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Bonding.ppt chemistry for preparatory students
- 1. 1 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009
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- 3. 3 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Types of bonding an ionic bond occurs between a metal and non-metal atom (e.g. NaCl) a covalent bond occurs between two non-metal atoms (e.g. I2, CH4) a metallic bond occurs between atoms in a metal (e.g. Cu) There are three types of bond that can occur between atoms:
- 4. 4 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Ionic bonding
- 5. 5 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Charge on the ions Metals lose electrons to form positive ions while non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions. The elements in groups 4 and 8 (also called group 0) do not gain or lose electrons to form ionic compounds. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8/0 1+ 2+ 3+ N/A 3- 2- 1- N/A Na+ Al3+ N/A N/A N3- O2- F- Mg2+ Group Charge Example The number of electrons gained or lost by an atom is related to the group in which the element is found.
- 6. 6 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Representing ionic bonding
- 7. 7 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Covalent bonding
- 8. 8 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Co-ordinate bonding
- 9. 9 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Examples of co-ordinate bonds
- 10. 10 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Co-ordinate bonds: true or false?
- 11. 11 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Metallic bonding
- 12. 12 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Strength of metallic bonding: ion charge The strength of metallic bonding depends on two factors: 1. the charge on the metal ions 1. The charge on the metal ions The greater the charge on the metal ions, the greater the attraction between the ions and the delocalized electrons, and the stronger the metallic bonds. A higher melting point is evidence of stronger bonds in the substance. 2. the size of the metal ions. Na Mg Al 1+ 2+ 3+ 371 923 933 Element Charge on ion Melting point (K)
- 13. 13 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Strength of metallic bonding: ion size Element Ionic radius (nm) Melting point (K) Li Na K Rb Cs 0.076 0.102 0.138 0.152 0.167 454 371 337 312 302 2. The size of the metal ions The smaller the metal ion, the closer the positive nucleus is to the delocalized electrons. This means there is a greater attraction between the two, which creates a stronger metallic bond.
- 14. 14 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Types of bonding
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- 16. 16 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Electronegativity values for some common elements. Values given here are measured on the Pauling scale. In a covalent bond between two different elements, the electron density is not shared equally. This is because different elements have differing abilities to attract the bonding electron pair. This ability is called an element’s electronegativity. What is electronegativity?
- 17. 17 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 The electronegativity of an element depends on a combination of two factors: 1. Atomic radius As radius of an atom increases, the bonding pair of electrons become further from the nucleus. They are therefore less attracted to the positive charge of the nucleus, resulting in a lower electronegativity. higher electronegativity lower electronegativity Electronegativity and atomic radius
- 18. 18 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Electronegativity, protons and shielding 2. The number of unshielded protons The greater the number of protons in a nucleus, the greater the attraction to the electrons in the covalent bond, resulting in higher electronegativity. However, full energy levels of electrons shield the electrons in the bond from the increased attraction of the greater nuclear charge, thus reducing electronegativity. greater nuclear charge increases electronegativity… …but extra shell of electrons increases shielding.
- 19. 19 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Electronegativity trends: across a period Electronegativity increases across a period because: 1. The atomic radius decreases. 2. The charge on the nucleus increases without significant extra shielding. New electrons do not contribute much to shielding because they are added to the same principal energy level across the period.
- 20. 20 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Electronegativity trends: down a group 2. Although the charge on the nucleus increases, shielding also increases significantly. This is because electrons added down the group fill new principal energy levels. Electronegativity decreases down a group because: 1. The atomic radius increases.
- 21. 21 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Non-polar bonds If the electronegativity of both atoms in a covalent bond is identical, the electrons in the bond will be equally attracted to both of them. This results in a symmetrical distribution of electron density around the two atoms. Bonding in elements (for example O2 or Cl2) is always non-polar because the electronegativity of the atoms in each molecule is the same. both atoms are equally good at attracting the electron density cloud of electron density
- 22. 22 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Polar bonds
- 23. 23 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Effect of electronegativity on polarization The greater the electronegativity difference between the two atoms in a bond the greater the polarization of the bond. decreasing polarization This can be illustrated by looking at the hydrogen halides: H F Cl Br I Molecule Electronegativity difference between atoms H–F H–Cl H–Br H–I 1.8 1.0 0.8 0.5 Pauling elecronegativities Element 2.2 4.0 3.2 3.0 2.7
- 24. 24 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Ionic or covalent? Rather than saying that ionic and covalent are two distinct types of bonding, it is more accurate to say that they are at the two extremes of a scale. Less polar bonds have more covalent character. increasing polarization More polar bonds have more ionic character. The more electronegative atom attracts the electrons in the bond enough to ionize the other atom.
- 25. 25 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Polar molecules Molecules containing polar bonds are not always polar. If the polar bonds are arranged symmetrically, the partial charges cancel out and the molecule is non-polar. Non-polar molecules If the polar bonds are arranged asymmetrically, the partial charges do not cancel out and the molecule is polar. Polar molecules
- 26. 26 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Identifying polar molecules
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- 28. 28 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Types of intermolecular force hydrogen bonds – for example, found between H2O molecules in water. permanent dipole–dipole forces – for example, found between HCl molecules in hydrogen chloride. van der Waals forces – for example, found between I2 molecules in iodine crystals. There are three main types of intermolecular force: The molecules in simple covalent substances are not entirely isolated from one another. There are forces of attraction between them. These are called intermolecular forces.
- 29. 29 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Van der Waals forces
- 30. 30 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Strength of van der Waals forces The strength of van der Waals forces increases as molecular size increases. Atomic radius increases down the group, so the outer electrons become further from the nucleus. They are attracted less strongly by the nucleus and so temporary dipoles are easier to induce. 0 50 100 150 200 -50 -100 -150 -200 boiling point (°C) Br2 This is illustrated by the boiling points of group 7 elements. F2 Cl2 I2 element
- 31. 31 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Strength of van der Waals forces Straight chain alkanes can pack closer together than branched alkanes, creating more points of contact between molecules. This results in stronger van der Waals forces. butane (C4H10) boiling point = 272K 2-methylpropane (C4H10) boiling point = 261K The points of contact between molecules also affects the strength of van der Waals forces.
- 32. 32 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Boiling points of alkanes
- 33. 33 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Permanent dipole–dipole forces If molecules contain bonds with a permanent dipole, the molecules may align so there is electrostatic attraction between the opposite charges on neighbouring molecules. Permanent dipole–dipole forces (dotted lines) occur in hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas. The permanent dipole–dipole forces are approximately one hundredth the strength of a covalent bond.
- 34. 34 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Permanent dipole–dipole or not?
- 35. 35 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 What is hydrogen bonding? When hydrogen bonds to nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine, a larger dipole occurs than in other polar bonds. This is because these atoms are highly electronegative due to their high nuclear charge and small size. When these atoms bond to hydrogen, electrons are withdrawn from the H atom, making it slightly positive. Hydrogen bonds are therefore particularly strong examples of permanent dipole–dipole forces. The H atom is very small so the positive charge is more concentrated, making it easier to link with other molecules.
- 36. 36 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Hydrogen bonding In molecules with OH or NH groups, a lone pair of electrons on nitrogen or oxygen is attracted to the slight positive charge on the hydrogen on a neighbouring molecule. Hydrogen bonding makes the melting and boiling points of water higher than might be expected. It also means that alcohols have much higher boiling points than alkanes of a similar size. hydrogen bond lone pair
- 37. 37 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Hydrogen bonding and boiling points
- 38. 38 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Boiling points of the hydrogen halides The boiling point of hydrogen fluoride is much higher than that of other hydrogen halides, due to fluorine’s high electronegativity. 0 20 40 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 boiling point (°C) HF HCl HBr HI The means that hydrogen bonding between molecules of hydrogen fluoride is much stronger than the permanent dipole–dipole forces between molecules of other hydrogen halides. More energy is therefore required to separate the molecules of hydrogen fluoride.
- 39. 39 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Permanent dipole–dipole forces
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- 41. 41 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Glossary
- 42. 42 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 What’s the keyword?
- 43. 43 of 43© Boardworks Ltd 2009 Multiple-choice quiz
Editor's Notes
- #2 Teacher notes In ‘Slide Show’ mode, click the name of a section to jump straight to that slide.
- #3 Photo credit (left): Vladimir Zivkovic / shutterstock.com Microscope shot of salt (NaCl) crystals. Photo credit (middle): Dr John Mileham Iodine crystals Photo credit (right): demarcomedia / shutterstock.com Copper wire Teacher notes It could be stressed to students that covalent bonding does not have to occur between two atoms of the same element, as is the case in iodine. It should also be pointed out that while a single ionic or covalent bond occurs between just two atoms, multiple ionic bonds exist in an ionic lattice, and multiple covalent bonds occur in covalent compounds containing more than two atoms.
- #9 Teacher notes A hydroxonium ion is sometimes called a hydronium ion or oxonium ion. It is a more accurate way of representing an aqueous H+ ion. ‘Dimerizes’ (as used here in reference to aluminium chloride) means to form a dimer – a molecule made up of two identical subunits (in this case two AlCl3 subunits). Al2Cl3 forms when AlCl3 melts, and can vapourize.
- #13 Teacher notes The ionic radius of an ion is not fixed, but depends on several factors, such as the co-ordination number of the ion.
- #15 Teacher notes In ‘Slide Show’ mode, click the name of a section to jump straight to that slide.
- #16 Teacher notes Elements in group 8 do not commonly form bonds so electronegativity values have not been measured. Electronegativity was first proposed in 1932 by the American chemist Linus Pauling (1904-1994). It is after him that the scale used here for measuring electronegativity is named. While the Pauling scale is the most common, there are other measures of electronegativity in use.
- #17 Teacher notes See the ‘Trends in Period 3’ presentation for more information about atomic radius. Note that the inner electron levels have not been included in the diagram.
- #18 Teacher notes See the ‘Trends in Period 3’ presentation for more information about shielding.
- #19 Teacher notes Fluorine has, with a Pauling electronegativity value of 4.0, the highest electronegativity of all the elements.
- #27 Teacher notes In ‘Slide Show’ mode, click the name of a section to jump straight to that slide.
- #33 Teacher notes Students could be reminded that molecules need to be polar, i.e. have an overall dipole, for permanent dipole–dipole forces to occur.
- #34 Teacher notes Students could also be asked to categorize the following: phosphine (PH3) = exhibits permanent dipole–dipole forces hydrogen sulfide (H2S) = exhibits permanent dipole–dipole forces chlorine (Cl2) = does not exhibit permanent dipole–dipole forces ozone (O3) = does not exhibit permanent dipole–dipole forces
- #35 Teacher notes Hydrogen bonds are about one tenth the strength of a covalent bond.
- #36 Teacher notes See the ‘Alcohols’ presentation for more information about the structure and properties of alcohols.
- #40 Teacher notes In ‘Slide Show’ mode, click the name of a section to jump straight to that slide.
- #41 Teacher notes co-ordinate bond – A covalent bond formed by the donation of a lone pair of electrons from one atom into an empty orbital on another atom. Also called a dative covalent bond. covalent bond – The attraction between two non-metal atoms caused by the overlapping of electron orbitals resulting in the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between the atoms. dative covalent bond – A covalent bond formed by the donation of a lone pair of electrons from one atom into an empty orbital on another atom. Also called a co-ordinate bond. dipole – The unequal sharing of electron density in a molecule resulting in regions of partial positive charge and regions of partial negative charge. Dipoles may be permanent, temporary or induced. electron density – A measure of how likely it is that an electron will be found at a specific location within an orbital. electronegativity – The power of an atom to withdraw electron density and attract the pair of bonding electrons in a covalent bond. hydrogen bonding – A special example of a permanent dipole–dipole intermolecular force that occurs when hydrogen is bonded to nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine. A hydrogen bond is the attraction between a lone pair on a nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine atom on one molecule, and the δ+ hydrogen atom (bonded to nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine) on a neighbouring molecule. induced dipole – The result of a non-polar molecule moving close to a molecule with a dipole. The dipole in one molecule distorts the electron density in the other, creating a dipole in that molecule. This occurs in the formation of van der Waals forces. intermolecular force – An attraction between two or more covalent molecules. The three main types are van der Waals forces, permanent dipole–dipole forces and hydrogen bonds. ionic bond – The electrostatic attraction between oppositely-charged ions, which are formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal. This force holds the ions together in an ionic lattice. ionic lattice – A regular arrangement of positively and negatively-charged ions held together by electrostatic forces (ionic bonds) acting between them. lone pair – A pair of electrons that is not involved in a covalent bond. metallic bond – The attraction between positively-charged metal ions and a sea of electrons from their highest energy levels that have become delocalized. This force holds metal atoms together in a giant metallic lattice. metallic lattice – A regular arrangement of positively-charged metal ions surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons and held together by the attraction between them (metallic bonds). non-polar bond – A covalent bond in which the electron density is distributed symmetrically around both atoms. non-polar molecule – A molecule in which either there are no polar bonds, or the polar bonds are arranged symmetrically so that the partial charges cancel out and the molecule has no overall permanent dipole. permanent dipole–dipole forces – Intermolecular forces between the opposite charges on molecules with permanent dipoles. polar bond – A covalent bond between two atoms with different electronegativities, which causes an asymmetrical distribution (unequal sharing) of the electron density. This, in turn, creates a slight positive charge on one atom and a slight negative charge on the other. polar molecule – A molecule containing polar bonds arranged asymmetrically so that the partial charges do not cancel out. The molecule therefore has an overall dipole. temporary dipole – A spontaneous and transient (constantly changing) dipole resulting from the chance uneven distribution of electron density of a molecule. van der Waals forces – Weak intermolecular forces of attraction that occur when temporary dipoles cause induced dipoles in neighbouring atoms.