This document provides an overview of the evolution of script and languages in India. It begins by discussing the Indus script from the Harappan civilization, noting that it was a pictographic script but has not been deciphered. It then covers the development of the Brahmi script, thought to be derived from Aramaic, and how it influenced scripts across South and Southeast Asia. The document also provides summaries of the major texts of Vedic literature - the Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda. It concludes with an overview of the Upanishads, philosophical texts considered the end of the Vedas that discuss knowledge and spiritual liberation.

1. INDIAN TRADITION, CULTURE AND
SOCIETY(ITCS)
Module -2
Evolution of script and languages in India
By –Anwer Ahmed
.
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2. COURSE OBJECTIVES
The course aims at imparting basic principles of thought process,
reasoning and inference to identify the roots and details of some of the
contemporary issues faced by our nation and try to locate possible
solutions to these challenges by digging deep into our past.
To enable the students to understand the importance of our
surroundings and encourage the students to contribute towards
sustainable development.
To sensitize students towards issues related to ‘Indian’ culture, tradition
and its composite character.
To make students aware of holistic life styles of Yogic-science and
wisdom capsules in Sanskrit literature that are important in modern
society with rapid technological advancements and societal disruptions.
To acquaint students with Indian Knowledge System, Indian perspective
of modern scientific world-view and basic principles of Yoga and holistic
health care system.
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3. Chapter Index
Module -2
S.No. Reference No. Particulars
1 Topic1 Harappan Script and Brahmi Script.
2 Topic 2 The Vedas, the
Upanishads
3 Topic 3 the Ramayana and the Mahabharata,
Puranas
4 Topic 4 Buddhist And Jain Literature in
Pali,Prakrit And Sanskrit
5 Topic 5 Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Famous Sanskrit
Authors
6 Topic 6 Telugu Literature,
Kannada Literature,Malayalam
Literature ,Sangama Literature
7 Topic 7 Northern Indian Languages &
Literature, Persian And Urdu ,Hindi
Literature
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4. Harappan Script
A majority of the Indus Valley inscriptions were written logographically (by using
word signs) and not by using phonograms (speech sounds units).
The Indus script is an unknown writing system, and the inscriptions discovered
are very short, comprising no more than five signs on the average.
The Indus (or Harappan) people used a pictographic script. Some 3500
specimens of this script survive in stamp seals carved in stone, in molded
terracotta and faience amulets, in fragments of pottery, and in a few other
categories of inscribed objects. In addition to the pictographic signs, the seals
and amulets often contain iconographic motifs, mostly realistic pictures of
animals apparently worshiped as sacred, and a few cultic scenes, including
anthropomorphic deities and worshipers. This material is of key importance to
the investigation of the Harappan language and religion, which continue to be
among the most vexing problems of South Asian protohistory.
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5. The Ancient Indus Valley Region
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6. The Indus script and
other early writing
systems
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Systematic and
interlocking interpretations
of Harappan pictograms.
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7. The Indus script and other early writing
systems.
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8. Pots from Mundigak
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9. Gharial eating fish on moulded terra-
cotta tablet from Mohenjo-daro
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An amulet from Mohenjo-daro
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10. AHarappan potsherd
from Amri, combining
the 'fish' and 'star'
motifs
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An "Early Harappan"
polychrome pot with
fish design from
Nal, South Baluchistan
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11. An Indus Seal from
Mohenjo-daro
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An Indus Seal from
Harappa
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12. The Sacred Fig
Tree and the North
Star
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The Pleiades and
the Seven Sages
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13. Inscription on Indus amulet from
Harappa
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The last of the three signs (on the left) is not so significant in the inscription on the obverse, since
most Indus texts end in it.
But the first sign (on the right), which precedes the 'Indian fig tree' pictogram, is very important for
two reasons: first, because it can be assumed to be either an attribute of the word expressed by the
'Indian fig tree' pictogram or the first member of a compound formed with it., and second, because its
pictorial shape can be interpreted with minimal ambiguity. There can be no reasonable doubt that this
attributive sign represents the numeral 'four' through its four short vertical strokes. Read in Dravidian,
does it make any sense in this context? 'Four' is nal in Dravidian, and there is a closely homophonous
Dravidian root nal meaning 'to hang, be suspended', used with special reference to hanging ropes and
vines. The compound formed by the two pictograms would mean, then, '(tree characterized by)
hanging ropes', as the Indian fig is.
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14. Inscription on seal from Harappa.
The Great Bear's Old Tamil name elu-meen 'seven-star' corresponds to the
combination of the pictograms '7' + 'fish', which alone constitutes the entire
text of one finely carved Indus seal.
The Satapatha-Brahmana (2,1,2,4) states that the six Pleiades were
separated from their husbands on account of their infidelity; other texts
specify that only one of the seven wives, Arundhati, remained faithful and
was allowed to stay with her husband: she is the small star Alcor in the
Great Bear, pointed out as a paradigm of marital virtue to the bride in the
Vedic marriage ceremonies.
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15. Amulet from Mohenjo-Daro
Evidence for the Harappan origin of this myth is provided, among other things, by
Indus seals which show a row of six or seven human figures ; their female
character is suggested by the one long plait of hair, which to the present day has
remained characteristic of the Indian ladies.
[Originally published as Parpola, Asko (1988) Religion reflected in the iconic signs
of the Indus script: penetrating into long-forgotten picto+graphic messages.
Visible Religion 6: pp. 114-135.]
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16. Conclusion.
The Indus script represents logo-syllabic writing. This means that it does not
constitute such a closed system of single-valued graphemes as the syllabic and
alphabetic scripts, which could be cracked as wholes. Rather, individual signs may
be interpreted one by one, and many of the graphemes are likely to remain
eternal mysteries.
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18. Anwer ahmed
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19. VEDIC LITERATURES
VEDAS
BHARMIN TEXT
UPNISHADAS
ARYANAKAS
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20. The Brahmi script
The Brahmi script is the earliest writing system
developed in India after the Indus script.
It is one of the most influential writing systems;
all modern Indian scripts and several hundred
scripts found in Southeast and East Asia are
derived from Brahmi.
Rather than representing individual
consonant (C) and vowel (V) sounds, its basic
writing units represent syllables of various kinds
(e.g. CV, CCV, CCCV, CVC, VC).
Scripts that operate on this basis are normally
classified as syllabic, but because the V and
C component of Brahmi symbols are clearly
distinguishable, it is classified as an alpha-
syllabic writing system.
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21. Origin of the Brahmi Script
One question about the origin of the Brahmi script relates to whether this
system derived from another script or it was an indigenous invention.
In the late 19th century CE, Georg Buhler advanced the idea that Brahmi
was derived from the Semitic script and adapted by the Brahman scholars
to suit the phonetic of Sanskrit and Prakrit.
India became exposed to Semitic writing during the 6th century BCE when
the Persian Achaemenid Empire took control of the Indus Valley (part of
present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northwestern India).
Aramaic was the language of ancient Persian government administration,
and official records were written using a North Semitic script.
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22. Greek and Aramaic inscriptions by king
Ashoka
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23. VEDAS
There are four types of Vedas – Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and
Atharvaveda. One of the best sources of Ancient Indian History is Vedic literature.
Vedas have formed the Indian scripture. The ideas and practices of Vedic religion
are codified by the Vedas and they also form the basis of classical Hinduism.
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•The earliest
reference for
singing
•The book of
magic and
charms
•It is the
earliest form
of Veda
•It is also
called the
book of
prayers
Yajurveda
Rig Veda
Samaveda Atharvaveda
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24. VEDA
WISDOM KNOWLEDGE VISION
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25. Rigveda
It is the oldest form of Veda and oldest known Vedic Sanskrit text
(1800 – 1100 BCE).
The meaning of the word ‘Rigveda’ is Praise Knowledge.
It has 10600 verses.
There are 10 books or mandalas, from which the book number 1
and 10 are the youngest ones as they were written later than
books 2 to 9.
Rigvedic books 2-9 deal with cosmology-origin of universe and
deities- god and goddess.
Rigvedic books 1 and 10 deal with philosophical questions and
also talk about various virtues including a charity in the society.
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The oldest Veda is the Rigveda. It has 1028 hymns called ‘Suktas’ and is a
collection of 10 books called ‘Mandalas
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26. Rigvedic books 2-7 are the oldest and shortest also called family books.
Rigvedic books 1 & 10 are the youngest and longest.
1028 hymns deal with deities including Agni, Indra and are attributed and
dedicated to a sage rishi.
The ninth Rigvedic book/mandala is solely dedicated to Soma.
The meters used to form hymns are Gayatri, Anushtubh, Trishtubh and
Jagati (Trishtubh and Gayatri are most important).
 3 BOOK –by rishi viswamitra- gyatri manta
 10 book- by rishi mahasukitya- 4 varna system
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27. Rig veda mandal Author
2nd division GRITSAMADA
3RD VISWAMITRA
4TH VAMDEVA
5TH ATRI
6TH BHARDWAJ
7TH VASHISTHA
8TH KANVA
9TH ANGIRA
10TH MAHASUKTIYA
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RIG VEDA
AITREYA KAUSHITAKI
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29. Samaveda
Known as the Veda of melodies and chants, Samaveda dates back to 1200-800
BCE. This Veda is related to public worship
There are 1549 verses- a group of lines which form one part of a song or poem
(except 75 verses, all have been taken from Rigveda).
There are two Upanishads embedded in Samaveda –
a. Chandogya Upanishad.
b. Kena Upanishad.
The Samaveda is considered as the root of the Indian classical music and
dance.
It is considered as the storehouse of the melodious chants.
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30. Though it has lesser verses than Rigveda, however, its texts are larger.
There are three recensions- [a revised edition of a text]. of the text of the
Samaveda – Kauthuma, Raṇayaniya and Jaimaniya.
Samaveda is categorised into two parts – Part-I includes melodies called
Gana & Part-II includes three verses book called Archika.
Samaveda Samhita is not meant to be read as a text, it is like a musical
score sheet that must be heard.
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31. Yajurveda
Stands to mean ‘Worship Knowledge’, Yajurveda dates back to 1100-800 BCE;
corresponding with Samaveda.
It compiles ritual-offering mantras/chants.
These chants were offered by the priest alongside a person who used to perform
a ritual (in most cases yajna fire.)
It has two types – Krishna (Black/Dark) & Shukla (White/Bright)
Krishna Yajurveda has an un-arranged, unclear, motley collection of verses
Shukla Yajurveda has arranged and clear verses
The oldest layer of Yajurveda has 1875 verses mostly taken up from Rigveda
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32. The middle layer of the Veda has Satapatha Brahmana which is a
commentary of Shukla Yajurveda
The youngest layer of Yajurveda consists of various Upanishads –
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
Isha Upanishad
Taittiriya Upanishad
Katha Upanishad
Shvetashvatara Upanishad
Maitri Upanishad
Vajasaneyi Samhita is the Samhita in the Shukla Yajurveda
There are four surviving recensions of the Krishna Yajurveda – Taittiriya
saṃhita, Maitrayani saṃhita, Kaṭha saṃhita, and Kapisthala saṃhita
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33. Atharvaveda
Stands to mean a tatpurusha compound of Atharvan, an ancient sage, and
knowledge (atharvan+knowledge), it dates back to 1000-800 BCE.
The daily procedures of life are very well enumerated in this Veda
It has 730 hymns/suktas, 6000 mantras, and 20 books
Paippalada and the Saunakiya are two surviving recensions of
Atharvaveda
Called a Veda of magical formulas, it includes three primary Upanishads –
Mundaka Upanishad, the Mandukya Upanishad, and the Prashna
Upanishad
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34. The 20 books are arranged by the length of hymns they contain
Unlike Samaveda where hymns are borrowed from Rigveda, hymns of
Atharvaveda are unique except a few
This Veda contains hymns many of which were charms and magic spells
which are meant to be pronounced by the person who seeks some benefit,
or more often by a sorcerer who would say it on his or her behalf
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35. UPANISHAD
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UPA= TO SIT NISHAD= NEAR
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36. Upanishad
The word Upanishad means to sit down near someone and denotes a
student sitting near his guru to learn.
Eventually the word began to be used for the secret knowledge imparted
by the guru to his selected pupils.
A number of treatises were prepared, first orally and then in writing, and
were called by the same name of Upanishad. Today Upanishads specify
philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning.
The main motto of the Upanishads is “Knowledge Awards Salvation”
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37. Upanishads are called Vedanta (the end of the Veda) firstly, because they
denote the last phase of the Vedic period and secondly, because they
reveal the final aim of the Veda.
The Oldest Upanishads are Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads
which date as back as the first millennium BC.
Latest were composed in the medieval and early modern period. The latest
Upnishad is Muktikā Upnishad and was recorded by Dara Shikoh.
It dates to 1656. Dara Shikoh was son of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and is
known to have translated fifty Upanishads into Persian.
There are 108 Upanishads and they are also called Vedanga. “Upa” means
nearby and “sada” means sit. So Upanishads contain the knowledge
imparted by the gurus to their disciples.
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38. There are 108 Upanishad. 11 are predominant and
they are called “Mukhya Upanishads“. They are as
follows:
Aitareya Upanishad
Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad
Taittirīya Upanaishad
Chāndogya Upanishad
Kena Upanisahda
Īsa Upanishad
Śvetāśvatara Upanishad
Kathopnishad
Muktika Upnishad
Māandūkya
Praśna
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39. ARANYAKAS- the book of forest
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Aranyakas are generally the concluding portions of the several Brahmanas, but
on account of their distinct character, contents and language deserve to be
reckoned as a distinct category of literature.
They are partly included in the Brahmanas themselves, but partly they are
recognized as independent works. Aranyaka literature is rather small as
compared to the Brahmanas. Whereas the Brahmanas deal with the huge bulk of
sacrificial paraphernalia which represents Karma-Kanda, the Aranyakas and
Upanishads, on the other hand, chiefly deal with the philosophical and
theosophical speculations which represent Jnana-Kanda.
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40. The term Aranyaka is derived from the word ‘Aranya‘ meaning ‘forest’.
The Aranyaka texts are so-called because ‘they were works to be read in
the forest’ in contradistinction to the regular Brahmanas, which were to be
read in the village.
Yajna and other rituals are prescribed only for those who live in homes and lead
the life of house-holders
Aranyakas containing explanations of the rituals and allegorical speculations
thereon are meant for Vanprasthas, who renounce family life residing in the forests
for tapas and other religious activities.
Or the reason might be that these texts were propounded by the Rishis who
resided in the forests and thought upon the secrets of the Yajnas.
These works form the basis of the Rahasya or secrets discussed in the
Upanishads, therefore, another name of the Aranyakas was ‘Rahasya‘ as well.
This name is mentioned in the Gopatha Brahmana and Manusmriti.
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Meaning of the Term ‘Aranyaka’
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41. Classification of the Aranyakas
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Today only seven Aranyakas are available. There is no Aranyaka which belongs to
the Atharvaveda.
(A) Aranyakas of the Rigveda:
1.Aitareya Aranyaka
2.Kaushitaki/ Shankhayana Aranyaka
(B) Aranyakas of the Samaveda:
1.Talavakara or Jaiminiya-Upanshad Aranyaka
2.Chandogya- Aranyaka
(C) Aranyaka of Shukla Yajurveda:
1.Brihadaranyaka
(D) Aranyakas of Krishna Yajurveda:
1.Taittiriya Aranyaka
2.Maitrayaniya Aranyaka
Among them Aitareya Aranyaka, Shatapatha Aranyaka and Taittiriya Aranyaka are
most important for study
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42. Epic Literatures
Mahabharata Ramayana
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43. Ramayana and Mahabharata – Epic
Literatures
About 2000 B.C., a branch of the Aryan race—apparently fair-skinned,
Sanskrit-speaking, warlike and nomadic-invaded India from the northwest
and drove the dark-skinned, peaceful and gentle Dravidians (aborigines of
India) southward.
The Aryans gave Vedic literature, Sanskrit epics, the Hindu religion and
Caste system. Their civilization, however, appears to be very ancient;
religion, philosophy, ethics, and literature all seem to have reached a high
level of development before authentic records were kept.
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44. The Vedic literature was vast and varied. It contained the highest spiritual
thought of the seers and sages. It was understood only by the learned.
But it was impossible for common people to know of the deeper
philosophies of the Vedas, Upanishads and Aranyakas, etc.
The seers realized this. In their desire to carry knowledge to the people at
large, they, therefore, composed the two great epics in later times.
The two epics were The RAMAYANA and The MAHABHARATA. The epics
were written during the later half of the second millennium and the first half
of the first millennium before the Christian Era.
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45. Origins
The original five books of an oral epic of local northern significance dealing
with a hero and his exile, the abduction of his wife by a rival king and her
rescue became conflated into seven books in which the hero Rama
became an avatar of the god Vishnu, the scene shifted to encompass the
whole of India, and the struggle to recover his wife became a metaphor for
the final triumph of the righteous.
Ramayana was the work of Valmiki. It contains 24 thousand slokas and is
divided into ten parts. According to Valmiki himself, he wanted to carry the
essence of the lessons of the Vedas to the common people by singing the
virtuous deeds of Ramachandra.
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46. BACKGROUND OF THE AUTHOR
Maharshi Valmiki, the author of the great Indian epic ramayana , was a
Hindu sage who lived around the beginning of the first millennium B.C.
He is referred to as the 'adikavi', the original creator of the Hindu 'sloka' – a
verse form in which most of the great epics such as Ramayana,
Mahabharata, Puranas, and other works are composed.
He was a Brahman by birth belonging to the lineage of Bhrigu.
Fate consigned him to a family of robbers which brought him up.
Accidental contact with the Saptarsis - the Seven Sages and with the sage
Narada changed his life.
By the repetition of Ramanama or the name of Ram, he attained the
supreme state of a 'maharshi' or great sage.
Since a 'valmika' or an anthill had grown over his body during his long
period of austerities and poised state of penance, he came to be known
as Valmiki
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47. Ramayana
Ramayana, (Sanskrit: “Rama’s Journey”) shorter of the two great epic
poems of India, the other being the Mahabharata (“Great Epic of the
Bharata Dynasty”).
The Ramayana was composed in Sanskrit, probably not before 300 BCE, by
the poet Valmiki and in its present form consists of some 24,000 couplets
divided into seven books.
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48. The Ramayana is an ancient Sanskrit epic which follows Prince Rama's
quest to rescue his beloved wife Sita from the clutches of Ravana with the
help of an army of monkeys.
It is traditionally attributed to the authorship of the sage Valmiki and dated
to around 500 BCE to 100 BCE.
Comprising 24,000 verses in seven cantos, the epic contains the teachings
of the very ancient Hindu sages.
One of the most important literary works of ancient India, it has greatly
influenced art and culture in the Indian subcontinent and South East Asia,
with versions of the story also appearing in the Buddhist canon from a very
early date.
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49. The story of Rama has constantly been retold in poetic and dramatic
versions by some of India's greatest writers and also in narrative sculptures
on temple walls.
It is one of the staples of later dramatic traditions, re-enacted in dance-
dramas, village theatre, shadow-puppet theatre and the annual Ram-lila
(Rama-play).
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50. Ramayana describes the life of Rama, the eldest son of the king of Ayodhya, Dasaratha.
When the old king Dasaratha wanted to place Rama, the crown prince, on throne, Rama decided to go to forest for fourteen
years in order to fulfill his father’s promise to his second queen Kaikeyee to keep her request at right time and Kaikeyee
demanded the banishment of Rama to forest so that her son Bharata could seat on the throne;
death of king Dasaratha in extreme sorrow for Rama’s departure;
Rama accompanied by his devoted wife Sita and younger brother Laxman went away to forest; a shocked Bharata went to
bring Rama back, but on Rama’s refusal he brought his foot-wear to place on throne and to rule the country on behalf of his
elder brother;
departure of Rama from Chitrakuta to Dandakaranya and stay there in a hut at Panchavati forest;
abduction of Sita by the demon king of Lanka, Ravana; constructing a bridge over sea, Rama’s invasion of Lanka; rescue of Sita
after destruction of the demons; after fourteen years of exile, return of Rama, Sita and Laxman to Ayodhya; Rama’s paternal
administration of his people; the suspicion expressed by a subject about the chastity of Sita while in Ravana’s custody; on report
of the matter to Rama by a spy, Rama’s order to Laxman to abandon Sita in a forest even though she was pregnant; Sita’s stay in
Valiniki’s Tapovan where her two sons Kusha and Lava were born; taught and trained by Valmiki-, the royal sons grew up as
heroic boys; visit of Valmiki to Ayodhya with Kusha and Lava; Kusha and Lava’s melodious song of Valmiki’s Ramayana before
the assembled gathering; on demands of all Sita’s return; in order to prove her purity before all, her prayer to mother earth to
take her back and her disappearance when the earth split to absorb her; and at last, giving Koshala to Kusha and North Koshala
to Lava to rule as kings ; Rama’s abandonment of his mortal body in the river Saraju. This is the substance of the great epic
Ramayana.
Valmiki described every episode of Rama’s life in great details. Side by side he added many instructive stories to give the epic a
vast shape. The purpose was to keep mankind on a virtuous path. This epic has influenced and regulated the Indian way of life
like a social and moral constitution. Ramayan depicts the values of truthfulness, morality and nobility as supreme ideals of life.
It also reflects the spirit of that time, the spirit of the people, the nature of ideal monarchy, patriotism towards motherland and
human relations in perfect form. For thousands of years, the people of India have derived inspirations from the lessons of the
Ramayana to live a nobler and higher life.
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51. Life Lessons From Ramayana That Will
Help You In Your Life.
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52. 1. Truth Triumphs
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53. 2. Unity Can Overcome any Difficulty in Life
– Life Lessons From Ramayana
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54. 3. Relationships are Valuable Than Money
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55. 4. Treat Everyone Equally
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56. 5. We Should Always Keep Good Company
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57. 6. Forgiveness is Greater Than Revenge
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58. Ethics from the Ramayana
1. Provide a concrete vision to followers.
2. Believe in the ability of subordinates to achieve an aim and inspire them
to do so.
3. Treat all people equally.
4. Stand courageously in the face of great adversity.
5. Stand for morality but do not engage in judgmental posturing.
6. Consult subordinates on important matters and allow them to give their
opinions freely.
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59. 7. Follow a code of ethics and be ready to sacrifice to follow it
8. To be humble and treat everyone with respect
9. To maintain a calm and peaceful mind devoid of anger
10. To maintain good company, It is not enough to have a good heart, we
need to be careful while choosing friends
11. Lord Rama portrays a persona of ‘eternal optimist’. The lesson here is to
be an optimist and respond positively even in adverse situations
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60. Mahabharata
Great and glorious is the
land of Bharata. To
describe the deeds of
the dynasty of Bharata
that Vyasa wrote The
Mahabharata. No
where on earth is to be
seen such a lengthy
poetic-work as the
Mahabharata. It
contains one lakh ten
thousand slokas.
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61. Origin of Mahabharat
From the Mahabharata we learn that the
story was originally conceived by the
great sage Vyasa, also known as Krishna-
Dwaipayana, as a poem. Since it was
conceived by him as a poem, Brahma,
the creator god, wanted the world to
recognize it as a poem only.
We further learn that having conceived it,
Vyasa was concerned that it was humanly
impossible to render such a large and
voluminous work into writing by himself. It
needed a super human effort for which
divine help was needed. Therefore, he
went to Brahma, the creator god, and
sought his help. Brahma suggested that he
should seek the help of Ganesha, the
leader of the warrior gods (ganas), and
the son of Shiva.
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62. Anwer ahmed
Mahabharata was viewed in those days as a (religious) text of History. According to some authorities, the essence of
different philosophies of the Vedas and Upanishads were presented in shape of interesting themes, episodes and
stories for the understanding of the common people.
As a store-house of knowledge Vyasa’s Mahabharata has influenced the Indian thought through centuries of time.
Man and woman, the old and the young, the learned and the illiterate, all sections of people of the Indian sub-
continent knew the theme of Mahabharata since time immemorial.
Vyasa’s Mahabharata begins with the story of the rule of the kings of the “Lunar Dynasty” at Hastinapur. A virtuous
monarch of that dynasty named Santanu had a son named Bhishma, who was ever truthful and ever valorous. King
Santanu had two other sons from his another queen named Satyabati. They were Bichitrabirya and
Chitrangada. True to his vow Bhishma did not accept the throne after the death of his father and remained a
bachelor for life. The kingdom, therefore, was ruled by Bichitrabirya.
This king had two sons named Dhrutarastra and Pandu. Since the elder Dhrutarastra was blind from his birth, his
younger brother Pandu ascended the throne after the death of his father. Pandu had five sons named as Yudhisthir,
Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadev. They were known as the Pandavas. On the other hand, the hundred sons of
Dhrutarastra were known as the Kauravas as the descendants of the former king of the dynasty named Kuru.
Duryodhan was the first among the sons of Dhrutarastra.
The Indian humanity has derived from the Mahabharata much inspirations for ages. The lessons of this great epic
have enabled man to overcome the sorrows, sufferings, distress and misfortunes in their worldly existence. In the
entire world literature there is no other work comparable to India’s Mahabharata.
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After the death of king Pandu his five sons were given one portion of the kingdom
to rule.
Inside a forest called Khandava, the Pandava brothers built their capital and
named it as Indraprastha.
This caused envy in the mind of the Kaurava brothers. They therefore invited the
Pandava brothers to play the game of Dice with them with bet over victory or
defeat.
Playing with trick, the Kauravas defeated the Pandava king Yudhisthira again and
again. According to the bet the defeated brothers agreed to live the life of exiles in
forests for twelve years, and thereafter to spend one more year in disguise to
escape detection.
At the end of their ordeal for thirteen years the Pandava brothers returned and
asked the Kauravas their kingdom. But the Kaurava king Duryodhan refused to
give back their territory saying that he would not give even a particle of earth
without battle. Because of this injustice a fierce battle was fought between the.
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64. With this central theme Vyasa added many legends, traditions, Puranic episodes,
accounts of other royal dynasties, as well as descriptions of prevailing socio-
religious systems, customs and manners, moral values, political conditions,
traditions of war and diplomacy, and faiths and beliefs of the people.
The Mahabharata described the virtues of vigour for worldly existence as well as of
the higher ideals of the life like truthfulness and righteousness.
At several places Vyasa included deeper philosophies and spiritual thoughts to
create awareness about man’s divine existence
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65. Teachings of Mahabharata
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66. A revengeful instinct can only lead to one's doom
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67. Stand by what's right; even fight for it
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68. The eternal bond of friendship
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69. Half knowledge can be dangerous
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70. Don't be swayed by greed
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71. We cannot give up on life despite all hurdles
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72. Being a woman does not make you a lesser
individual
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73. Krishna taught us that one must perform his duty.
From Duryodhana, we learnt that ' pride comes before the fall .
Karna taught us about the virtue of kindness.
Draupadi taught us how we should think before we speak.
Shakuni's resolution to take revenge lead to the destruction of the Kuru
clan. Revenge consumes all!
Abhimanyu's brave yet tragic breaking of the "Chakravyuh" teaches us how
half knowledge can be dangerous.
Arjuna taught us how single-minded focus can help achieve one's goals.
Yudhishtra taught us two things- Righteousness is useless unless paired with
foresight.
The consequences of Dhritarashtra's actions taught us how one should not
be blinded by love.
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Life Lessons Learnt From The Characters Of The
Mahabharata
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74. The Puranas
The Friendly Treatises
The Puranas are of the same class as the Itihasas (the Ramayana,
Mahabharata, etc.). They have five characteristics (Pancha Lakshana)
1. History
2. Cosmology (with various symbolical illustrations of philosophical principles)
3. Secondary creation,
4. Genealogy of kings,
5. Manvantaras (the period of Manu’s rule consisting of 71 celestial Yugas or
308,448,000 years).
All the Puranas belong to the class of Suhrit-Sammitas, or the Friendly Treatises,
while the Vedas are called the Prabhu-Sammitas or the Commanding Treatises
with great authority.
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75. Vyasa is the compiler of the Puranas from age to age; and for this age, he
is Krishna-Dvaipayana, the son of Parasara.
The Puranas were written to popularise the religion of the Vedas.
They contain the essence of the Vedas.
The aim of the Puranas is to impress on the minds of the masses the
teachings of the Vedas and to generate in them devotion to God, through
concrete examples, myths, stories, legends, lives of saints, kings and great
men, allegories and chronicles of great historical events.
The sages made use of these things to illustrate the eternal principles of
religion.
The Puranas were meant, not for the scholars, but for the ordinary people
who could not understand high philosophy and who could not study the
Vedas.
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76. The Darsanas or schools of philosophy are very stiff.
They are meant only for the learned few.
The Puranas are meant for the masses with inferior intellect.
Religion is taught in a very easy and interesting way through the Puranas.
Even to this day, the Puranas are popular. The Puranas contain the history
of remote times.
They also give a description of the regions of the universe not visible to the
ordinary physical eye.
They are very interesting to read and are full of information of all kinds.
Children hear the stories from their grandmothers. Pundits and Purohits hold
Kathas or religious discourses in temples, on banks of rivers and in other
important places. Agriculturists, labourers and bazaar people hear the
stories.
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77. WELL KNOWN
PURANS
BHARMA
BHAGVAT
PADMA
VISHNU
AGNI
MATSYA
GARUDA
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78. In Indian Literature the Puranas occupy a unique position in the sacred
literature of theHindus.
They are regarded next in importance only to the Vedas and the Epics.
There are said to be eighteen Puranas and about the same number of
Upapuranas.
Puranas are mythological works which propagate religious and spiritual
messages though parables and fables.
They have a potent influence in the development of the religious lives of
the people.
The puranas follow the lines of the epics, and the earliest Puranas were
complied in the Gupta Period.
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79. Eighteen Puranas
There are eighteen main Puranas and an equal number of subsidiary Puranas or Upa-Puranas. The main
Puranas are: Vishnu Purana, Naradiya Purana, Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Garuda (Suparna) Purana,
Padma Purana, Varaha Purana, Brahma Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana,
Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana, Matsya Purana, Kurma Purana, Linga Purana,
Siva Purana, Skanda Purana and Agni Purana. Of these, six are Sattvic Puranas and glorify Vishnu; six are
Rajasic and glorify Brahma; six are Tamasic and they glorify Siva.
Neophytes or beginners in the spiritual path are puzzled when they go through Siva Purana and Vishnu
Purana. In Siva Purana, Lord Siva is highly eulogised and an inferior position is given to Lord Vishnu.
Sometimes Vishnu is belittled. In Vishnu Purana, Lord Hari is highly eulogised and an inferior status is given
to Lord Siva. Sometimes Lord Siva is belittled. This is only to increase the faith of the devotees in their
particular Ishta-Devata. Lord Siva and Lord Vishnu are one.
The best among the Puranas are the Srimad Bhagavata and the Vishnu Purana. The most popular is the
Srimad Bhagavata Purana. Next comes Vishnu Purana. A portion of the Markandeya Purana is well
known to all Hindus as Chandi, or Devimahatmya. Worship of God as the Divine Mother is its theme.
Chandi is read widely by the Hindus on sacred days and Navaratri (Durga Puja) days.
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80. Anwer ahmed
JAINISM BUDDHISM
Buddhist and Jain Literature
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81. Buddhist and Jain Literature
The religious books of the Jains and the Buddhists refer to historical persons
or incidents. The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was
spoken in Magadha and South Bihar. The Buddhist works can be divided
into the canonical(officially accepted as genuine) and the non-canonical.
The canonical literature is best represented by the "Tripitakas", that is, three
baskets - Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Vinaya
Pitaka deals with rules and regulations of daily life. Sutta Pitaka contains
dialogues and discourses on morality and deals with Dharma while
Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with philosophy and metaphysics. It includes
discourses on various subjects such as ethics, psychology, theories of
knowledge and mataphysical problems.
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82. BUDDHIST AND JAIN LITERATURE IN PALI,
PRAKRIT AND SANSKRIT
The religious books of the Jains and the Buddhists refer to historical persons or incidents.
The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in Magadha and
South Bihar. The Buddhist works can be divided into the canonical and the non-canonical.
The canonical literature is best represented by the “Tripitakas”, that is, three baskets-
Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Vinaya Pitaka deals with rules and
regulations of daily life.
Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues and discourses on morality and deals with Dharma while
Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with philosophy and metaphysics.
It includes discourses on various subjects such as ethics, psychology, theories of
knowledge and mataphysical problems.
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83. Buddhist
Text
Canonical
Vinay
Pitakas
Abhidhham
pitakas
Non-
canonical
Jatakas
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Sutta
Pitakas
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84. The non-canonical literature is best represented by the Jatakas.
Jatakas are the most interesting stories on the previous births of the Buddha.
It was believed that before he was finally born as Gautama, the Buddha practising Dharma
passed through more than 550 births, in many cases even in the form of animals.
Each birth story is called a Jataka. Jatakas throw invaluable light on the social and
economic conditions ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century BC.
They also make incidental reference to political events in the age of the Buddha.
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85. The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth
century AD in Valabhi in Gujarat.
The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chhedab
Sutras and Malasutras.
Jainism helped in the growth of a rich literature comprising poetry,
philosophy and grammar. These works contain many passages which help
to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
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86. The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD in
Valabhi in Gujarat.
The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chhedab Sutras and
Malasutras.
Among the important Jain scholars, reference may be made to Haribhadra Suri, (eighth
century AD) and Hemchandra Suri, (twelfth century AD).
Jainism helped in the growth of a rich literature comprising poetry, philosophy and
grammar.
These works contain many passages which help us to reconstruct the political history of
eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders.
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87. OTHER SANSKRIT LITERATURE
We also have a large body of books dealing with various sciences, law, medicine and
grammar.
To this class belong the law books called the Dharmasutras and smritis, together known
as Dharmashastras.
The Dharmasutras were compiled between 500 and 200 BC.
These lay down duties for different varnas as well as for the kings and their officials.
They prescribed the rules according to which property had to be held, sold and inherited.
They also prescribe punishments for persons guilty of assault, murder and adultery.
The Manusmriti tells us about the role of man and woman in society, their code of
conduct and relationship with each other.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra is an important treatise of the Mauryan times. It reflects the state
of society and economy at that time and provides rich material for the study of ancient
Indian polity and economy.
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88. The works of
Bhasa
Shudraka
Kalidasa
Banabhatta
provided us with glimpses of the social and cultural life of northern and
central India in times of the Guptas and Harsha.
The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on
the works of Panini and Patanjali.
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89. Famous Sanskrit Authors of the Gupta
Period
The Gupta period was India’s golden age of culture and one of the
greatest and most glorious times.
The Gupta kings patronized the classical Sanskrit literature.
They helped liberally the scholars and poets of Sanskrit. This enriched the
Sanskrit langauge.
In fact Sanskrit language became the language of cultured and educated
people.
Many great poets, dramatists and scholars appeared during this period
and works in Sanskrit reached great heights.
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90. 1. Kalidas:
Poet Kalidas wrote many beautiful poems and plays. His works in Sanskrit are
considered the gems of Literature. He wrote passionate plays and poems. His
wonderful skill is exhibited in his poem Meghaduta, Ritusambara. Kumar
Sambhavam and Raghuvamsha.
His plays are Abhijan Shakuntalam, Vikramorvashi and Malvikaganimithram.
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91. 2. Vishakhdutta:
Vishakhdutta was another great play writer of
this period.
He wrote two great historical plays like-
 Mudra Rakshas
 Dev Chandra Gupta.
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92. 3. Shudraka
He wrote an exciting play
MrichchhaKatikam or the
Toy Cart.
It is a great source of socio-
cultural conditions of that time
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93. 4. Harisena:
Among the great poets and play
writers of the Gupta period was
Harisena.
He wrote poems praising the valour
of Samudra Gupta.
It is inscribed on Allahabad pillar.
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94. 5. Bhasa:
He wrote thirteen plays which echo
the lifestyle of the era along with its
prevalent beliefs and culture
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95. The Kushana kings patronised Sanskrit scholars.
Ashvaghosha wrote the Buddhacharitra which is the biography of the Buddha.
He also wrote Saundarananda, which is a fine example of Sanskrit poetry.
India produced great literary works on subjects like Maths, Astronomy, Astrology,
Agriculture and Geography etc.
Books on medicine were written by Charak and on surgery by Sushruta.
Madhava wrote a book on pathology.
Books written on astronomy by Varahamihira and Aryabhatta and on astrology
by Lagdhacharya had all achieved prominence.
There is none that can compete with Varahamihiras Bhrihatsamhita, Aryabhatia
and Vedanga Jyotisha.
The post-medieval period in northern India saw the rise of Sanskrit literature in
Kashmir.
Somadeva’s Katha-sarit-sagar and Kalhan’s Rajatarangini are of historical
importance.
It gives a vivid account of the Kings of Kashmir. The Geet Govinda of Jaidev is
the finest poem of Sanskrit literature of this period, besides numerous works on
different aspects of art and architecture, sculpture, iconography and related
fields.
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96. Anwer ahmed
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97. Anwer ahmed
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98. Anwer ahmed
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99. अ टा यायी — पा ण न
महाभा य — पतंज ल
नागानंद — हषवधन
नषादचा रता — ीहष
मृ!छक$टका — सु'का
गीतगो)वंद — जयदेव
नवर+न — वीरसेना
मु'ा, — )वशाखद/ा
राजतरं0गणी — क1हन
कथास र+सागर — सोमदेव
कामसू4 — वातसायन
5शा6तो+कम लका — अमोघवषा
8वपन8वद/म् — भासा
बु;ध च रता — अ<वघोषा
ना=यशा84 — भरत
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100. अ भ>ान शाक
ु 6तलम — काल?दास
)व@मोवशी — काल?दास
रघुवंश — काल?दास
अमरकोश — अमरशाह
पंच स;धां तका और बृहत् सं$हता — वराह म$हर
सूय स;धा6त और आयभ=ट — आयभ=ट
पंचतं4 — )व णु शमा
नी तसार — कामंदका
ऐहोल 5ि8त — र)व कृ त
इंFडका — मेग8थनीज
अ84शा84 — कौ$ट1य
चरक सं$हता — चरक
ल?लावती — भा8कर II
हषच रत और कादIबर? — हषवधन
र+नावल? — हषवधन
गतसJतशती — हल
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101. NORTHERN INDIAN LANGUAGES &
LITERATURE
We have already seen how languages evolved in India right upto the early
medieval period. The old apabhramsha had taken new forms in some
areas or was in the process of evolving into other forms.
These languages were evolving at two levels: the spoken and the written
language.
The old Brahmi script of the Ashoka days had undergone a great change.
The alphabets during Ashoka’s period were uneven in size but by the time
of Harsha, the letters had become of the same size and were regular,
presenting the picture of a cultivated hand.
The studies have indicated that all the scripts of present northern Indian
languages, except that of Urdu, have had their origin in old Brahmi.
A long and slow process had given them this shape. If we compare the
scripts of Gujarati, Hindi and Punjabi, we can easily understand this change.
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102. Greek and Aramaic inscriptions by king
Ashoka
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103. As for the spoken word, there are over 200 languages or dialects spoken in India at
present.
Some are widely used while others are limited to a particular area. Out of all these,
only 22 have found their way into our Constitution.
A large number of people speak Hindi in its different forms that include Braj Bhasha,
and Avadhi (spoken in Oudh region), Bhojpuri, Magadhi, and Maithili (spoken
around Mithila), and Rajasthani and Khadi Boli (spoken around Delhi).
Rajasthani is another variant or dialect of Hindi.
This classification has been made on the basis of literature produced by great poets
over a length of time.
Thus, the language used by Surdas and Bihari has been given the name of Braj
Bhasha; that used by Tulsidas in the Ramacharitamanasa is called Avadhi and the
one used by Vidyapati has been termed as Maithili.
But Hindi, as we know it today is the one called Khadi Boli.
Though Khusrau has used Khadi Boli in his compositions in the thirteenth century its
extensive use in literature began only in the nineteenth century. It even shows some
influence of Urdu.
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104. Among the noted Hindu poets of this period were.
Kabir,
Tulsidas,
Surdas and Rahim.
Kabirs dohas are still so popular today while Tulsidas’s Ramcharitmanas has
become the most sacred book of the Hindus.
Behari’s Satsai written during Akbar’s reign is very famous.
Alankarashekhara by Keshav Mishra was produced in Akbar’s court. It was
a great Sanskrit work on the styles of writing.
Akbar also got many Sanskrit books like Bhagwad Gita and Upanishads
translated into Persian
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105. PERSIAN AND URDU
Urdu emerged as an independent langauge towards the end of the 4th
century AD.
Arabic and Persian were introduced in India with the coming of the Turks
and the Mongols. Persian remained the court langage for many centuries.
Urdu as a language was born out of the interaction between Hindi and
Persian.
After the conquest of Delhi (1192), the Turkish people settled in this region.
Urdu was born out of the interaction of these settlers and soldiers in the
barracks with the common people.
Originally it was a dialect but slowly it acquired all the features of a formal
language when the authors started using Persian script.
It was further given an impetus by its use in Bahamani states of
Ahmadnagar, Golkunda, Bijapur and Berar. Here it was even called
dakshini or daccani (southern). As time passed, it became popular with the
masses of Delhi.
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106. Urdu became more popular in the early eighteenth century. People even wrote
accounts of later Mughals in Urdu.
Gradually it achieved a status where literature-both poetry and prose-started being
composed in it. The last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar wrote poetry in it.
The earliest Urdu poet is supposed to be Khusrau (1253-1325). He started writing as a
poet in the reign of Sultan Balban and was a follower of Nizam ud-din Auliya.
He is said to have composed ninty-nine works on separate themes and numerous
verses of poetry. Among the important works composed by him are Laila Majnun and
Ayina-I-Sikandari dedicated to Alau-din-Khalji. Among other well-known poets are
Ghalib, Zauq, and Iqbal.
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107. Iqbal’s Urdu poetry is available in his collection called Bang- i - dara. His
Sarejahan se achcha Hindostan hamara is sung and played at many of the
national celebrations in India.
No army parade is considered complete without the army band playing
this tune.
Among the best prose writers were people like Pandit Ratan Nath Sarshar,
who wrote the famous Fasanah- i-Azad. Even in the early days, Munshi
Prem Chand, who is supposed to be a doyen of Hindi literature, wrote in
Urdu. Urdu has given us a new form of poem that is called a nazm.
Urdu was patronised by the Nawabs of Lucknow, who held symposiums in
this language. Slowly it became quite popular.
Pakistan has adopted Urdu as the state language
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108. There was a tremendous development in the field of literature during the
Mughal times.
Babar and Humauan were lovers of literature. Baber was himself a great scholar
of Persian.
He wrote a book known as Tuzek-e-Babari which is highly esteemed by the
Turkish Literature.
Humayun got the treatise translated into Arabic. He too was a lover of learning
and had establihsed a big Library. Humayun Nama, tops the books written in his
times.
Akbar was very fond of leaning. ‘Akbar Nama’, Sur Sagar, Ram Charitamanas
are prominent among the books written during his time. Malik Muhammad
Jayasis Padmavat and Keshav’s Ram Chandrika were also written during the
same period.
The literary activities suffered during Aurangzeb’s time Urdu literature started
developing during the last days of the Mughal emperor. This credit goes to Sir
Sayyid Ahmed Khan and Mirza Galib.
The language of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan was very simple and impressive. His
compositions inspired the other urdu writer Mirza Galib, who was a famous poet
of his time. He made an important contribution to uplift Urdu poetry. There were
some other writers also who took interest in Urdu poetry and enriched the Urdu
literature. Maulvi Altab Hussain Ali, Akbar Allahabadi and Dr. Mohammed Iqbal
are some famous names.
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Development of Literature during the
Mughal Period
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109. HINDI LITERATURE
These was a tremendous growth of regional languages like Hindi, Bengali,
Assamese, Oriya, Marathi and Gujarati during this time.
In the South, Malayalam emerged as an independent language in the 14th
century.
The emergence of all these languages resulted in the decline of Sanskrit as
they came to be used as the medium through which the administrative
machinery functioned.
The rise of the Bhakti movement and the use of these regional langages by
the various saints helped in their growth and development.
We have already noted the various dialects that developed in northern
and western India.
Prithviraj Raso by Chand Bardai is supposed to be the first book in the Hindi
language. It is an account of exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan. In its imitation
several other rasos were written. The language went on changing as the
area where it was used expanded. New words to express new situations
were either coined or taken from areas coming under its influence.
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110. Hindi literature looked to Sanskrit classics for guidance and Bharata’s
Natyashastra was kept in mind by Hindi writers.
During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries there started a movement in
southern India that was called the Bhakti movement.
As its influence reached the north, it started affecting the prose and poetry
that were being composed in Hindi.
Poetry now became largely devotional in nature. Some of the poets like
Tuisidas wrote poetry in a language which was of that region only, while
others like Kabir, who moved from place to place added Persian and Urdu
words as well.
Though it is said that Tuisidas wrote Ramcharit Manas based on Valmiki’s
Ramayana, he also alters situations and adds quite a few new scenes and
situations based on folklore. For example, Sita’s exile is mentioned in
Valmiki’s version but it is not mentioned in Tulsidas’s account.
Tuisidas has deified his hero while the hero of Valmiki is a human being
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111. Hindi evolved during the Apabhramsa stage between the 7th and 8th centuries
A.D. and the 14th C.
It was characterized as Veergatha Kala i.e. the age of heroic poetry or the Adi
Kala (early period).
It was patronised by the Rajput rulers as it glorified chiralry and poetry.
The most famous figures from this period were Kabir and Tulsidas.
In modern times, the Khadi dialect became more prominent and a variety of
literature was produced in Sanskrit.
Similarly, Surdas wrote his Sur Sagar in which he talks of Krishna as an infant, a
young lad indulging in pranks and a young man engaged in dalliance with the
gopis.
These poets made a deep impression on the minds of the listeners. If the festivals
associated with Rama and Krishna have become so very popular, the credit
goes to these poets. Their versions became the source of inspiration not only for
other poets but also for painters in the medieval ages.
They inspired Mirabai, who sang in Rajasthani language, and Raskhan, who,
though a Muslim, sang in praise of Krishna. Nandadasa was an important Bhakti
poet.
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112. Rahim and Bhushan were a class apart. Their subject was not devotion, but
spiritual. Bihari wrote his Satsai in the seventeenth century; it gives us a
glimpse of shringar(love) and other rasas.
All the above mentioned Hindi poets, except Kabir, expressed their
sentiments essentially to satisfy their own devotional instincts.
Kabir did not believe in institutionalised religion. He was a devotee of a
formless God. Chanting His name was the be-all and end-all for him.
All these poets influenced the north Indian society in a manner that had
never happened earlier.
As it is easier to remember poetry than prose, they became immensely
popular. During the last 150 years, many writers have contributed to the
development of modern India literature, written in a number of regional
languages as well as in English. One of the greatest Bengali writers,
Rabindranath Tagore became the first Indian to win the Nobel Prize for
literature (Geetanjali) in 1913.
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113. However, it is only with the beginning of nineteenth century that-Hindi prose came into its
own. Bharatendu Harishchandra was one of the earliest to produce dramas in Hindi which
were basically translations of texts written in Sanskrit and other languages. But he set the
trend. Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi was another author who wrote translations or made
adaptations from Sanskrit. Bankim Chandra Chatterji (l 838-94) wrote novels originally in
Bangla. They came to be translated into Hindi and became very popular. Vande
Mataram, our national song, is an excerpt from his novel, Anand Math. Swami Dayanand’s
contribution to Hindi cannot be ignored. Originally a Gujarati and a scholar of Sanskrit, he
advocated Hindi as a common language for the whole of India. He started writing in Hindi
and contributed articles to journals essentially engaged in religious and social reforms.
SatyarthaPrakash was his most important work in Hindi. Among other names who have
enriched Hindi literature, is that of Munshi Prem Chand, who switched over from Urdu to
Hindi. Surya Kant Tripathi, ‘Nirala’, achieves recognition because he questioned the
orthodoxies in society. Mahadevi Verma is the first woman writer in Hindi to highlight issues
related to women. Maithili Sharan Gupt is another important name. Jaishankar Prasad
wrote beautiful dramas.
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114. TELUGU, KANNADA AND MALAYALAM
LITERATURE
The four Dravadan
languages Tamil, Telugu,
Kannada and Malyalam
developed their own
literature.
Tamil being the oldest of
these langauges began
writing earlier and produced
the sangam literature - the
oldest literature in Tamil.
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Dravidian
language
Telugu
Tamil
Malyalam
Kannada
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115. Telugu literature
Telugu literature is the body of works written in the Telugu language. It consists of
poems, short stories, novels, plays, and song lyrics, among others. There is some
indication that Telugu literature dates at least to the middle of the first millennium,
the first extant works are from the 11th century when the Mahabharata was first
translated to Telugu from Sanskrit by Nannaya. The language experienced a
golden age under the patronage of the Vijayanagara king-poet Krishnadevaraya.
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116. Telugu Literature
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The Vijayanagara period was the golden age of Telugu literature. Nachana Somanatha, a
court poet of Bukka I, produced a poetical work titled Uttaraharivamsam.
Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), the greatest of the Vijayanagara emperors, was a poet of
great merit. His work Amukta Malyada is regarded as an excellent prabandha in Telugu
literature.
Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly known as ashtadiggajas adorned his
court. Among them, Allasani Peddana, the author of Manucharitram, was the greatest.
He was known as Andhra kavitapitamaha.
The eight poets of the group were;
• Andhra kavitapitamaha
• Nandi Timmana, the author of Parijathapaharanam,
• Madayagari Mallana,
• Dhurjati,
• Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi,
• Pingali Surana,
• Ramaraja Bhushana
• Tenali Ramakrishna.
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117. Anwer ahmed
Dhurjati, a devotee of Shiva, composed two poetical works of great merit known as
Kalahasteeswara Mahatmayam
Kalahasteeswara Satakam,
Pingali Surana composed two works
Raghavapandaviyam
Kalapuranodayam.
In the former, he attempted a literary feat telling the story of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata
simultaneously. Tenali Ramakrishna, the court jester, was an interesting figure of the
Krishnadevaraya’s court. His practical jokes on high-placed men of the time are recounted with
pleasure even today. Ramakrishna was the author of Panduranga Mahatmayam which was considered
one of the greatest poetical works of Telugu literature.
Ramarajabhushana was the author of Vasucharitram. He was also known as Bhattumurti. His other
works include Narasabhupaliyam and Harishchandra Nalopakhyanam. It is a poetical work on the
model of Raghavapandaviyam. One can read in it stories of Nala as well as Harishchandra.
Madayagari Mallana’s work Rajashekharacharitra is a prabandha dealing with the wars and loves of
Rajashekhara, king of Avanti. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra was the author of two works Ramabhyudayam
and Sakalakathasara Sangraham.
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118. Kannada Literature
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Apart from Telugu, Vijayanagara rulers extended their patronage to Kannada and Sanskrit
writers as well. Many Jain scholars contributed to the growth of Kannada literature.
Madhava wrote Dharmanathapurana on the fifteenth tirthankara. Another Jain scholar,
Uritta Vilasa, wrote Dharma Parikshe. The Sanskrit works of the period include
Yadavabhyudayam by Vedanatha Desika and Parasara Smriti Vyakhya of
Madhavacharya.
Kannada language developed fully after the tenth century AD. The earliest known literary
work in Kannada is Kavirajamang written by the Rashtrakuta King, Nripatunga
Amoghavarsha I. Pampa, known as the father of Kannada wrote his great poetic works
Adi Purana and Vïkramarjiva Vijaya in the tenth century AD. Pampa lived in the court
of Chalukya Arikesari. In his poetic skill, beauty of description, delineation of character
and development of rasa, Pampa is unrivalled. Ponna and Ranna were two other poets
who lived during the reign of Rashtrakuta Krishna III. Ponna wrote an epic named Shanti
Purana and Ranna wrote Ajitanatha Purano. Together Pampa, Ponna and Ranna earned
the title ratnatraya (the three gems).
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119. Anwer ahmed
In the thirteenth century new feats were achieved in Kannada literature. Harishvara wrote
Harishchandra Kavya and Somanatha Charita whereas Bandhuvarma wrote
Harivamshabhyudaya and Jiva Sambodhana. Under the patronage of later Hoysala
rulers, several literary works were produced. Rudra Bhata wrote Jagannathavijaya.
Andayya’s Madana Vijaya or Kabbïgara Kava is a work of special interest in pure
Kannada without the mixture of Sanskrit words. Mallikarjuna’s Suktisudharnava, the
first anthology in Kannada and Kesirja’s Shabdamanidarpana on grammar are two other
standard works in the Kannada language.
Kannada literature flourished considerably between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries
under the patronage of the Vijayanagara kings. Poets of all religious groups made important
contribution to it. Kunura Vyasa wrote Bharata and Narahari wrote Tarave Ramayana.
This is the first Rama Katha in Kannada composed on the basis of Valmikis Ramayana.
Lakshamisha who lived in the seventeenth century wrote Jaïmini Bharata and earned the
titled of Kamata-Karicutavana-Chaitra (the spring of the Karnataka mango grove).
The other eminent poet of this period was the great Sarvajna, popularly known as the
people’s poet. His aphoristic tripadi (three-lined) compositions serve as a source of
wisdom
and ethics. A special mention may be made of Honnamma, perhaps the first outstanding
poetess in Kannada. Her Hadibadeya Dharma (Duty of a Devout Wife) is a compendium
of ethics.
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120. Malayalam Literature
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Malayalam is spoken in Kerala and the adjoining areas. The language of Malayalam
emerged around the eleventh century AD. By fifteenth century Malayalam was recognised
as an independent language.
Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary on Arthashastra and Kokasandisan are two great works.
Rama Panikkar and Ramanuj an Ezhuthachan are well known authors of Malayalam
literature. Though it developed much later compared to other South Indian languages,
Malayalam has made a mark as a powerful medium of expression. Now a large number of
journals, newspapers and magazines are published in Malayalam. When people read and
write in their own language, they enjoy it more. This is because language is a part of their
culture. It is so well inter woven in their social life that they can express and feel their
emotions as well in their own language. This, must also be the case with you and your
language also.
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121. TAMIL OR SANGAMA LITERATURE
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Tamil as a written language was known since the beginning of the Christian era. It is,
therefore, no wonder that considerable Sangama literature was produced in the early four
centuries of the Christian era, although it was finally compiled by 600 AD. Poets who in
these assemblies were patronised by kings and chieftains produced the Sangama literature
over a period of three to four centuries. Poets, bards and writers, authors came from
various parts of South India to Madurai. Such assemblies were called “Sangamas”, and
the literature produced in these assemblies was called “Sangama literature”. The contributions
of Tamil saints like Thiruvalluvar who wrote ‘Kural’ which has been translated into many
langauges are noteworthy. The Sangama literature is a collection of long and short poems
composed by various poets in praise of numerous heroes and heroines. They are secular
in nature and of a very high quality. Three such sangams were held. The poems collected
in the first sangam have been lost. In the second Sangam about 2000 poems have been
collected.
There are about 30,000 lines of poetry, which are arranged in eight anthologies called
Ettuttokoi. There are two main groups – the Patinenkil Kanakku (the eighteen lower
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122. Anwer ahmed
collections) and Pattupattu (the ten songs). The former is generally assumed to be older
than the latter, and considered to be of more historical importance. Thiruvallurar’s work
‘Kural’ is divided into three parts. The first part deals with the epics, the second part with
polity and government and the third part with love.
Besides the Sangama texts, we have a text called Tolkkappiyam, which deals with grammar
and poetry. In addition, we have the twin epics of Silappadikaram and Manimekalai.
These two were composed around the sixth century AD. The first is considered as the
brightest gem of Tamil literature and deals with a love story. The second epic was written
by a grain merchant of Madurai. These epics throw light on the socio-economic life of
Tamils from second century to sixth century AD.
From the 6th to 12th century AD, the Tamil devotional poems written by Nayanmars
(saints who sang in praise of Shaivism) and Alvars herald the great Bhakti movement
which engulfed the entire Indian sub-continent. During this period, Kambaramayanam and
Periya Puranam were two Tamil literary classic writers.
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123. References
J.-M. Casal: 1961, Fouilles de Mundigak. I-II. (Memoires de la Delegation Archeologique
Francaise en Afghanistan, 17.) Paris.
J.-M. Casal: 1964, Fouilles d' Amri. I-II. (Publications de la Commission des Fouilles
Archeologiques: Fouilles de Pakistan.) Paris.
D.H. Gordon: 1960, The prehistoric background of Indian culture. 2 ed. Bombay.
J. Lyons: 1977, Semantics. 1-2. Cambridge.
A. Parpola: 1975, Tasks, methods and results in the study of the Indus script. In:
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1975: 2, 178-209.
A. Parpola: 1984, New correspondences between Harappan and Near Eastern glyptic
art. In: B. Allchin (ed.), South Asian Archaeology 1981, 176-195. Cambridge.
A. Parpola: 1985, Indus-kulttuurin sinetoidyt salaisuudet. In: Tiede 2000, 1985: 10, 12-
19. (The earlier Finnish version of the present paper.)
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124. THANK YOU
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