A Critique of a book by Professor Kaplan of Harvard University.
Originally published by boloji.com and removed when I disagreed with their editorial policy (MuthBoloji.Jyaada -- "we print what we print").
The earliest known example of an Indus seal dates to 1873 in the form of a drawing
published by Alexander Cunningham. Since then, thousands of examples of the Indus script have
been discovered, and the Indus script has been subject to very serious analysis by many scholars
from all over the world and still continues to fascinate, enchant and frustrate innumerable
researchers who have made many a vain attempt to understand its true nature and meaning. The
nature of the Indus script remains elusive and there are currently many different schools of
thought – some think it represented a Dravidian language, some think it represented an Indo-
Aryan language, while some are convinced it belongs to a third language group. Some argue that
it represented a language while others argue it was only a complex ‘symbol system’, either with or
without a linguistic content. In an earlier paper, ‘Syncretism and Acculturation in Ancient India; A
new Nine Phase Acculturation model explaining the process of transfer of power from the
Harappans to the Indo-Aryans’, which was published in two parts in the ICFAI Journal of History
and Culture (January 2009 and 2010), we proposed methods to reconstruct the languages of the
Harappans with ‘smoking guns’, and concluded that the Harappans spoke neither a Dravidian
language nor Sanskrit but were intensely multi-linguistic and spoke several languages which
included remote ancestors of languages which much later came to be known as Prakrits. In this
paper, we take a parsimonious approach with regard to the Indus script, attempt to understand its
nature, examine the logical flaws of current theories with regard to the Indus script and conclude
that it is impossible to draw any hasty conclusions about the nature of the Indus script without
building rock solid theoretical models and that the Indus script issue is probably less simple than
the most simplistic of theories make it out to be. More importantly, we also refute ‘Sproat’s
smoking gun’ which cannot prove that the Indus writing system was not stable, that is was not a
writing system or that it did not have a linguistic component. We will conclude, that all things
considered, further research is only likely to reinforce the idea that it was a logo-syllabic script
and that any other scenario is highly unlikely.
The Mahabharata, world’s largest epic ever written. The value of this epic is not reduced even an inch in the last 5500 years rather it will be going to increase by the time passes. This is a paper aimed at the critical study of this spiritual epic and how is it relevant in the contemporary times. It looks Mahabharata from a different point of view.
The Chuvannathadi in Kathakali An Evaluation of the Character Type VeshamYogeshIJTSRD
The paper brings out the importance of the chuvannathadi in Kathakali, a character type which for many years earlier did not receive the importance it inherently possesses. It analyses the costume and the characters from the MahaBharatham and the Ramayanam who are linked to a chuvannathadi and then goes on to analyse how GuruNanu Nair who rightfully considered as the master of this role in modern times, gave the chuvannathadi the importance it deserved. The paper also looks at the concept of cognitive contradiction a term I have coined and makes references to Shakespeare’s Shylock from the play The Merchant of Venice. It goes on to discuss the when discussing the concept of the anti hero, a role in which Guru Nanu Nair specialized. Dr. Mohan Gopinath "The Chuvannathadi in Kathakali: An Evaluation of the Character Type (Vesham)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd41239.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comhumanities-and-the-arts/music/41239/the-chuvannathadi-in-kathakali-an-evaluation-of-the-character-type-vesham/dr-mohan-gopinath
The earliest known example of an Indus seal dates to 1873 in the form of a drawing
published by Alexander Cunningham. Since then, thousands of examples of the Indus script have
been discovered, and the Indus script has been subject to very serious analysis by many scholars
from all over the world and still continues to fascinate, enchant and frustrate innumerable
researchers who have made many a vain attempt to understand its true nature and meaning. The
nature of the Indus script remains elusive and there are currently many different schools of
thought – some think it represented a Dravidian language, some think it represented an Indo-
Aryan language, while some are convinced it belongs to a third language group. Some argue that
it represented a language while others argue it was only a complex ‘symbol system’, either with or
without a linguistic content. In an earlier paper, ‘Syncretism and Acculturation in Ancient India; A
new Nine Phase Acculturation model explaining the process of transfer of power from the
Harappans to the Indo-Aryans’, which was published in two parts in the ICFAI Journal of History
and Culture (January 2009 and 2010), we proposed methods to reconstruct the languages of the
Harappans with ‘smoking guns’, and concluded that the Harappans spoke neither a Dravidian
language nor Sanskrit but were intensely multi-linguistic and spoke several languages which
included remote ancestors of languages which much later came to be known as Prakrits. In this
paper, we take a parsimonious approach with regard to the Indus script, attempt to understand its
nature, examine the logical flaws of current theories with regard to the Indus script and conclude
that it is impossible to draw any hasty conclusions about the nature of the Indus script without
building rock solid theoretical models and that the Indus script issue is probably less simple than
the most simplistic of theories make it out to be. More importantly, we also refute ‘Sproat’s
smoking gun’ which cannot prove that the Indus writing system was not stable, that is was not a
writing system or that it did not have a linguistic component. We will conclude, that all things
considered, further research is only likely to reinforce the idea that it was a logo-syllabic script
and that any other scenario is highly unlikely.
The Mahabharata, world’s largest epic ever written. The value of this epic is not reduced even an inch in the last 5500 years rather it will be going to increase by the time passes. This is a paper aimed at the critical study of this spiritual epic and how is it relevant in the contemporary times. It looks Mahabharata from a different point of view.
The Chuvannathadi in Kathakali An Evaluation of the Character Type VeshamYogeshIJTSRD
The paper brings out the importance of the chuvannathadi in Kathakali, a character type which for many years earlier did not receive the importance it inherently possesses. It analyses the costume and the characters from the MahaBharatham and the Ramayanam who are linked to a chuvannathadi and then goes on to analyse how GuruNanu Nair who rightfully considered as the master of this role in modern times, gave the chuvannathadi the importance it deserved. The paper also looks at the concept of cognitive contradiction a term I have coined and makes references to Shakespeare’s Shylock from the play The Merchant of Venice. It goes on to discuss the when discussing the concept of the anti hero, a role in which Guru Nanu Nair specialized. Dr. Mohan Gopinath "The Chuvannathadi in Kathakali: An Evaluation of the Character Type (Vesham)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd41239.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comhumanities-and-the-arts/music/41239/the-chuvannathadi-in-kathakali-an-evaluation-of-the-character-type-vesham/dr-mohan-gopinath
Dr.S.Sundarabalu
Assistant Professor
Department of Linguistics
Bharathiar University,Coimbatore-46
Visiting Professor ,ICCR’s Tamil Chair
Institute of Oriental Studies, Dept. of Indology
Jagiellonian University, Krakow-Poland
sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
Dr.S.SUNDARABALU M.A;M.A;Ph.D
Assistant Professor
Department of Linguistics
Bharathiar University
Coimbatore-46 TamilNadu, India
sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
cittaantarettinam Dr.S.Sundarabalu
Assistant Professor
Department of Linguistics
Bharathiar University
Coimbatore-46
India
sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
9715769995
Dr.S.Sundarabalu
Assistant Professor
Department of Linguistics
Bharathiar University,Coimbatore-46
Visiting Professor ,ICCR’s Tamil Chair
Institute of Oriental Studies, Dept. of Indology
Jagiellonian University, Krakow-Poland
sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
cittaantarettinam Dr.S.Sundarabalu
Assistant Professor
Department of Linguistics
Bharathiar University
Coimbatore-46
India
Sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
9715769995
The differences in narratives of Rama and Abraham are mutually consistent.Bharat Jhunjhunwala
The #Biblical narrative of #Abraham and #Ramayana narrative of Rama are parallel. The differences arise mainly because the Bible is silent on events narrated in the #Bible. The small numbers of differences are superficial and do not destabilize either narrative if interchanged.
Read More - http://www.commonprophets.com/the-differences-in-narratives-of-rama-and-abraham-are-mutually-consistent/
Watch Video - https://youtu.be/qftSj1OJrek
Dr. S. Sundarabalu
Visiting Professor ,ICCR’s Tamil Chair
Institute of Oriental Studies, Dept. of Indology
Jagiellonian University, Krakow-Poland
sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
India-9715769995
This is an introduction to the Hindu epics The Ramayana and The Mahabharata presented to an audience of children. These Sanskrit works have a deep religious significances and remain vibrantly alive in the daily existence people in India to this day.
cittaantarettinam Dr.S.Sundarabalu
Assistant Professor
Department of Linguistics
Bharathiar University
Coimbatore-46
India
Sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
9715769995
How Literature is considered the most creative study?Homework Minutes
Literature is a historic and creative fold that helps in the preservation of folklore and extends them to the commoners. The presentation gives a glimpse of how it provides a comparative analysis of the Platonic, Neo-classic, revolutionary, post-revolutionary, and modern times. It also gives an account of how one should major in it, so as to develop a creative psyche.
The assertion "Information wants to be free" is a peculiar expression of desire on the part of an abstraction. This essay distinguishes between software and information and argues that a claim that may apply to software is applied unthinkingly to "information".
Dr.S.Sundarabalu
Assistant Professor
Department of Linguistics
Bharathiar University,Coimbatore-46
Visiting Professor ,ICCR’s Tamil Chair
Institute of Oriental Studies, Dept. of Indology
Jagiellonian University, Krakow-Poland
sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
Dr.S.SUNDARABALU M.A;M.A;Ph.D
Assistant Professor
Department of Linguistics
Bharathiar University
Coimbatore-46 TamilNadu, India
sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
cittaantarettinam Dr.S.Sundarabalu
Assistant Professor
Department of Linguistics
Bharathiar University
Coimbatore-46
India
sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
9715769995
Dr.S.Sundarabalu
Assistant Professor
Department of Linguistics
Bharathiar University,Coimbatore-46
Visiting Professor ,ICCR’s Tamil Chair
Institute of Oriental Studies, Dept. of Indology
Jagiellonian University, Krakow-Poland
sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
cittaantarettinam Dr.S.Sundarabalu
Assistant Professor
Department of Linguistics
Bharathiar University
Coimbatore-46
India
Sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
9715769995
The differences in narratives of Rama and Abraham are mutually consistent.Bharat Jhunjhunwala
The #Biblical narrative of #Abraham and #Ramayana narrative of Rama are parallel. The differences arise mainly because the Bible is silent on events narrated in the #Bible. The small numbers of differences are superficial and do not destabilize either narrative if interchanged.
Read More - http://www.commonprophets.com/the-differences-in-narratives-of-rama-and-abraham-are-mutually-consistent/
Watch Video - https://youtu.be/qftSj1OJrek
Dr. S. Sundarabalu
Visiting Professor ,ICCR’s Tamil Chair
Institute of Oriental Studies, Dept. of Indology
Jagiellonian University, Krakow-Poland
sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
India-9715769995
This is an introduction to the Hindu epics The Ramayana and The Mahabharata presented to an audience of children. These Sanskrit works have a deep religious significances and remain vibrantly alive in the daily existence people in India to this day.
cittaantarettinam Dr.S.Sundarabalu
Assistant Professor
Department of Linguistics
Bharathiar University
Coimbatore-46
India
Sunder_balu@yahoo.co.in
9715769995
How Literature is considered the most creative study?Homework Minutes
Literature is a historic and creative fold that helps in the preservation of folklore and extends them to the commoners. The presentation gives a glimpse of how it provides a comparative analysis of the Platonic, Neo-classic, revolutionary, post-revolutionary, and modern times. It also gives an account of how one should major in it, so as to develop a creative psyche.
The assertion "Information wants to be free" is a peculiar expression of desire on the part of an abstraction. This essay distinguishes between software and information and argues that a claim that may apply to software is applied unthinkingly to "information".
Boloji version of the indian zero (april 2006)Kamesh Aiyer
The Zero that was India. A critique of a book by Prof Kaplan of Harvard University.
Originally published in boloji.com, withdrawn by author in disagreement over editorial policy.
Little Bird Learns to Fly -- a children's story translated into JapaneseKamesh Aiyer
This is a Japanese version of the book published by Pratham Books (India) in English and five other South Asian languages. The translation is by Masahiko Kida.
The English version is also available via Amazon Kindle and will also appear in other eBook formats.
An illiterate world; Achievement through Writing; beginnings in rock paintings; is writing necessary and achievement of non-writing culture like the Incas and the Vedic Indians; felt need for writing – record keeping, religious purposes and royal proclamations; stages of development of writing – pictogram, ideogram and phonetics; phonetic systems – alphabetic and syllabic; how materials used for writing influenced scripts; places of origin of writing – Samaria, Egypt, China, India and Meso-America
A presentation by Prof. Subramanain Swaminathan
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
How Does Translation Work? Abhijnanasakuntalam Translated Text Comparison IIJSRJournal
The dramas of Kalidas, particularly Abhijnanasakuntalam, have mesmerised western culture. Numerous translations have brought this tale to the western reader. However, each translation has been unique, reflecting the translators' efforts to acquire the language of the original text as well as their own leanings, which frequently result from their normative perspective. In the end, each translation proves to be a true representation of the translator's mental image and amply demonstrates their own cultural and intellectual preferences. It also brings to light the challenges—and frequently impossibility—of translating between different eras, tongues, and civilizations.
Sujay alphabetic scripts and_other_forms_of_literacy in post-harappan indiaSujay Rao Mandavilli
This paper brings together all available evidence for literacy in Post-Harappan India, still popularly
known as Iron age Vedic India, most of which have been endorsed by mainstream researchers in some
way or the other in the recent past and brings into attention the need to revise all earlier models dealing
with literacy in Post-Harappan India to bring them in line with latest acculturation models and mainstream
models of the development of alphabetic scripts. More importantly we refute the thesis that the
Archaemenids introduced the alphabetic script into India. This theory has always been controversial and
has been challenged by several mainstream researchers, both Western and Indian, for several decades.
It is hopelessly antiquated now and a complete non-starter when all recent evidence and data is taken
into account and no mainstream researcher will even be able to consider such a theory in view of the
evidence, reasoning, logic and views of other scholars presented in the paper. The theory that Brahmi
was a derivative of the earlier Aramaic script has been somewhat more popular, though still controversial,
and we refute this theory as well. We also explain why updating theories based on latest research can
have a bearing on research on alphabetic systems in general. All conclusions reached in this paper are
presented using a figure-it-out-for-yourself approach and only the views of mainstream researchers are
presented. Readers are strongly advised to exercise their own judgment as usual.
Introduction to India: Geography, Race, Language, Caste system, Religion.
1. Ancient Indian Literature
2. Medieval Indian Literature
3. Modern Indian Literature
4. Contemporary Indian Literature
5. Characteristics of Indian Literature
6. Influences on Southest Asian Literature
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
The French Revolution Class 9 Study Material pdf free download
Boloji version of the indian zero (april 2006)
1. The zero that was India
By Kamesh Ramakrishna Aiyer
April 2, 2006
What is it with Western scholars of all kinds? They have a mote in their eye that is a
beam that prevents them from following leads that end in India. I came across two of
these recently – Kaplan’s book on the Natural History of Zero and "The Lore of the
Unicorn" by Odell Shepard. I will discuss the second in a later essay. I use the first to
illustrate the fact that this mote does not afflict just the historians and the soft literary
types but hard scientists as well.
A case-study: The Natural History of Zero
Kaplan is a well-known mathematician from Cambridge, Massachusetts. The math
training program that he started for mathematically gifted children is well attended and
well received. As a mathematician, his credentials are impeccably "hard science", if
abstract. Kaplan comes into our sights because he writes a book, "The Natural History of
Zero" in which he decides to debunk the notion that the zero and decimal place notation
originated in India.
For many centuries, it has been the considered wisdom that the numerals in general and
the zero in particular were of Arabic origin. Hence the name "Arabic numerals" for these
in contrast to "Roman numerals" used in medieval Europe. In recent years, there has
been a developing consensus and agreement that the numbers and zero are of Indian
origin. This was first proposed by a French scholar (who?) who showed how the written
form of Arabic numerals derive from the written form (in the Brahmi script) of the Pali
(the commonly spoken language) words for those numbers. Along with these Arabic
numerals, comes the notion of decimal place-notation. Place-notation and the
representation for "zero" are key elements of the modern number system.
Kaplan quotes an Indian work of mathematics and astrology, the Surya Siddhanta, from
about 1500-2000 years ago that begins with a story of how the author is taken in a dream
to the country of Romaka (i.e., Rome) by a yaksha (a mythical semi-divine creature) and
how he learns the art of reckoning with place-notation there. The rest of the book
illustrates with examples and principles various techniques of computation.
Kaplan finds this extremely convincing. He accepts this as evidence of a non-Indian
origin for numbers and place-notation. The first half of the book is devoted to showing
that the particular book may have been written later than claimed by Indian writers and
that there was evidence that Arabs, Greeks, and Byzantine mathematicians used various
elements of these concepts or were familiar with them. Even though the author of the
Surya Siddhanta claims to have invented these techniques, Kaplan finds the frame story
(of the Romaka dream) credible but all other assertions of invention by the author not
credible.
2. Kaplan also addresses some inconvenient fancies common to the Arab, the Greek, the
Roman and the Byzantine authors he quotes (we will use the term "Western" to
categorize all the works and traditions that are considered foundational for
European/Western science and philosophy). These authors frequently claim that some of
their ideas came from India or from visiting Indian scholars. As far back as 500 B.C.,
Pythagoras was reputed to have learnt secret mathematical knowledge from visiting
India. These, according to Kaplan, are fantasies invented by the writers to make it appear
that their methods were not just invented by themselves but came from a mysterious land.
In this instance, Kaplan finds the frame story not credible but decides that the author had
actually invented the relevant techniques (even though there is no such claim made by the
author) or knew them from local practice.
One does not have to be biased to wonder how Kaplan justifies treating one author one
way and other authors differently. Kaplan does not quote any other Indian text that has a
similar frame story. He does quote many more than one Western writer with the reverse
frame story. He dismisses all the Western frame stories as fantasy and accepts the one
Indian frame story as true.
As is usually the case with Western scholarship, Kaplan does not feel that his behavior
needs any explanation. It has been the “modern” Western attitude that tales about India,
no matter what the origin, are fabulous and to be rejected. That justifies Kaplan's
actions. But why is the same not applied to the Indian frame story about a Western
origin for an idea. After all, if India was a myth for Westerners, Rome may equally have
been a myth for Indians (well, this symmetry is not strictly necessary but I argue that it
must have been so). The answer is not explored here, but it is important to understand
that Kaplan's behavior is not unusual.
Indian books, whether religious or secular, whether didactic tales or historical, rely on the
use of frame stories to contain and convey their points. The Ramayana is not the story of
Rama's exile and fight with Ravana – it is the story of how Valmiki the cruel hunter came
to compose an epic poem that contains the story of Rama. The story of Valmiki's
composition is part of the story of Rama and it ends with Valmiki playing a part in the
story by providing refuge to Sita when she is unfairly exiled by Rama. The Mahabharata
is not the story of a great war – it begins with a recital of the Mahabharata by a disciple of
a disciple of Vyaasa who composed it. But Vyaasa did not just compose it – his birth is a
part of the story and it is the story of his children's children (but not his to acknowledge).
Within the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad-Gita but the Gita is itself a recital, in flashback,
of what happened before the war that started ten days earlier got under way. The
Puranas invariably are told by raconteurs within a frame explaining the first telling; the
Upanishads make their philosophical points within frame stories.
The point is that the art of the frame story is well established in Indian oral tradition. If
anything is to be discounted as "story" when reading or listening to an ancient Indian
work, it is the frame story. The frame story is expressly NOT used to add credibility to
the main work; rather it is used as a story-telling technique to draw the listener in and
3. maintain their interest. If and when necessary, the teller will use the frame story as a way
of taking a break from the main plot line. But at no point is the frame story used to
justify the events of the main work.
This contrasts with the treatment of the Indian connection in ancient Western scholarly
works. The Indian origin of something invariably is seen by the teller as adding
credibility. The Indian connection is interpolated in text when it is seen as improving the
reader's ability to accept the conclusion. However, the consensus among modern
Western scholars is to dismiss the claimed connections and Kaplan behaves within that
tradition.
Digression
That brings up a minor digression: Was the West a wonderful myth for Indian writers? It
is clear from the record that India was such for Western writers. If the West was a
wonderful myth, was it more of a wonder for the Indians that India was to the Westerners
who wrote about India? This is not an easy question to answer and probably merits an
essay of its own. But a simple answer could be based on counting and categorizing the
quality of such cross-references.
When one does that, the answer is too easy – “yavanas” and “romakas” and “parsas”, and
“mlecchas” were used primarily as filler material when referenced by an Indian writer in
Sanskrit. The author wants to fill in space – the number of armies that participated in the
Mahabharata, or the different nations traversed by the hero in the Brihatkatha. The
actual reality of what the Yavana does or what is different about Romaka is not relevant
to the story. The author is trying to impress his audience with what he or she knows
about the peoples of the world, in general, not of the details of any particular people.
As opposed to this, the references to India in the West are concrete: Dionysios brings the
secret of wine-making from India; Pythagoras visited India and learned number
mysticism; Herodotus tabulates the tax revenues of the Persian Empire and reckons that
the “Indian provinces” (on the west bank of the Indus – modern Afghanistan and
Baluchistan) contributed half the revenues while the remaining eighteen provinces (from
Egypt to Persia) contributed the remaining half. During Augustus Caesar’s time, Rome
tries to limit imports from India because it was draining the country of gold. Seals of the
Indus-Saraswati civilization are found in reasonably large numbers distributed from
Bahrain to Sumer and beyond – Sumerian artifacts are only occasionally found in the
contemporary archeological sites in India and Pakistan. Fabulous fortunes were made by
Westerners who traded with India in the 18th century – no Indian is recorded as having
made a fabulous fortune by trading with the West.
It seems that the answer to this is easy – India was the wonder; the West was not.
4. Conclusion
It isn’t clear to me what we can do about this except observe it and make the observation
stick. Ultimately, the British draining of the Indian economy from the late eighteenth to
the mid-twentieth changed the India, the wonder, to the wonder that was India, and
opened the door to the wholesale rejection by “modern” scholars of Indian
accomplishments.