level
over 1300 reliefs are Gandhawyuha, Lalitawistara, Jataka and Awadana. They stretch for 2.5km. In
addition there are 1212 decorative panels.
Zone 3: Arupadhatu (The highest sphere, the abode of the gods) The three circular terraces leading
to a central dome or stupa represent the rising above the world, and these terraces are a great deal less
ornate, the purity of form is paramount.
The terraces contain circles of perforated stupas, an inverted bell shape, containing sculptures of
Buddha, who face outward from the temple. There are 72 of these stupas in total. The impressive
central stupa is currently not as high as the original version,
which rose 42m above ground level, the base is 9.9m in diameter. Unlike the stupas surrounding it,
the central stupa is empty and conflicting reports suggest that the central void contained relics, and
other reports suggest it has always been empty.
The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460
narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur has the largest and most complete
ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world.
Borobudur is built as a single large stupa and, when viewed from above, takes the form of a
giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the nature
of mind. The original foundation is a square, approximately 118 metres (387 ft) on each side. It has
nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular. The upper platform
features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-shaped and
pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures.

58
The design of Borobudur took the form of a step pyramid. Previously,
the prehistoric Austronesian megalithic culture in Indonesia had constructed several earth mounds and
stone step pyramid structures called punden berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan site near
Cisolokand in Cipari near Kuningan. The construction of stone pyramids is based on native beliefs
that mountains and high places are the abode of ancestral spirits or hyangs. The punden berundak step
pyramid is the basic design in Borobudur, believed to be the continuation of older megalithic tradition
incorporated with Mahayana Buddhist ideas and symbolism.
As mentioned earlier the monument's three divisions symbolize the three "realms" of Buddhist
cosmology, namely Kamadhatu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and
finally Arupadhatu (the formless world). Ordinary sentient beings live out their lives on the lowest
level, the realm of desire. Those who have burnt out all desire for continued existence leave the world
of desire and live in the world on the level of form alone: they see forms but are not drawn to them.
Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form and experience reality at its purest, most fundamental
level, the formless ocean of nirvana. The liberation from the cycle of Saṃsāra where the enlightened
soul had no longer attached to worldly form corresponds to the concept of Śūnyatā, the complete
voidness or the nonexistence of the self. Kāmadhātu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five
square platforms (the body), and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large topmost
stupa. The architectural features between the three stages have metaphorical differences. For instance,

59
square and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in
the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms—where men are still attached with forms and
names—changes into the world of the formless.
Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed in a walking pilgrimage. Pilgrims are guided by
the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one
stage of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed to symbolize Buddhist
cosmology.
In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered. The "hidden footing" contains
reliefs, 160 of which are narratives describing the real Kāmadhātu. The remaining reliefs are panels
with short inscriptions that apparently provide instructions for the sculptors, illustrating the scenes to
be carved. The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose of which remains a mystery. It
was first thought that the real base had to be covered to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the
monument into the hill. There is another theory that the encasement base was added because the
original hidden footing was incorrectly designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book
about architecture and town planning. Regardless of why it was commissioned, the encasement base
was built with detailed and meticulous design and with aesthetic and religious consideration.
Building structure
Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of andesite stones were taken from neighbouring
stone quarries to build the monument. The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid
without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between stones. The roof
of stupas, niches and arched gateways were constructed in corbelling method. Reliefs were created in
situ after the building had been completed.
The monument is equipped with a good drainage system to cater to the area's high stormwater run-off.
To prevent flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each corner, each with a unique carved gargoyle in the
shape of a giant or makara.
Hilly Construction: Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of other structures built for
this purpose. Instead of being built on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. However,
construction technique is similar to other temples in Java. Without the inner spaces seen in other
temples, and with a general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more

60
likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Buddha.
Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is
used as a house of worship. The meticulous complexity of the monument's design suggests that
Borobudur is in fact a temple.
The basic unit of measurement used during construction was the tala, defined as the length of a
human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb
to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance. The unit is
thus relative from one individual to the next, but the monument has exact measurements. A survey
conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect
had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of the fractal and self-similar geometry in
Borobudur's design. This ratio is also found in the designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist
temples. Archeologists have conjectured that the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have calendrical,
astronomical and cosmological significance, as is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in
Cambodia.The main structure can be divided into three components: base, body, and top. The base is
123 m × 123 m (404 ft × 404 ft) in size with 4 metres (13 ft) walls.]
The body is composed of five
square platforms, each of diminishing height. The first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft) from the
edge of the base. Each subsequent terrace is set back 2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at
each stage. The top consists of three circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of
perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center, the top of
which is the highest point of the monument, 35 metres (115 ft) above ground level. Stairways at the
center of each of the four sides give access to the top, with a number of arched gates overlooked by 32
lion statues. The gates are adorned with Kala's head carved on top of each and Makaras projecting
from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly found on the gates of Javanese temples. The
main entrance is on the eastern side, the location of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways on the slopes
of the hill also link the monument to the low-lying plain.

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CHAPTER 2
The Temple as a MANDALA
Empires such as Bagan, Ayutthaya, Champa, Khmer, Srivijaya and Majapahit are known as
"mandala" in this sense. Our temple is the second largest Buddhist temple in the world after Angkor
Wat. Constructors erected this monument in the shape of a mandala and an opening Lotus flower on a
square base (118 x 118 m) that smoothly turns into a circle.1

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