Edward Morgan Forster's Aspects of the Novel discusses seven universal aspects of the novel: story, characters, plot, fantasy, prophecy, pattern, and rhythm. Forster uses examples from classic novels to examine each aspect. He defines story as a narrative of events arranged over time that builds suspense. Forster distinguishes between flat and round characters. He claims plot requires intelligence and memory from readers but can suffocate characters. Fantasy and prophecy involve elements of mythology and supernatural forces. Pattern risks sacrificing characters while rhythm provides a more open-ended structure. Forster concludes the novel will not change as it reflects enduring human nature.
Introductio to Indian Writing in English and the Indian Renaissance.pptxDhatriParmar
The document provides an overview of Indian writing in English and the Indian Renaissance. It discusses how Indo-Anglian literature emerged from the blending of Indian and English literary traditions. Key figures who contributed to the growth of Indian English literature during the 19th century are mentioned, including Derozio, Tagore, and Narayan. The document also summarizes the Indian Renaissance as a period of social and intellectual reform in the 18th-19th century that challenged orthodoxy and the caste system under British colonial rule. Influential leaders of the Renaissance, such as Rammohan Roy and Vivekananda, are noted for their role in pioneering social and religious reforms.
Indian literature can be primarily classified by era into ancient, medieval, and contemporary periods. The ancient period includes Vedic literature from 1500 BC as well as epic Sanskrit literature. Classical Sanskrit literature from around the time of Kalidasa is also considered ancient. Kalidasa is often seen as the greatest Sanskrit playwright and poet, known for works like Abhijnansakuntalam and Meghaduta. Indian literature is the oldest in the world and includes a variety of works across its many languages.
The psychological novel reflects a deeper exploration of human inward experience. This genre focuses on inner thoughts and consciousness rather than external actions. Key characteristics include loose plots, jumping between past and present thoughts, and describing the internal workings of characters' minds. Writers like Virginia Woolf, James Joyce, and Henry James employed techniques like stream of consciousness to bring readers deeper into characters' rich inner worlds.
The document provides information about Julian Barnes' novel "The Only Story". It discusses key details like the title, author, characters, setting, and narrative technique. The novel tells the story of Paul Roberts' love affair with Susan Macleod in 1960s England. It explores themes of memory, love, loss and the passage of time through three parts that follow Paul's recollections and changing perspectives over decades. The document also provides reviews from critics praising Barnes' examination of the complexities and contradictions of romantic relationships.
Presentation on I.A. Richard's essay "The Two Uses of Language" This is a supplementary study material. Students and teachers are requested to go through the genuine and original text for better understanding of the concept. The presentation is not the whole creation of the author but it is based on the various references and critical resources.
Munshi Premchand was an influential Hindi and Urdu writer from India. He is known for introducing realism in Hindi literature. Some of his notable works include Godaan, Nirmala, Gaban. He wrote over 300 short stories, novels, and plays dealing with social issues like poverty, corruption, colonialism. Though he achieved fame as a writer, he struggled financially throughout his life. Premchand worked to promote nationalistic sentiments through his writings and journals. He continued writing till his death in 1936 while working on his last novel Mangalsootra.
Kanthapura as a Gandhian Epic
Raja Rao's 1938 novel Kanthapura documents the impact of Mahatma Gandhi's non-violent movement on a small South Indian village in the 1920s. The novel follows the village of Kanthapura as Gandhian ideas of satyagraha, non-violence, and khadi are spread by Moorthy, who represents Gandhi. Moorthy and other followers like Ratna and Shankar inspire the villagers to peacefully resist British rule. Through the narration of Acchakka and symbols like the charkha spinning wheel, the novel depicts how Gandhi's ideals of socio-economic and religious change took
Edward Morgan Forster's Aspects of the Novel discusses seven universal aspects of the novel: story, characters, plot, fantasy, prophecy, pattern, and rhythm. Forster uses examples from classic novels to examine each aspect. He defines story as a narrative of events arranged over time that builds suspense. Forster distinguishes between flat and round characters. He claims plot requires intelligence and memory from readers but can suffocate characters. Fantasy and prophecy involve elements of mythology and supernatural forces. Pattern risks sacrificing characters while rhythm provides a more open-ended structure. Forster concludes the novel will not change as it reflects enduring human nature.
Introductio to Indian Writing in English and the Indian Renaissance.pptxDhatriParmar
The document provides an overview of Indian writing in English and the Indian Renaissance. It discusses how Indo-Anglian literature emerged from the blending of Indian and English literary traditions. Key figures who contributed to the growth of Indian English literature during the 19th century are mentioned, including Derozio, Tagore, and Narayan. The document also summarizes the Indian Renaissance as a period of social and intellectual reform in the 18th-19th century that challenged orthodoxy and the caste system under British colonial rule. Influential leaders of the Renaissance, such as Rammohan Roy and Vivekananda, are noted for their role in pioneering social and religious reforms.
Indian literature can be primarily classified by era into ancient, medieval, and contemporary periods. The ancient period includes Vedic literature from 1500 BC as well as epic Sanskrit literature. Classical Sanskrit literature from around the time of Kalidasa is also considered ancient. Kalidasa is often seen as the greatest Sanskrit playwright and poet, known for works like Abhijnansakuntalam and Meghaduta. Indian literature is the oldest in the world and includes a variety of works across its many languages.
The psychological novel reflects a deeper exploration of human inward experience. This genre focuses on inner thoughts and consciousness rather than external actions. Key characteristics include loose plots, jumping between past and present thoughts, and describing the internal workings of characters' minds. Writers like Virginia Woolf, James Joyce, and Henry James employed techniques like stream of consciousness to bring readers deeper into characters' rich inner worlds.
The document provides information about Julian Barnes' novel "The Only Story". It discusses key details like the title, author, characters, setting, and narrative technique. The novel tells the story of Paul Roberts' love affair with Susan Macleod in 1960s England. It explores themes of memory, love, loss and the passage of time through three parts that follow Paul's recollections and changing perspectives over decades. The document also provides reviews from critics praising Barnes' examination of the complexities and contradictions of romantic relationships.
Presentation on I.A. Richard's essay "The Two Uses of Language" This is a supplementary study material. Students and teachers are requested to go through the genuine and original text for better understanding of the concept. The presentation is not the whole creation of the author but it is based on the various references and critical resources.
Munshi Premchand was an influential Hindi and Urdu writer from India. He is known for introducing realism in Hindi literature. Some of his notable works include Godaan, Nirmala, Gaban. He wrote over 300 short stories, novels, and plays dealing with social issues like poverty, corruption, colonialism. Though he achieved fame as a writer, he struggled financially throughout his life. Premchand worked to promote nationalistic sentiments through his writings and journals. He continued writing till his death in 1936 while working on his last novel Mangalsootra.
Kanthapura as a Gandhian Epic
Raja Rao's 1938 novel Kanthapura documents the impact of Mahatma Gandhi's non-violent movement on a small South Indian village in the 1920s. The novel follows the village of Kanthapura as Gandhian ideas of satyagraha, non-violence, and khadi are spread by Moorthy, who represents Gandhi. Moorthy and other followers like Ratna and Shankar inspire the villagers to peacefully resist British rule. Through the narration of Acchakka and symbols like the charkha spinning wheel, the novel depicts how Gandhi's ideals of socio-economic and religious change took
This document provides an overview of psychological novels. It defines psychological novels as stories that emphasize the inner thoughts, feelings, and motivations of characters over external actions. Some key points made include:
- Psychological novels evolved alongside psychoanalysis in the early 1900s and were influenced by writers like Henry James, Tolstoy, and Dostoevsky.
- They employ techniques like stream of consciousness to illustrate a character's inner mind.
- Subgenres include psychological thrillers, horror, and drama.
- Characterization is more in-depth compared to other genres through exploring a character's mentality.
- Famous psychological novels mentioned are Crime and Punishment, To the Lighthouse, The
This document provides biographical information about Indian author Raja Rao and analyzes his novel Kanthapura. It notes that Rao was born in 1909 to a South Indian Brahmin family and educated in France. Some of his major works explored themes of orphanhood and the lost of his mother. The document discusses the context and plot of Kanthapura, published in 1938, which depicts the Indian independence movement through events in a South Indian village. It used myths and the narration of an old widow to tell the story. Kanthapura showed the transformation of the movement into a mass movement and the inhumanity of British rule.
Introduction to indian writing in english pre-independenceParmar Milan
This document provides an overview of Indian writing in English (IWE). It discusses how IWE began with colonial encounters between India and Britain. Early writers included Henry Derozio, Rabindranath Tagore, and Bankimchandra Chatterjee. IWE differs from other English literatures in its subjects, styles, cultural influences, and themes focused on Indian experiences. The document examines debates around terminology for IWE and provides brief biographies of major IWE poets, novelists, and dramatists like Sarojini Naidu, Mulk Raj Anand, and Raja Rao.
This document provides an overview of LGBTQ fiction as a genre. It defines LGBTQ fiction as novels that explore the lives and experiences of LGBTQ individuals from their point of view. It discusses the history and classic authors of the genre, breaks the genre into subcategories like literary fiction, genre fiction, and young adult, and provides examples of popular authors and titles in each category. Resources for learning more about LGBTQ fiction and awards are also listed.
Introduction to India: Geography, Race, Language, Caste system, Religion.
1. Ancient Indian Literature
2. Medieval Indian Literature
3. Modern Indian Literature
4. Contemporary Indian Literature
5. Characteristics of Indian Literature
6. Influences on Southest Asian Literature
Here is my presentation as a part of my Academic activities of Sem-1 M.A . Submitted to Pro.Dr. Dilip Barad ,Department of English MK Bhavnagar University.
A FEW NOTES IN INDIAN LITERATURE HISTORYUtkarsh Dev
The document provides an in-depth analysis of Indian author Manohar Malgonkar and his works. It summarizes that Malgonkar was a late entrant to Indo-English fiction but earned considerable recognition with his novels and short stories portraying Indian life and the effects of British rule and changes in traditional Indian society. While some critics dismissed his works, others recognized him as a significant novelist depicting the social, political, and historical developments in 20th century India through diverse characters of different backgrounds, communities, and statuses.
This document provides a summary of the classic Sanskrit play Abhigyan Shakuntalam by Kalidasa. It introduces Kalidasa as the renowned poet who lived between the 1st and 4th century CE and was known for works based on Hindu scriptures. The summary then outlines the plot of the play, describing how King Dushyanta meets and marries the beautiful Shakuntala but is later cursed to forget her, leading to difficulties until the climax when recognition is regained. Key characters of Dushyanta, Shakuntala and their son Bharata are also mentioned.
A short introduction to Kavya in Indian poetics, Characteristic and basic concept of kavya, a kind of form of literature and the purpose of creating poetry and different views on 'Kavya'.
This document provides a summary of Julian Barnes' novel "The Only Story" presented by students in the Department of English at Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University. It includes background on the author, key facts about the novel, character introductions, a plot overview in 3 parts, themes, and learning outcomes. The summary focuses on the relationship between 19-year-old Paul Roberts and 48-year-old Susan Macleod set in 1960s England outside of London and the impacts on their lives.
This document is a paper about Indian author R.K. Narayan presented by Goswami Gayatri. It discusses Narayan as a novelist, introduces some of his popular novels like "The Dark Room", "Bachelor of Arts", and "The Guide". It also mentions that Narayan's novels are compared to those of Nobel prize winning author William Faulkner and that Narayan published his first novel and developed a friendship with Faulkner. The document outlines several of Narayan's novels and provides an example of the success of his novel "Bachelor of Arts".
This document provides an overview and analysis of Raja Rao's novel "Kanthapura". It discusses the author Raja Rao, the protagonist Moorthy, major women characters, and themes of struggle for freedom and Gandhian influence. It also analyzes the novel's social, religious, and political backgrounds as well as its style, which blends English and Indian elements. In conclusion, the document states that Raja Rao effectively portrayed the total Indian background and created a sense of unified Indian identity through the novel.
The document summarizes the themes of the novel Kanthapura by Raja Rao. The main themes are the struggle for Indian independence and the impact of Mahatma Gandhi's principles of nonviolence and equality. The novel depicts the influence of the Gandhian movement on a small village called Kanthapura in Mysore state, with the central character Murthy representing Gandhi by following his teachings.
Katherine Mansfield was an influential New Zealand writer known for her unconventional lifestyle and new style of short story writing. She published her first story at age 9 and went on to study in England. Her works were greatly influenced by Anton Chekhov and she published many short stories during her most productive period while struggling with tuberculosis. Sadly, her life was cut short at age 34 when she suffered a fatal lung hemorrhage while seeking unconventional cures for her illness.
Himanshi Parmar wrote a paper on June 10th, 2022 about deconstruction and analyzing the Ramayana through a deconstructive lens. The paper discusses key points about deconstruction according to Derrida, including that it aims to analyze texts and break assumptions about single meanings. It then provides an overview of the Ramayana, describing it as a Sanskrit epic about Prince Rama. The paper goes on to deconstructively analyze several aspects of the Ramayana, such as Sita's swayamvara implying a male-dominated society, Sita's kidnapping portraying her as both ideal wife but also weak character, and the depiction of Rama, Lakshmana and
Two Ways to Look at Life | The Only StoryDilip Barad
There were two ways of looking at life; or two extremes of viewpoint, anyway, with a continuum between them.
One proposed that every human action necessarily carried with it the obliteration of every other action which might have been performed instead; life therefore consisted of a succession of small and large choices, expressions of free will, so that the individual was like the captain of some paddle steamer chugging down the mighty Mississippi of life.
The other proposed that it was all inevitability, that pre-history ruled, that a human life was no more than a bump on a log which was itself being propelled down the mighty Mississippi, tugged and bullied, smacked and wheedled, by currents and eddies and hazards over which no control was possible.
Shashi deshpandes' That Long Silence PPT By Rashmi VajpayeeRashmi Vajpayee
This document provides a summary and analysis of Shashi Deshpande's novel "That Long Silence". It discusses how the protagonist Jaya sacrifices her individuality and writing career after marriage to conform to her husband Mohan's desires and patriarchal family values. Over 17 years of marriage, Jaya descends into desolation and depression due to the expectation that wives remain silent and subordinate to husbands. Through introspection and the encouragement of her friend Kamat, Jaya decides to assert her independence by writing about her experience and rejecting the traditional roles of Indian wives. The document analyzes how the novel examines gender inequality, marital conflict, and a woman's struggle to find her voice and identity in Indian society.
Carl Jung developed the concepts of the collective unconscious and archetypes. Archetypes are universal symbols that are shared across cultures and literature, buried deep in our collective unconscious. Archetypal criticism examines literature for these archetypes. Some common archetypes include characters like the hero, mentor, mother, father; natural symbols like the sun, fire, water; colors; and situations involving quests, journeys, initiation, creation and destruction. When analyzing works, critics look for these recurring archetypal patterns and symbols to understand how the work connects with deep unconscious meanings.
Raju is the central and complex character in the novel "The Guide" by R.K. Narayan. He dominates the story from beginning to end, taking on various roles and transformations. Raju starts as a railway guide but then becomes a lover to Rosie, a prisoner in jail where he impresses others, and finally a swami to the villagers. Throughout the novel, Raju transforms according to the needs of the society rather than his own desires, showing how one's outer appearance can become their inner identity. He is an intelligent and dynamic character that embodies qualities of many other characters in the story.
The document discusses the importance of the Ganga River in India from both a spiritual and geographical perspective. It describes the Hindu scriptural stories of how the Ganga came to earth and its significance as a sacred river goddess. Geologically, it explains how the Himalayas were formed and the river's source streams. It highlights various names of the Ganga and important pilgrimage sites located on its banks in the Himalayas. Overall, the document emphasizes the river's profound cultural and religious significance in Indian civilization.
The document discusses the Vedic period in India, divided into the Early Vedic period from 1500-1000 BC and the Later Vedic period from 1000-500 BC. It covers the literary sources of Vedas and epics from each period and the archaeological sources of iron and pottery. A comparative study is provided on the family structure, women's status, and caste system between the Early and Later Vedic periods, showing a decline in women's status and rise of a more rigid caste hierarchy over time.
This document provides an overview of psychological novels. It defines psychological novels as stories that emphasize the inner thoughts, feelings, and motivations of characters over external actions. Some key points made include:
- Psychological novels evolved alongside psychoanalysis in the early 1900s and were influenced by writers like Henry James, Tolstoy, and Dostoevsky.
- They employ techniques like stream of consciousness to illustrate a character's inner mind.
- Subgenres include psychological thrillers, horror, and drama.
- Characterization is more in-depth compared to other genres through exploring a character's mentality.
- Famous psychological novels mentioned are Crime and Punishment, To the Lighthouse, The
This document provides biographical information about Indian author Raja Rao and analyzes his novel Kanthapura. It notes that Rao was born in 1909 to a South Indian Brahmin family and educated in France. Some of his major works explored themes of orphanhood and the lost of his mother. The document discusses the context and plot of Kanthapura, published in 1938, which depicts the Indian independence movement through events in a South Indian village. It used myths and the narration of an old widow to tell the story. Kanthapura showed the transformation of the movement into a mass movement and the inhumanity of British rule.
Introduction to indian writing in english pre-independenceParmar Milan
This document provides an overview of Indian writing in English (IWE). It discusses how IWE began with colonial encounters between India and Britain. Early writers included Henry Derozio, Rabindranath Tagore, and Bankimchandra Chatterjee. IWE differs from other English literatures in its subjects, styles, cultural influences, and themes focused on Indian experiences. The document examines debates around terminology for IWE and provides brief biographies of major IWE poets, novelists, and dramatists like Sarojini Naidu, Mulk Raj Anand, and Raja Rao.
This document provides an overview of LGBTQ fiction as a genre. It defines LGBTQ fiction as novels that explore the lives and experiences of LGBTQ individuals from their point of view. It discusses the history and classic authors of the genre, breaks the genre into subcategories like literary fiction, genre fiction, and young adult, and provides examples of popular authors and titles in each category. Resources for learning more about LGBTQ fiction and awards are also listed.
Introduction to India: Geography, Race, Language, Caste system, Religion.
1. Ancient Indian Literature
2. Medieval Indian Literature
3. Modern Indian Literature
4. Contemporary Indian Literature
5. Characteristics of Indian Literature
6. Influences on Southest Asian Literature
Here is my presentation as a part of my Academic activities of Sem-1 M.A . Submitted to Pro.Dr. Dilip Barad ,Department of English MK Bhavnagar University.
A FEW NOTES IN INDIAN LITERATURE HISTORYUtkarsh Dev
The document provides an in-depth analysis of Indian author Manohar Malgonkar and his works. It summarizes that Malgonkar was a late entrant to Indo-English fiction but earned considerable recognition with his novels and short stories portraying Indian life and the effects of British rule and changes in traditional Indian society. While some critics dismissed his works, others recognized him as a significant novelist depicting the social, political, and historical developments in 20th century India through diverse characters of different backgrounds, communities, and statuses.
This document provides a summary of the classic Sanskrit play Abhigyan Shakuntalam by Kalidasa. It introduces Kalidasa as the renowned poet who lived between the 1st and 4th century CE and was known for works based on Hindu scriptures. The summary then outlines the plot of the play, describing how King Dushyanta meets and marries the beautiful Shakuntala but is later cursed to forget her, leading to difficulties until the climax when recognition is regained. Key characters of Dushyanta, Shakuntala and their son Bharata are also mentioned.
A short introduction to Kavya in Indian poetics, Characteristic and basic concept of kavya, a kind of form of literature and the purpose of creating poetry and different views on 'Kavya'.
This document provides a summary of Julian Barnes' novel "The Only Story" presented by students in the Department of English at Maharaja Krishnakumarsinhji Bhavnagar University. It includes background on the author, key facts about the novel, character introductions, a plot overview in 3 parts, themes, and learning outcomes. The summary focuses on the relationship between 19-year-old Paul Roberts and 48-year-old Susan Macleod set in 1960s England outside of London and the impacts on their lives.
This document is a paper about Indian author R.K. Narayan presented by Goswami Gayatri. It discusses Narayan as a novelist, introduces some of his popular novels like "The Dark Room", "Bachelor of Arts", and "The Guide". It also mentions that Narayan's novels are compared to those of Nobel prize winning author William Faulkner and that Narayan published his first novel and developed a friendship with Faulkner. The document outlines several of Narayan's novels and provides an example of the success of his novel "Bachelor of Arts".
This document provides an overview and analysis of Raja Rao's novel "Kanthapura". It discusses the author Raja Rao, the protagonist Moorthy, major women characters, and themes of struggle for freedom and Gandhian influence. It also analyzes the novel's social, religious, and political backgrounds as well as its style, which blends English and Indian elements. In conclusion, the document states that Raja Rao effectively portrayed the total Indian background and created a sense of unified Indian identity through the novel.
The document summarizes the themes of the novel Kanthapura by Raja Rao. The main themes are the struggle for Indian independence and the impact of Mahatma Gandhi's principles of nonviolence and equality. The novel depicts the influence of the Gandhian movement on a small village called Kanthapura in Mysore state, with the central character Murthy representing Gandhi by following his teachings.
Katherine Mansfield was an influential New Zealand writer known for her unconventional lifestyle and new style of short story writing. She published her first story at age 9 and went on to study in England. Her works were greatly influenced by Anton Chekhov and she published many short stories during her most productive period while struggling with tuberculosis. Sadly, her life was cut short at age 34 when she suffered a fatal lung hemorrhage while seeking unconventional cures for her illness.
Himanshi Parmar wrote a paper on June 10th, 2022 about deconstruction and analyzing the Ramayana through a deconstructive lens. The paper discusses key points about deconstruction according to Derrida, including that it aims to analyze texts and break assumptions about single meanings. It then provides an overview of the Ramayana, describing it as a Sanskrit epic about Prince Rama. The paper goes on to deconstructively analyze several aspects of the Ramayana, such as Sita's swayamvara implying a male-dominated society, Sita's kidnapping portraying her as both ideal wife but also weak character, and the depiction of Rama, Lakshmana and
Two Ways to Look at Life | The Only StoryDilip Barad
There were two ways of looking at life; or two extremes of viewpoint, anyway, with a continuum between them.
One proposed that every human action necessarily carried with it the obliteration of every other action which might have been performed instead; life therefore consisted of a succession of small and large choices, expressions of free will, so that the individual was like the captain of some paddle steamer chugging down the mighty Mississippi of life.
The other proposed that it was all inevitability, that pre-history ruled, that a human life was no more than a bump on a log which was itself being propelled down the mighty Mississippi, tugged and bullied, smacked and wheedled, by currents and eddies and hazards over which no control was possible.
Shashi deshpandes' That Long Silence PPT By Rashmi VajpayeeRashmi Vajpayee
This document provides a summary and analysis of Shashi Deshpande's novel "That Long Silence". It discusses how the protagonist Jaya sacrifices her individuality and writing career after marriage to conform to her husband Mohan's desires and patriarchal family values. Over 17 years of marriage, Jaya descends into desolation and depression due to the expectation that wives remain silent and subordinate to husbands. Through introspection and the encouragement of her friend Kamat, Jaya decides to assert her independence by writing about her experience and rejecting the traditional roles of Indian wives. The document analyzes how the novel examines gender inequality, marital conflict, and a woman's struggle to find her voice and identity in Indian society.
Carl Jung developed the concepts of the collective unconscious and archetypes. Archetypes are universal symbols that are shared across cultures and literature, buried deep in our collective unconscious. Archetypal criticism examines literature for these archetypes. Some common archetypes include characters like the hero, mentor, mother, father; natural symbols like the sun, fire, water; colors; and situations involving quests, journeys, initiation, creation and destruction. When analyzing works, critics look for these recurring archetypal patterns and symbols to understand how the work connects with deep unconscious meanings.
Raju is the central and complex character in the novel "The Guide" by R.K. Narayan. He dominates the story from beginning to end, taking on various roles and transformations. Raju starts as a railway guide but then becomes a lover to Rosie, a prisoner in jail where he impresses others, and finally a swami to the villagers. Throughout the novel, Raju transforms according to the needs of the society rather than his own desires, showing how one's outer appearance can become their inner identity. He is an intelligent and dynamic character that embodies qualities of many other characters in the story.
The document discusses the importance of the Ganga River in India from both a spiritual and geographical perspective. It describes the Hindu scriptural stories of how the Ganga came to earth and its significance as a sacred river goddess. Geologically, it explains how the Himalayas were formed and the river's source streams. It highlights various names of the Ganga and important pilgrimage sites located on its banks in the Himalayas. Overall, the document emphasizes the river's profound cultural and religious significance in Indian civilization.
The document discusses the Vedic period in India, divided into the Early Vedic period from 1500-1000 BC and the Later Vedic period from 1000-500 BC. It covers the literary sources of Vedas and epics from each period and the archaeological sources of iron and pottery. A comparative study is provided on the family structure, women's status, and caste system between the Early and Later Vedic periods, showing a decline in women's status and rise of a more rigid caste hierarchy over time.
Ancient civilizations arose in Asia along major river valleys such as the Indus River Valley in South Asia and the Huang He Valley in East Asia. These river valleys provided rich soil for agriculture and natural protections from invasion. Some of the earliest civilizations included the Indus Valley Civilization with major cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, as well as early Chinese civilizations. In India, Aryan migrations introduced new social hierarchies like the caste system. Major empires later rose like the Mauryan Empire under Asoka, which spread Buddhism throughout Asia. Trade networks also developed linking Asia, like the Silk Road under the Kushan Kingdom.
ESSAYLook at the topics each week and do an internet search or U.docxbridgelandying
ESSAY
Look at the topics each week and do an internet search or UMUC database search to find websites that fit the definition. It is an effort to see what resources students can find on their own. If you find something that is useful, or has great maps, or images, include it in you hunt.
Scavenger Hunts (2) (10 percent)
The purpose of the Scavenger Hunt exercise is to gain broader knowledge of the weekly subject matter beyond the text readings and publisher website. The student should use Google or some other search engine (including UMUC library database searches) to find five relevant websites covering the subject matter of the previous four weeks of class. These websites should contain news about world history, or be university, museum, archeological, or other relevant subject-oriented sites. The student will provide the url of the website in the University of Chicago reference style, noting update and access dates. Each website should include a summary of the contents of that site. The student should write 50 words per summary. The student's summaries should be logically organized. The summaries should be written in a formal style and be free of grammatical/syntax issues. The summaries should clearly explain why the site should be examined or accessed. The overview of each site should be substantive substantive in the description of the contents. The student should also explain why the sites will add depth or additional insight to the knowledge of the subject matter. These sites should not be from the publisher's website. See schedule for due dates.
THIS HW B and Z, chapters 7-9 (make certain to read the highlighted sections in each chapter)One primary source reading for chapters 7-9 from the publisher's website (www.mhhe.com/psi and click Traditions & Encounters 5e)http://rapidshare.com/files/1871746818/131-186.pdf" http://rapidshare.com/files/1871746818/131-186.pdfThis is for the HW due this Sunday. And link provided for the pages of required reading.
FEEDBACK NEEDED FOR HISTORY AND BIO
1) What role does Chinese civilization play regarding nomadic and pastoral societies in Central Asia (and vice versa)? Explain. What is the relationship between them and why is it often volatile? How and when does Chinese civilization expand into the Yangzi River and south China? What influence does China have on East and Southeast Asia? Explain, providing examples.
During the expansion of an agricultural society throughout the Yellow River valley, as smaller factions of people moved further away from the fertile land of the valley and into the more arid land of the mountains they resorted to a more sustainable way of life, in herding. These nomads herded animals like, cows, yaks sheep and goats, in the grassy areas of the steppes. They served as the middle man on a trade network connecting China and the rest of the early societies, while mostly unfriendly these two needed resources from each other. While the agricultural land o ...
- The Indo-European speaking people known as Aryans originated from Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Due to increasing population and scarce resources, they migrated southward.
- One group of migrants reached Northwestern India through Iran and Afghanistan around 2000 BCE. They engaged in cattle herding and practiced pastoralism.
- As the Aryans settled in the Ganges Plain around 1000 BCE, agriculture became their primary occupation and source of livelihood. This led to changes in their society and economy.
This document provides a summary of Karen Armstrong's book "A Short History of Myth" focusing on the origins and evolution of mythology from Neanderthals through the modern era. Some of the key points covered include: how early humans like Neanderthals developed mythology to explain the world; how myths served important social and psychological functions for hunter-gatherers and early farmers; the emergence of major mythological themes and figures during early civilizations; the transformation of mythology during the Axial Age with the rise of philosophies like Hinduism and Buddhism; and how the ascendance of rationalism in the modern era has led to the decline of mythology in the Western world.
Book Review Communication Skills by Ravi and Veja.pptxravimak2003
The document summarizes Yuval Noah Harari's book "Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind". It discusses Harari's background and accomplishments. It then reviews key parts of the book, including how humans evolved from hunter-gatherers to modern societies through cognitive and agricultural revolutions. Major themes are how humans developed language, beliefs, writing and science to overcome limitations and form complex civilizations. The review praises Harari's engaging storytelling and for challenging assumptions, but notes the book may oversimplify events and not provide enough detail on some topics. Overall it highly recommends the book for its thought-provoking insights into human history and development.
The document provides information on the Vedic period in India, including details on the Indo-Aryans, Vedic literature, and social, political, economic and religious aspects of life during the Early and Later Vedic ages. It notes that the Indo-Aryans originated in Central Asia and settled first in the Punjab region. Vedic literature including the Vedas, Upanishads and epics provide insights into the Vedic culture. Society was divided into classes based on occupation initially, which later developed into the rigid caste system. Agriculture, cattle rearing, and new metallurgical skills emerged during this period. Worship of nature gods was common, with rituals and sacrifices gaining importance over time.
Brij Mohan summarizes Harsh Mahaan Cairae's book "An Aryan Journey", which traces the evolution and spread of Aryan culture from Central Asia across Eurasia. The book uses excerpts from Vedic literature to argue that Aryans originally lived in the Arctic Circle and helped develop one of the earliest civilizations. It examines how Aryan culture and religion influenced other groups like the Zoroastrians and was manifested in traditions like the Vedas, Hinduism, and Buddhism. However, the book lacks organizational elements like titles, tables of contents, and indexes that could have enhanced its analysis of this important topic in human cultural evolution.
- The Neolithic Revolution led to permanent settlements as humans began farming instead of hunting and gathering. This allowed for the rise of early civilizations like in Mesopotamia.
- In Mesopotamia, the Sumerians established farming villages along the fertile Tigris and Euphrates rivers around 3500 BCE. These villages grew into organized city-states with complex governments and social hierarchies by 3000 BCE.
- Sumerians developed innovations like irrigation, writing, and the wheel which improved agriculture and record keeping and helped their civilization advance.
This document provides an overview of geography, history, and the development of early civilizations. It summarizes that [1] geography studies how people interact with their environments, while history uses written evidence to understand the past. [2] The Stone Age occurred before writing and is divided into the Old Stone Age and New Stone Age. [3] During the Old Stone Age, early humans lived nomadic lifestyles as hunter-gatherers and left religious artifacts suggesting spiritual beliefs. The Neolithic Agricultural Revolution led to permanent settlements and domestication of plants and animals. Early civilizations exhibited complex social structures including cities, governments, religions, social classes, and writing systems.
PREHISTORIC ERA (UNTIL C. 3300 BCE)
This Period has been categorized into 3 Stages
1: Stone Age
2: Bronze Age
3: Iron Age
1) The Stone Age:
Facts about the Stone Age:
Stone Age tools:
Food from the Stone Age:
Wars of the Stone Age:
Art of the Stone Age:
When did the Stone Age begin?
There are three significant historical eras in human civilization:
• Paleolithic Period
• Mesolithic Period
• Neolithic Period
2) The Bronze Age:
Bronze Age Tools:
Civilizations of the Bronze Age:
China's Bronze Age:
Greek Bronze Age:
The collapse of the Bronze Age:
3) The Iron Age:
When did the Iron Age begin?
Empire of Persia:
Iron Age in Europe:
Conclusion:
It is the most exciting thing to discover about a man and his history. How the earth originated and its life is no doubt a myth. However, the first step is always to explore our planet and earth as it has given life to multiple creatures. Hundreds of millions of years ago the earth was formed as a red hot ball. It was full of clouds of gases. The temperature was too hot and it took millions of trillions of years to cool it down. Mountains and seas became appeared. The first life originated in water as Algae. Algae multiplied and turned into countless lives in water. Many historians believe that life started with apes. But life started after the ice age. The ice age was experienced when the temperature of the earth cooled down enough and everything even every creature on the planet became frozen. The life disappeared. Our world observed four ice ages until now. After this age, the earliest man appeared as Java Man and Peking in Heidelberg. Also in the Neanderthal valley of Germany, the men appeared. And life started.
The old stone age is divided into Paleolithic and Neolithic man. The former was active in making different tools for living. They made a fist hatchet the spear. The man searched for their food in jungles and hunted animals for their food. Soon the Neanderthal man became disappeared and Cro magnon appeared as a new man. This man can be described as belonging to our species, homo sapiens.
New stone is known as a new era in the life of man. Instead of searching for food, the man learned the art of producing food. They were found in Switzerland, Italy, and France. All of them were settled on the banks of the river. Neolithic men were more creative in producing crafts. They knew the art of making things with wood, painting, decorating the pots, using different tools, and singing mad dancing. They also introduced the barter system which still prevailed in some parts of the world.
Simultaneously, Asian men found copper and some other metals. They discovered a hard metal which is called Bronze. The discovery spread all around the world. Afterward, the use of iron was also introduced by these men.
References:
The document provides an overview of early India, including its geography, major rivers, and monsoon patterns. It then discusses the Indus Valley Civilization between 2500-1500 BCE, including its emergence, well-organized government, and eventual decline. Next, it covers the arrival of the Aryans and the development of Hinduism, including the Vedas, caste system, and epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. It also summarizes the key teachings of Buddhism founded by Siddhartha Gautama.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in global history and social sciences, including:
1) Geography studies location, place, inhabitants, and human adaptation. Rivers provided water and fertile soil, enabling early civilizations.
2) Early civilizations developed near rivers due to resources and barriers protecting from invasion. Mountains and deserts also isolated groups.
3) History studies past events, especially related to humans. Primary sources directly observed events, while secondary sources interpret and analyze primary sources.
4) Economics addresses producing and distributing limited resources to meet unlimited wants. Early systems included traditional, capitalism, socialism, and mercantilism.
The document discusses Henry David Thoreau and his role as a woodland activist. Some key points:
1. Thoreau was a prominent figure in the American Transcendentalist movement of the 19th century and played a role in promoting social reform and appreciation for nature.
2. He voiced his opinions on issues like slavery, government, and corporal punishment through essays while conveying his love of the American landscape through literature.
3. Without Thoreau's work, social reform movements may not have gained as much traction and many would be less appreciative of the natural world. He helped shift mindsets during his time.
Indus valley civilization (in view of Islamic perspective)qudrat ullah
Indus valley civilization was the one of most developed civilization in that time. students should must knowledge about (IVC). here i discuses complete, also theier way of living, introduction, technology and decline etc of (IVC). this document completly as possible share knowledge about ancient civilization.
This document provides an overview of ancient Indian history from the earliest hunter-gatherer settlements thousands of years ago up until around 1500 BCE. It discusses the development of agriculture and earliest cities along the Indus River valley around 4700 years ago. It also mentions the composition of the Vedas beginning around 3500 years ago and the rise of the Magadha kingdom in present-day Bihar around 2500 years ago.
The Indus Valley Civilization flourished along the Indus River in ancient India between 2600-1900 BCE. It had two major cities, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, which featured advanced architecture including sanitation systems. The civilization engaged in extensive trade and agriculture. It declined around 1900 BCE possibly due to environmental changes, though the specific reasons are unknown.
The author claims they want Hillary Clinton to become president so that she will suffer dealing with a divided government and opposition from Congress. The author believes Clinton will face continued calls to impeach her over emails and investigations into Benghazi. The author wants Clinton to suffer greatly and is encouraging donations to help Donald Trump, who the author claims needs solace after being criticized in the debates.
Geeta Aiyer gives advice to graduating students based on her experience as an immigrant. She says:
1) Embrace living in the hyphen between identities and roles, as it fosters creativity and adaptability for a changing world.
2) Don't worry about perfect choices, as lives can take unexpected turns. Focus on resilience and what's truly important.
3) Learn to connect with others from diverse backgrounds through empathy, then work together for positive change using complementary skills.
With open minds and hearts, students can help design a sustainable future through reimagining and engaged action.
Oscar-winner Jean-Claude Carrière will be touring the USA performing a 90-minute story-telling version of the Mahabharata. This is the announcement for the Boston event -- two shows on October 25&26, 2014 at the Paramount Theater in downtown Boston.
This essay supports a few posts in the Reimagined Mahabharata blog (http://reimaginedmahabharata.blogspot.com/) in which I assert that South Asia had three matriarchal cultures in 4000 BCE that participated in a great revolution around 2000BCE that is the source of the Mahabharata.
The assertion "Information wants to be free" is a peculiar expression of desire on the part of an abstraction. This essay distinguishes between software and information and argues that a claim that may apply to software is applied unthinkingly to "information".
The foolish economist takes on inflationKamesh Aiyer
1) The document describes a simplified economic model with two farmers, John and Bill, who are the only people in the world.
2) In the first year, each farmer works 2 hours to produce their crop and they trade equally to get what they each need.
3) In the second year, John works extra to produce more than he needs, hoping to accumulate wealth, but Bill argues this devalues their goods and doesn't actually increase their total wealth. They debate the concepts of price, supply and demand, inflation, and how value is determined.
The foolish economist takes on power and povertyKamesh Aiyer
John and Bill are the only two people in their closed world. John works harder one year to produce more grapefruit, but Bill does not understand concepts like buying, owing, or being rewarded for work. Over time, John establishes himself as the "leader" and institutes taxes on Bill's production. When a drought causes a crisis, John tells Bill he must work on John's land to pay his debts.
Little Bird Learns to Fly -- a children's story translated into JapaneseKamesh Aiyer
This is a Japanese version of the book published by Pratham Books (India) in English and five other South Asian languages. The translation is by Masahiko Kida.
The English version is also available via Amazon Kindle and will also appear in other eBook formats.
Boloji version of the indian zero (april 2006)Kamesh Aiyer
A Critique of a book by Professor Kaplan of Harvard University.
Originally published by boloji.com and removed when I disagreed with their editorial policy (MuthBoloji.Jyaada -- "we print what we print").
An alternative version of the story of rama and sita - original boloji versionKamesh Aiyer
This presents an alternative interpretation of key events in the Ramayana (the story of Rama). The thesis is that the conflict was over an attempted transition from a matrilineal, matriarchal system to a patrilineal/patriarchal system that did not succeed.
Boloji version of the indian zero (april 2006)Kamesh Aiyer
The Zero that was India. A critique of a book by Prof Kaplan of Harvard University.
Originally published in boloji.com, withdrawn by author in disagreement over editorial policy.
The problem of the ego in the bhagavad gitaKamesh Aiyer
1. The document discusses the problems that arose from the development and widespread use of the terms "I" and "We" in language. These terms were developed to help solve social problems like credit assignment but caused new issues when generalized.
2. One solution presented is in the Bhagavad Gita - it says one should do their duty ("karma") to the group ("We") without worrying about receiving credit, and leave the outcomes to God.
3. Other solutions discussed include Buddhism's view of reducing suffering through reasonable action without attachment, Jainism's concept of karma across lifetimes, and Christianity's hierarchy with God at the top and individuals relating directly to God.
Essential Tools for Modern PR Business .pptxPragencyuk
Discover the essential tools and strategies for modern PR business success. Learn how to craft compelling news releases, leverage press release sites and news wires, stay updated with PR news, and integrate effective PR practices to enhance your brand's visibility and credibility. Elevate your PR efforts with our comprehensive guide.
Youngest c m in India- Pema Khandu BiographyVoterMood
Pema Khandu, born on August 21, 1979, is an Indian politician and the Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh. He is the son of former Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh, Dorjee Khandu. Pema Khandu assumed office as the Chief Minister in July 2016, making him one of the youngest Chief Ministers in India at that time.
13062024_First India Newspaper Jaipur.pdfFIRST INDIA
Find Latest India News and Breaking News these days from India on Politics, Business, Entertainment, Technology, Sports, Lifestyle and Coronavirus News in India and the world over that you can't miss. For real time update Visit our social media handle. Read First India NewsPaper in your morning replace. Visit First India.
CLICK:- https://firstindia.co.in/
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Here is Gabe Whitley's response to my defamation lawsuit for him calling me a rapist and perjurer in court documents.
You have to read it to believe it, but after you read it, you won't believe it. And I included eight examples of defamatory statements/
Howard Fineman, Veteran Political Journalist and TV Pundit, Dies at 75
Ecocritical review of the mahabharata
1. A Social Ecological Perspective on some Episodes from the
Mahabharata
Kamesh R. Aiyer
Abstract
Without doing violence to Vyaasa, the Mahabharata can be properly viewed through an
ecological prism, as a story of how Dharma came to be established as a result of a conflict over
social policies in response to on-going environmental/ecological crises. This article selectively
reviews some episodes in the Mahabharata to identify the crisis and the social policies implicitly
advocated by the contending Pandavas and Kauravas. The Pandavas’ proposals helped their
culture survive the crises and became the Dharma for the new age that followed the war. As
elements of Hindu orthodox religion, some of these policies operate to the present day.
Biographical Note
The author received his Ph.D. in Computer Science from Carnegie-Mellon University in
1981 and was a B.Tech (BSEE) from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur in 1974. Like
many Indians, he has been fascinated by the Mahabharata since childhood but did little about it.
In 1990, he realized that various episodes appeared to illustrate themes explored by the
anthropologist Marvin Harris (Harris, 1975) and that this hinted at a continental-scale
environmental disaster in the background akin to the planetary-scale “global warming” disaster
that humanity now faces. He has been exploring the role of religion, both positive and negative,
in addressing the crisis, and hopes we can do better this time.
Introduction
The Great War of the Mahabharata (Vyaasa, 1933-1966) is traditionally considered a
Dharma-Yuddha, a war to establish the rule of Law. The problem for the skeptic arises when the
details of the epic story are examined – one is tempted to exclaim, “Law? This is Law”? Both the
victors, the Pandavas (the miraculously born sons of Pandu), and the villains (the Kauravas, the
natural sons of Dhritarashtra, Pandu’s brother, named after their common ancestor Kuru) of the
epic are shown acting in their own self-interest. Of what we moderns might consider Lawful,
there is scant evidence. Krishna, revered by modern Hindus as the God Vishnu, befriends and
helps the Pandavas; goes through the motions of negotiating a peace deal; ultimately, acts to
defeat the Kauravas. There is little of our commonsensical notions of righteousness or Law or
even Dharma to be found.
But an alternative reading of the story is possible – without doing violence to Vyaasa, the
Mahabharata can be properly viewed through an ecological prism, as a story of how Dharma
came to be established as a result of a conflict over social policies in response to on-going
environmental/ecological crises. In this article, we selectively review some episodes to identify
the crisis and the social policy implicitly advocated by the Pandavas. Some of these policies will
2. MBh: Social Ecological Perspective 2
Kamesh R. Aiyer
shock or repel us, as they have shocked others through the ages; it is important to realize that it is
the victors of the epic who supported these policies. The Pandavas’ proposals helped their
culture survive the crises and became the Dharma for the new age that followed the war. As
others have pointed out (Feller, 2003, pp. 10-11), the epics (the Mahabharata and the Ramayana)
represent the end of Vedic religion and the beginning of “Brahmanism”. As elements of Hindu
orthodox religion, some of these policies operate to the present day.
The policies and related episodes discussed here are:
1. Forced migration to new lands, with attendant deportation of the original inhabitants
represented by the two episodes in which the Nagas (“Snakes”) are massacred.
2. Infanticide controlled population growth, represented by the story of the
goddess Ganga drowning her children by Santanu, King of Hastinapur, and
grandfather of Pandu and Dhritarashtra.
3. Jaatis (endogamous castes) enforced social segregation and controlled
consumption, represented by the story of Karna and the multiple times he is
rejected and humiliated and the story of Ekalavya.
4. Forest “commons” that recognized the rights of forest-dwellers and limited the
growth of towns, represented by episodes during the exile in the forest, the
most compelling being the episode called the “Questions of the Crane
Demon”. These forest-dweller rights survived many years despite constant
population pressure, and it is only in the last hundred or so years that the
system has broken down.
Policies not discussed here, but discussed elsewhere (Aiyer, 2009) include:
1. Cow protection, providing insurance against the frequent droughts and famines.
2. The iron-clad plough to support migration into the Gangetic plain.
3. The need for and limits to empire in northern India.
4. Polyandry, represented by the single wife common by the Pandavas –
however, we discuss this peripheral in association with infanticide.
5. Adoption, possibly represented by the Pandavas themselves, but also
discussed peripherally along with infanticide.
The crises of the second millennium B.C.E.
A series of tectonic events in the Himalayas (Valdiya, 2002, pp. 52-60) resulted in
repeated floods of the Indus and changes in its course destroying great urban centers. Meanwhile,
the Yamuna shifted course to the east and the Sutlej to the west thus starving the then great river
Saraswati of its major sources of water. Refugees from settlements along the Indus and the
Saraswati migrated to the existing upper Gangetic settlements of Hastinapur and Panchala
stressing the ability of those regions to support them. Prior to this forced movement, the slow
3. MBh: Social Ecological Perspective 3
Kamesh R. Aiyer
eastward expansion of the Indus-Saraswati culture had stalled because their agricultural
techniques were inadequate to till the Gangetic plain.
In the last fifty years, scientists have obtained evidence for the tectonic events of about
4000 to 5000 years before the present. The change in direction of the Yamuna has been
established. The Saraswati, formerly considered mythical is now identified with the bed of a
great river visible in satellite photos. Abandoned settlements along this bed have been identified
and classified as part of the Indus Valley civilization that was discovered in Mohenjo-Daro and
Harappa. We have no contemporary records that help us understand what happened. We do
know that a thousand years later, by 1000 BCE, the entire Indo-Gangetic plain was densely
populated by a physically similar people who had developed a way of life and a society that we
now call Hindu. That way of life was governed by “Dharma”, usually translated as “Law”.
Numerous texts, including the Mahabharata, seek to elucidate the concept of Dharma. The crisis
had been resolved by Dharma.
We surmise that the following elements constituted the crisis:
a) Over-population: The population was crowded into safe regions that could sustain
agriculture using techniques developed in the older settlements but not appropriate in
the Gangetic plain to the east. The dense forests of the south depended on erratic
rainfall rather than a steady supply of water from snow-fed rivers and water
management was critical.
b) Wars over resources: The forests and other non-urban lands were occupied by an
aboriginal population that resisted the expropriation of their lands. They needed to be
dealt with.
c) An energy crisis: Cities and towns in the Indus plain were built with kiln-fired bricks.
This practice was initially continued when refugees moved to the Gangetic plain -- as
the refugee population continued to grow, the land around the main cities of
Hastinapur and Kampilya became deforested. Age-old practices had to change.
d) A food crisis: There was a scarcity of food. People had not changed their eating
habits and meat continued to be a prized food. The land was insufficient to produce
both fodder for domesticated animals and plant products for human consumption.
Dietary and consumption patterns had to change.
The crisis in the Mahabharata
Forced migrations and Genocide
Over-population and a shortage of productive resources set the stage for the Great War.
The Mahabharata provides mixed evidence for the elements of these crises. There are multiple
stories that associate one or more gods promising to redress the problem of over-population. For
instance, when the Pandavas are faced with the problem of obeying Kunti’s demand that they all
share Draupadi, Vyaasa appears and tells them the story of the five Indras.
4. MBh: Social Ecological Perspective 4
Kamesh R. Aiyer
Indra and the gods attend a sacrifice sponsored by Yama, the god of Death. Yama being
thus pre-occupied, stops killing the mortals on earth. They grow numerous, the earth cannot
sustain them, and the balance between the immortal gods and mortals is upset. Indra’s efforts to
restore the balance results in him being paralyzed and imprisoned with four other prior Indras
who had similarly interfered with Yama. All five Indras are then sent to earth to redress the
balance and it was ordained that they marry one woman, an incarnation of Lakshmi. The Great
War then becomes the means by which over-population is resolved.
Other religious texts, the Harivamsa (Dutt, 1897) and the Vishnu Purana (Wilson, 2006),
though not as old as the Mahabharata, have similar stories. The Vishnu Purana depicts Bhumi-
devi, Mother Earth, imploring Vishnu to save her for she is overpopulated, the people have
become evil, and are ruled by criminals. Vishnu promises that he will be incarnated as Krishna,
kill the criminals, and cause a great war to bring down the population. Krishna is not a god in
most of the Mahabharata, though he is a compelling leading character and the popular versions of
many episodes ascribe miracles to him.
In Book 6 of the Mahabharata, in the Bhagavad-Gita chapters, Krishna asserts that
whenever evil dominates in the world, he (i.e., the supreme being Vishnu) incarnates himself to
eradicate the evil. He goes on to encourage Arjuna to fight for what he is doing is Dharma, even
if it does not fit with past interpretations of right behavior.
Resolving the problem of over-population, then, is part of the divine rationale for the
story emphasized by multiple variations on the theme. But over-population, by itself, is not evil.
Over-population creates imbalance between the urban human and other beings. It exacerbates the
struggle for resources. War becomes inevitable which then changes priorities and values. The
story of the establishment of Indraprastha, the capital city of the Pandavas, shows such a war.
The Mahabharata culture is overwhelmingly urban and the forest is a place of exile for
civilized people. There are forest-dwellers, portrayed as backward or demonic or child-like.
Scattered among the forest-dwellers are urban people who have gone to the forest in search of
something – enlightenment, perhaps, or to live out the last years of their life. What is apparent
from the Mahabharata itself is that the urbanites do not move around.
Contrast this with the Rig-Veda (Arya, 2001) (Wilson, 1990) where the people depicted
are constantly on the move, nomadic even if not migrating. There are battles and victories, lands
to be won and cattle to be gained. The rishis occupy the forests, busy in meditation, determining
balance. In the Mahabharata, on the other hand, ownership and rule of all but the forest has been
settled. A host of cities are mentioned, all described in glowing terms as great, beautiful, large,
well-laid out, veritably heaven on earth. There are forests, dark and deep, and populated by
animals, Nagas, Rakshasas, Danavas, Gandharvas, and other non-humans. Cities are safe and
comfortable; forests are dangerous and uncomfortable.
The Khandavaprastha is such a forest. Settled at one time by the mythical ancestors of the
Kurus themselves, Yayati and Nahusha, it was abandoned in favor of Hastinapur (though the
Mahabharata does not explain why). The old city had gone back to forest and the area was a
5. MBh: Social Ecological Perspective 5
Kamesh R. Aiyer
dense, impenetrable tract – a “terrifying” place. The dreaded Nagas (mythical snake people)
occupy it, making the land poisonous.
Despite all the virgin lands available, establishing a new settlement does not appear to
have been easy. When the Pandavas are given the forested half of the kingdom as their share,
they do not establish a small settlement that grows organically into a great city. They burn the
forest, kill the existing inhabitants, and import an architect to design and build a complete new
city and fort with palaces, buildings, and all. The Mahabharata gives an additional divine
rationale for burning the forest and killing its inhabitants – the god of Fire comes to Krishna and
Arjuna and begs them to do this for he has been starved!
Vyaasa, the poet, is said to have made parts of the Mahabharata difficult to understand.
This seems to be one of those parts. What could be meant by this story of Fire being starved of
offerings? What analogy or metaphor, if any, is being proposed? Possibly, the massacre of the
inhabitants may have been born of the imagination of a later raconteur, but the Mahabharata
leaves no doubt that this was a new city constructed de novo. The Mahabharata does not explain
where and how the new city is populated. But it is, and soon becomes a great city that evokes the
jealousy of the Kauravas. There are some inferences we can make:
1. Hastinapur was over-crowded – émigrés from there populated an equally great new city.
2. The population wanted to continue in a comfortable urban life, not move to new small
settlements in virgin lands.
3. Cost was no barrier to creating a great new city.
4. The native forest-dwellers had no rights and were massacred to create the city.
5. Finally, they “burn” an entire forest to create this city.
The émigrés are no longer pioneers inventing themselves as they go. They want to leave a
crowded city but being colonizers, they want to build a clone of what they leave behind. They are
prodigious consumers, people who burn the land for that is how they have lived. This attitude
leads to resource wars, for they inevitably conflict with the people who already occupy the land.
The slaughter of Khandavaprastha is not the only evidence of genocidal war over
resources in the Mahabharata. The great Naga, Takshaka, was absent from Khandavaprastha
during the slaughter. His family was completely wiped out, except for a son who escaped
through his mother’s heroism in protecting him. Takshaka vows revenge on Arjuna’s progeny.
The Nagas play no role in the Great War, but the self-inflicted slaughter of the Kurus does not
slake Takshaka’s anger. Takshaka kills Parikshit, Arjuna’s sole surviving grandson. But the cycle
of revenge continues as Parikshit’s son Janamejaya vows to kill all the Nagas. He conducts the
Naga Sacrifice, a magic ritual that induces the Nagas to jump into the sacrificial fire. Janamejaya
is finally induced to stop by a sage, Astika. The cycle is halted, but the mythical Nagas are no
longer a hindrance to urbanization.
6. MBh: Social Ecological Perspective 6
Kamesh R. Aiyer
Nor for that matter are the modern Nagas of India a hindrance to urbanization. They are
a tribal people, mainly located in the Northeast. There are references to Nagas in historical
documents who appear to be the ancestors of the modern Naga even though they were not
confined to the Northeast. We do not know if the historical Nagas of India are the descendants of
the mythical Nagas of the Mahabharata, but we can take note of the remarkable continuity of
caste communities in India over a few thousand years. The traders opposed to Indra called Pani in
the Rig-Veda (Arya, 2001) (Wilson, 1990)seem to be the Bania of modern India who have been
traders for centuries. The Brahmins in the Vedas exist today with claims of paternal descent to
named persons...Almost every ethnic group or category mentioned in mythological literature can
be found in real-life India today.
The burning of Khandava forest is the mass killing of forest-dwellers by a king bent on
finding land for urban settlements. The Snake Sacrifice of Janamejaya portrays the mass killing
of forest-dwelling tribes by a vengeful king. Between these events is the killing of a king by a
vengeful forest-dweller. These stories from the Mahabharata portray the eternal battle for land
that has marked the growth of human civilization.
Infanticide
Santanu, the King of Hastinapur, watches in horror as his wife drowns her children in the
river. Infatuated by her, he had asked to marry her and she had extracted a promise that he would
never question her actions. She drowns seven boys born of that marriage and as she is about to
drown the eighth, Santanu stops her and demands to know what she is doing and what kind of
monster she is.
This is the stuff of fairy tale (the wicked witch who kills babies), but (again!) the
Mahabharata charts new territory as one of the earliest fairy tales. Santanu’s wife reveals that she
is the river Ganga and she was fulfilling a promise made to seven minor gods that she would give
birth to them but kill them so they did not have to suffer a long earthly life. They, along with an
eighth god, had been cursed to be born as humans. The eighth god could not avoid a long life on
earth and enters the story as the prince Devavrata. The god does not desire children – a god does
not need children to avoid the dreaded hell occupied by people without descendants – for children
would be a bond. So, Devavrata vows eternal celibacy so that his father can re-marry and promise
the kingdom to the children of his new wife. In recognition of this terrible vow, Devavrata is
called Bhishma (“the terrible”) in the rest of the epic.
Vyaasa has gone to a lot of trouble, conjuring a complicated story with gods, goddesses,
and terrible vows to explain the deaths of seven babies and Devavrata’s decision not to have
children. It is not as though married couples had not been barren before. It is not as though
infants did not die. The plot is not advanced by the death of the seven babies. Why does this story
lead off the epic? Unlike the other causes of infant death, both Santanu and Ganga are culpable in
the murder of the children. Though Santanu is portrayed as passive, he is a king used to rule, not
a slave. Even a slave to passion makes insistent demands of the object of that passion, and this
king is not exempt from that. What the Mahabharata hides from us with its fairy-tale explanation
is that the king is guilty of these murders.
7. MBh: Social Ecological Perspective 7
Kamesh R. Aiyer
What happened in Hastinapur was state-sponsored infanticide, more specifically female
infanticide, a guaranteed-to-succeed mechanism for controlling population growth (Harris, 1975).
The population crisis was multi-generational; it threatened all social classes and levels of
prosperity; and the city was hemmed in by natural or other boundaries. Hastinapur was under
pressure internally from immigrants and externally by enemies in all directions (Panchala to the
north-east, Salya to the west, Chedi and Magadha to the south and east, and Naga-infested
Khandavaprastha to the south-west). The king, whether to protect his own wealth or to provide
an example to the rest of the public arranged to kill his female children as infants. Kill, because
abortion was not yet sufficiently safe; infants, so as to limit the investment in children who were
doomed to die; female, because the fertility of a population is directly proportional to the number
of child-bearing women and this was a long-term plan to control population growth. In addition,
the spouses of a king’s daughters might harbor ambitions and threaten any sons, so this action
protected Devavrata. Sons born after Devavrata may also have been killed (I surmise Devavrata
was the eldest, not the youngest), though killing brothers may also kill natural allies.
If the king’s plan succeeded, other families would have similarly curtailed the number of
daughters and sons. The collateral damage might be loss of political support from these other
families in a time of need. In later years, Santanu himself may have lost faith in his policy and
that would account for his desire to re-marry and have more children.
Of course, other explanations are possible for the specifics of Santanu’s behavior.
However, the later history of Santanu’s family leading to the Great War reinforce the hypothesis
that population control was his goal. Santanu’s grandson, Pandu chose to avoid sex and adopted
his five children of unknown parentage (“born of gods”). Pandu may be contrasted with his
brother Dhritarashtra, who had a hundred sons by one mother. Without belaboring the obvious,
the Mahabharata makes it clear that Pandu and Dhritarashtra were on the opposite sides of the
population debate. That later raconteurs forgot this distinction while remembering the miraculous
story of how Gandhari gave birth to a hundred sons tells us how stories evolve.
In the next generation, Pandu’s children, the Pandavas, jointly marry their first wife
Draupadi. This is a simple, low-tech means to limit the number of children per man. But it only
works if the many spouse-less women do not bear children, or if the proportion of women in the
population is low. These two policies result in diametrically opposed societies, with different
attitudes towards women. A society in which women do not automatically bear children is one in
which the woman’s time and activities are valued more than child-birthing or rearing. Implicitly,
women are valued highly and not encouraged to have children unless they can afford them and
want them. A society in which the proportion of women in the population is kept low is one in
which females are culled, directly or indirectly, at a young age. Investing in a boy child is valued
much more highly than investing in a girl child, resulting in discrimination against women and a
low valuation for women.
If a woman has many acknowledged husbands, she must be valued highly. The Pandavas
opt for a society that values women. Dhritarashtra with his 101 sons and one daughter
exemplifies a society that proposes to keep fertility low by discriminating against women.
Implicitly if not explicitly, the Kauravas sponsor the female infanticide that Santanu may have
supported.
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Kamesh R. Aiyer
Unfortunately, the Pandava approach is unsustainable under short-term pressures and that
has been the history of the treatment of women in India. The payoff from preferring males comes
within a generation as the marginal male advantage in warfare wins the resource wars and
justifies discrimination against women. The payoff from valuing women highly only comes over
many generations during which a relatively peaceful society builds, innovates, trades with its
neighbours, and grows organically. Thus radical patriarchy spelled the end of the Pandava
experiment in polyandry.
Caste
Kunti, the mother of the Pandavas, has hidden the existence of an illegitimate son. That
son, Karna, bursts out into the Mahabharata stage at a tournament held to display the prowess of
the young princes. He matches and exceeds Arjuna’s feats at archery, arousing wonder at his
skills. Egged on by Duryodhana, he challenges Arjuna to a duel, but is brought up short when he
is asked to validate his fitness to compete by naming his parents and his caste. He believes
himself to be the child of his foster-parents, a lower-caste chariot driver. Arjuna and Bhima mock
him for his pretensions and the duel never takes place.
At that instant, it is easy to feel sympathy for Karna, for as the eldest son of Kunti he
should have been showered with honors. And one wonders at the Pandavas for their easy
acceptance of something so fundamentally unfair. In fact, the only voice raised against the
humiliation of Karna was that of Duryodhana. He anoints Karna the King of Anga in a failed
attempt to get around Karna’s lack of caste status; he befriends him, is close to him, and is the
brother Karna never had.
But the Mahabharata does not let the Pandavas off easily. The lower-caste forest-
dweller, Ekalavya, learns archery from a statue of their teacher Drona because Drona cites caste
as the reason for not teaching him. When the Pandavas discover Ekalavya, Arjuna is disconsolate
for he fears that he is no longer the best archer in the world. To satisfy Arjuna, their teacher
Drona demands his thumb from Ekalavya as guru-dakshina (the traditional gift from a pupil to a
teacher). Ekalavya cuts off his thumb but is forever crippled as an archer, so that Arjuna can still
be the best archer in the world. Yudhishthira, the wise older brother, does not raise a question
about these actions.
Why is caste so important in the Mahabharata? Caste in the Mahabharata is not the
formalized four-caste system of the intellectual Hindu, but closer to the messy four thousand-plus
jaatis encountered in practice. (When most Hindus refer to “caste”, they mean “jaati”. In this
paper, we will employ this common use rather than the formal definition). A Hindu caste has
been described in many ways – regional endogamous groups with rights to employment in certain
traditional occupations and corresponding prestige. This description does not capture how central,
ubiquitous, and long-standing caste has been in Hindu society – recent as yet unpublished
analysis of DNA data seems to indicate that many castes/jaatis have existed for hundreds of
generations (2000 to 4000 years old)! This is not just another institution, it has deep roots.
Indian castes are not simply class divisions, though there is a correlation; they are not
simply endogamous groups (for certain violations are accepted); they are not simply
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Kamesh R. Aiyer
occupational. What is unique about the Indian caste system is the extent to which intra-family
behavior is caste determined. Along with this, the average Indian is unfamiliar with and incurious
about family behavior in other castes. Caste corresponds closest to “ethnic group” in Western
parlance, but no Western sociologist would recognize an ethnic group in an Indian caste. One’s
caste determines, to a very large extent, what one considers a reasonable way of life and this did
not differ dramatically between the rich, poor, or middle-class member of a caste. Members of
certain caste groups live high-on-the-hog even when they are poor; members of other caste
groups live like comparative misers even when rich. Certain castes consume addictive drugs
more than others. Certain castes tolerate a rich man who has lower-caste mistresses and even
families with those mistresses though the families never mixed. Even if a caste was associated
with a particular occupation, a member’s caste did not change just because they followed a
different occupation. Membership in a caste was not a good predictor of the member’s income.
However, membership in a caste was a very good predictor of the average level of consumption
of that person or family.
I argue that the Mahabharata’s ratification of caste came out of a need to moderate the
overall consumption footprint of the culture. As discussed above, caste in India exists to
moderate the consumption patterns of the great majority of the population. The richest members
of the upper consuming castes, generally classifiable as Kshatriya, Vaishya, or Brahmin in the
formal model of caste would exhibit extreme consumption patterns; even then, labor was
consumed rather than capital or goods. The result is a system that radically limits the overall
footprint of the culture. The fear is that if, during flush times, everybody consumed like these
richest consumers, there would be nothing saved for the periods of drought and famine. Caste,
however unfair, is Dharma and that is what the Mahabharata is about.
Commons
During the Pandavas’ exile, they wander through the forest of Dvaitavana and wreak
havoc to the fauna. Every day they kill animals in the hundreds. At one point (Vyaasa, p.
3/40.244), Yudhishthira dreams that a group of deer plead with him to stop killing them as only a
small seed group is left. Thereupon, he recognizes that they have over-hunted the forest and
persuades his brothers and wife to move to the edge of the desert (the forest of Kamyaka by Lake
Trnabindu) further away from their lost kingdom. This minor episode highlights the beginning of
Yudhishthira’s recognition that the world is shared with other beings with rights to be recognized.
His brothers and Draupadi agree to move but they have not achieved his insight. Kamyaka forest
is not a safe haven for the Pandavas and they have to fight the Sindhu king Jayadratha to rescue
the abducted Draupadi. So they return to Dvaitavana and subsist on fruits.
They are no longer killing deer but there is yet more to learn. This time, a deer steals the
fire-starting tools of a brahmin who appeals to the Pandavas for help. This episode is commonly
called Yaksha-prashna, or the “The Questions of the Crane demigod” (Vyaasa, 1933-1966, pp.
3.44/295-299). The Pandavas chase the deer and fail to catch it. Exhausted they split up in search
of water. One by one they come to the same forest lake. A yaksha in the form of a crane denies
each Pandava access to the lake, claiming ownership. One by one, the younger Pandavas defy the
yaksha and are killed, apparently by magic. When Yudhishthira comes upon his brothers lying
dead by the lake and tries to drink from the lake, the yaksha demands that Yudhishthira answer
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Kamesh R. Aiyer
some questions before he attempts to drink. Upon being challenged on his right to bar
Yudhishthira from a common resource, the yaksha claims the lake as his creation and his
property. Thereupon, Yudhishthira agrees to answer his questions.
Four times a Pandava does not accept the yaksha’s claim of ownership and dies as a
result – the fifth time, Yudhishthira respects the claim. The rest of the episode does not matter
for the point I wish to make – that Yudhishthira accepts that water and natural resources like
lakes can be subject to somebody else’s authority. The lake was not private property in the sense
we understand it now – the yaksha did not bar other creatures from the water. But nor was it a
“commons” shared by all. The Pandavas did not pay anything or barter anything to get access to
the water, nor could they have. Instead the yaksha asked them some metaphysical and
philosophical questions as a test of their fitness to share in the water. The lake was a “managed
commons”, managed by the local forest dwellers and not by a remote urban king.
Yudhishthira’s acceptance of the yaksha’s rights is a far cry from the carnage that
preceded the creation of Indraprastha that we discussed earlier. The lesson that the younger
Pandavas did not learn engendered a crisis that, for the first time in the Mahabharata, was averted
by Yudhishthira’s judgment. Arjuna may be the warrior but Yudhishthira is the king and the
crane-yaksha episode marks the transition of real power from the arrogant instrumentalism of the
warrior to the judicious wisdom of the king.
But there is more. Sharing forests as commons with forest-dwellers means that the urban
dwellers must limit their consumption. The forest is no longer a deep and infinite resource that
can be exploited without limit. The city cannot grow without limit for it is bounded by forests that
belong to others. If the urban population grows, it will migrate to lands elsewhere, not encroach
on nearby land.
Conclusion
We have reviewed some events in the Mahabharata from the point-of-view of an
alternative narrative. The claim is that the Mahabharata tells the story of a violent dialectic
between two sets of social policies responding to an environmental crisis. We looked at various
episodes in the Mahabharata as illustrating state-sponsored infanticide, a state-sponsored caste
system, state-sponsored genocide, and finally state-sponsored cooperation to create sustainable
commons. The final synthesis is Dharma as it evolved over the centuries. The culture survived
because of the policies espoused by the Pandavas. Some of these policies seem repugnant to us,
others seem wise; as part of Hindu orthodox religion, these policies have survived for many
years.
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