This document summarizes key points from a lecture on adaptation to the physical environment of light, energy, and heat:
1) Light is the primary source of energy for the biosphere and plants capture this energy through photosynthesis. Photosynthesis exists in three main pathways - C3, C4, and CAM - which provide adaptations to different water and temperature conditions.
2) Temperature and light availability influence photosynthesis and respiration rates in plants. Plants exhibit a variety of adaptations related to photosynthetic pathways, leaf and root allocation, and nutrient uptake to optimize growth in different environmental conditions.
3) Animals maintain homeostasis using feedback systems to regulate internal conditions like temperature, water balance, and pH within survivable limits
The document discusses plant nutrition and photosynthesis. It defines macro and micronutrients essential for plant growth and lists examples. It describes the process of photosynthesis, including the light and dark reactions. It discusses leaf structure and function, including chloroplasts, stomata, and transport veins. Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis are identified. The document also discusses ways plants from different habitats adapt to carry out photosynthesis and how technology can improve food production.
The document discusses ecosystems and trophic levels. It explains that there are four trophic levels: primary producers (plants), primary consumers (herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivores), and decomposers. Between each trophic level, about 10% of energy is transferred. Nutrients cycle through ecosystems with the help of decomposers, which break down organic material and release nutrients back into the soil. The document also discusses nutrient pollution in coastal waters, noting that excess nitrogen and phosphorus can lead to eutrophication and decreased biodiversity.
Life processes in plants and animals photosynthesisNaomi Juyn
1. The document discusses photosynthesis, the process by which plants and some bacteria produce food from carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight. It describes the requirements, products, and equation of photosynthesis.
2. Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts of plant leaves, specifically in the grana during the light phase where ATP and oxygen are produced, and the stroma during the dark phase where glucose is produced.
3. The rate of photosynthesis is affected by various internal leaf structures and external factors like light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature. Maintaining optimal levels of these factors in greenhouses allows crops to grow outside of normal conditions.
1. The document discusses ecological concepts such as energy flow in ecosystems, biogeochemical cycles, and ecological succession. It explains that solar energy is captured by producers like plants and flows through consumers and decomposers in an ecosystem.
2. Major biogeochemical cycles discussed include the water, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles. These cycles describe how essential elements move between living and nonliving parts of the ecosystem.
3. Ecological succession is the process of community change over time in an area. Primary succession occurs in new areas like from lava, while secondary succession follows a disturbance in an existing ecosystem, like after a fire. Succession progresses from simple to more complex communities.
Environmental factors affecting photosynthesis and future prospect for enhanc...PARTNER, BADC, World Bank
This document summarizes the effects of various environmental factors on plant photosynthesis and progress in engineering crops with enhanced photosynthetic capacity. It discusses how factors like light intensity, temperature, carbon dioxide levels, water, humidity, and salt stress can affect photosynthesis rates. The activities of key photosynthetic enzymes are also impacted. Two main approaches to improving photosynthesis through genetic engineering are described: overexpressing C3 plant genes or transferring C4 plant genes into C3 crops. While some success has been achieved, more work is still needed to test transgenic plants' photosynthetic performance under stress conditions.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose. It occurs in two stages: the light-dependent reactions where sunlight is absorbed to make ATP and NADPH, and the light-independent reactions of the Calvin cycle where CO2 is fixed into sugars like glucose using ATP and NADPH. Chloroplasts are the organelles where photosynthesis takes place, containing chlorophyll and other pigments that absorb different wavelengths of light to drive the process. Photosynthesis is essential as it produces oxygen and feeds the base of the food chain, supporting nearly all life on Earth.
The document discusses plant nutrition and photosynthesis. It defines macro and micronutrients essential for plant growth and lists examples. It describes the process of photosynthesis, including the light and dark reactions. It discusses leaf structure and function, including chloroplasts, stomata, and transport veins. Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis are identified. The document also discusses ways plants from different habitats adapt to carry out photosynthesis and how technology can improve food production.
The document discusses ecosystems and trophic levels. It explains that there are four trophic levels: primary producers (plants), primary consumers (herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivores), and decomposers. Between each trophic level, about 10% of energy is transferred. Nutrients cycle through ecosystems with the help of decomposers, which break down organic material and release nutrients back into the soil. The document also discusses nutrient pollution in coastal waters, noting that excess nitrogen and phosphorus can lead to eutrophication and decreased biodiversity.
Life processes in plants and animals photosynthesisNaomi Juyn
1. The document discusses photosynthesis, the process by which plants and some bacteria produce food from carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight. It describes the requirements, products, and equation of photosynthesis.
2. Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts of plant leaves, specifically in the grana during the light phase where ATP and oxygen are produced, and the stroma during the dark phase where glucose is produced.
3. The rate of photosynthesis is affected by various internal leaf structures and external factors like light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature. Maintaining optimal levels of these factors in greenhouses allows crops to grow outside of normal conditions.
1. The document discusses ecological concepts such as energy flow in ecosystems, biogeochemical cycles, and ecological succession. It explains that solar energy is captured by producers like plants and flows through consumers and decomposers in an ecosystem.
2. Major biogeochemical cycles discussed include the water, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles. These cycles describe how essential elements move between living and nonliving parts of the ecosystem.
3. Ecological succession is the process of community change over time in an area. Primary succession occurs in new areas like from lava, while secondary succession follows a disturbance in an existing ecosystem, like after a fire. Succession progresses from simple to more complex communities.
Environmental factors affecting photosynthesis and future prospect for enhanc...PARTNER, BADC, World Bank
This document summarizes the effects of various environmental factors on plant photosynthesis and progress in engineering crops with enhanced photosynthetic capacity. It discusses how factors like light intensity, temperature, carbon dioxide levels, water, humidity, and salt stress can affect photosynthesis rates. The activities of key photosynthetic enzymes are also impacted. Two main approaches to improving photosynthesis through genetic engineering are described: overexpressing C3 plant genes or transferring C4 plant genes into C3 crops. While some success has been achieved, more work is still needed to test transgenic plants' photosynthetic performance under stress conditions.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose. It occurs in two stages: the light-dependent reactions where sunlight is absorbed to make ATP and NADPH, and the light-independent reactions of the Calvin cycle where CO2 is fixed into sugars like glucose using ATP and NADPH. Chloroplasts are the organelles where photosynthesis takes place, containing chlorophyll and other pigments that absorb different wavelengths of light to drive the process. Photosynthesis is essential as it produces oxygen and feeds the base of the food chain, supporting nearly all life on Earth.
1. The document outlines key concepts about photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, and nutrient and water transport in plants. It defines photosynthesis and respiration equations and describes how their efficiency is determined by various environmental factors.
2. Transportation of water and minerals within plants is described, including the processes of transpiration, diffusion, and osmosis. The roles of xylem and phloem tissues are explained.
3. How stomata control water release from leaves and how plants limit water loss through evaporation is covered. The effects of relative humidity and temperature on transpiration are also stated.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in terrestrial ecology. It begins with definitions of fundamental terms like ecology, organism, population, community, ecosystem, producer, consumer, decomposer, food chain, and trophic level. It then covers ecosystem processes like energy flow, nutrient cycles, and limiting factors. Specific cycles discussed include carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, water, and sulfur. Biotic and abiotic interactions are addressed, including competition, predation, parasitism, and symbiosis. Population dynamics like carrying capacity and growth cycles are also summarized. Human impacts on ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles are outlined.
1. Energy from the sun enters ecosystems through photosynthesis by producers and flows through food chains and webs to consumers, with only about 10% being transferred between trophic levels as heat and inefficiencies.
2. Nutrients cycle through ecosystems, moving between living and nonliving matter through various biogeochemical cycles like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and water cycles, which are essential for life.
3. Human activities like burning fossil fuels are releasing excess carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, interfering with nutrient cycles and causing global warming through the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose. It occurs in two stages: in the light-dependent reactions, sunlight is absorbed and used to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose, producing oxygen as a byproduct. In the light-independent reactions, the glucose is then assembled from carbon dioxide using energy from the light reactions. The light reactions take place in chloroplasts within plant cells, while the dark reactions occur in the chloroplast stroma. Photosynthesis is essential for producing oxygen and food on Earth.
This document provides information about plant nutrition and photosynthesis. It discusses how plants obtain raw materials like carbon dioxide and water, how chloroplasts trap light energy to convert it to chemical energy through photosynthesis, and how glucose and oxygen are produced. The document outlines the processes, equations, and limiting factors of photosynthesis. It also addresses the importance of nitrate ions and magnesium ions for plant growth, and describes the uses and dangers of overusing nitrogen fertilizers, such as eutrophication of water sources.
The three main functions of plants are photosynthesis, respiration, and transpiration. Photosynthesis captures light energy to produce sugars, respiration metabolizes sugars to provide energy for growth and processes, and transpiration is the loss of water vapor through leaves which transports minerals and maintains turgor pressure.
1. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants produce their own food using carbon dioxide, water and sunlight through the action of chlorophyll.
2. The key requirements for photosynthesis are carbon dioxide, water, sunlight, and chlorophyll. Photosynthesis produces glucose and releases oxygen as a byproduct.
3. The rate of photosynthesis is affected by light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature - it proceeds fastest at around 40°C and declines above and below this temperature range.
The document discusses key concepts related to ecosystems, including energy flow, trophic levels, food chains, and food webs. It explains that the sun is the primary source of energy for ecosystems and that energy flows through trophic levels from producers to consumers. While chemical elements cycle through an ecosystem, energy is lost at each transfer between trophic levels and must constantly be replenished by the sun. Food chains and food webs illustrate the complex feeding relationships and energy transfers within an ecosystem.
This lab report examines the effect of light conditions on the rate of photosynthesis. The experiment measured the rate of photosynthesis by timing how long it took for photosynthesis to occur in leaf disks placed in a CO2 solution under different lighting conditions. As predicted, the results showed that the rate of photosynthesis was higher for leaf disks in direct sunlight compared to those in the shade. The conclusion was that light and carbon dioxide are necessary for photosynthesis, and that more light leads to a higher photosynthetic rate.
Photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide, sunlight, water and chlorophyll. It occurs in leaves through light and dark reactions. In light reactions, sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll which drives the production of ATP and NADPH using water. In dark reactions, carbon dioxide is reduced to carbohydrates like glucose using ATP and NADPH in the Calvin cycle. The rate depends on factors like light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, temperature and water availability.
Green plants and other organisms perform photosynthesis, the process by which solar energy is converted into chemical energy and stored in organic molecules. During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight are used to produce glucose and oxygen. The two main stages are the light reaction phase, where light energy is absorbed and used to produce ATP and NADPH, and the Calvin cycle, where carbon dioxide is incorporated into organic compounds to form glucose. Chloroplasts in plant leaves contain chlorophyll which absorbs sunlight to drive photosynthesis, producing oxygen as a byproduct and fueling the biosynthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats that sustain life on Earth.
Diversity & Evolution - Organisms and their environmentthejohnnth
Organisms and their environments provide key terms in ecology such as habitat, ecological niche, predator, prey, population, community, and ecosystem. Energy flows through ecosystems in a non-cyclic manner from the sun to producers to consumers in food chains and food webs, while chemical elements cycle through the ecosystem. Pollution disrupts ecosystems and affects water quality by reducing dissolved oxygen levels, with impacts including eutrophication and harm to aquatic life. Conservation aims to maintain biodiversity and use natural resources sustainably.
This document summarizes plant nutrition and photosynthesis. It discusses that plants are autotrophs that produce their own food through photosynthesis, using carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce glucose and oxygen. The process involves light and dark reactions that take place in the chloroplasts of leaf cells. Photosynthesis is affected by factors like carbon dioxide, temperature, and light levels. The document also describes leaf structure and mineral nutrition, noting that plants require macronutrients and micronutrients to carry out their functions.
Chapter 7 Nutrition in Plants Lesson 2 - Transport of water and mineral salts...j3di79
Plants transport water and minerals through xylem from the roots to the leaves. Phloem transports sugars manufactured in the leaves through photosynthesis to all plant cells. Water and dissolved minerals enter leaf veins and diffuse through the mesophyll cells where photosynthesis occurs, producing glucose. Glucose is then used to produce substances like starch, cellulose, sucrose, lignin, lipids, amino acids and proteins.
The document discusses key concepts related to ecosystems and their functioning. It begins by defining an ecosystem as the functional unit where living organisms interact with each other and their physical environment. It then discusses various ecosystem components like species composition, stratification, productivity, decomposition, energy flow and nutrient cycling. The document further explains concepts like trophic levels, food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids. It also covers ecological succession and biogeochemical cycles of nitrogen and phosphorus.
Biogeochemical cycles and conservation ecology 2010 editionMaria Donohue
Biogeochemical cycles describe the recycling of essential chemical elements and compounds between living organisms and their inorganic environment through biological and geological processes. Major biogeochemical cycles include the water cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, and phosphorus cycle, which involve the exchange of water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus between living things and the air, soil, oceans, and land. Disruptions to biogeochemical cycles through human activities like pollution, deforestation, and climate change can negatively impact ecosystems.
RHS Level 2 Certificate Year 1 Week 7 overviewvikkis
1) Photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen using sunlight, chlorophyll and the byproducts of the light-dependent and light-independent phases. Efficiency is determined by temperature, light, carbon dioxide and water availability.
2) Respiration converts glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide, water and energy in mitochondria. The equation is the reverse of photosynthesis. Efficiency is determined by temperature, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water availability.
3) Xylem transports water and minerals from roots to shoots through osmosis and transpirational pull. Phloem transports carbohydrates between plant parts using sieve tubes, sieve cells and companion cells.
The document summarizes key aspects of ecosystems, including producers, consumers, trophic levels, food webs, and biogeochemical cycles. It then discusses specific biogeochemical cycles such as the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle, and water cycle. Key reservoirs and processes are identified for each cycle, including how nutrients move between ecosystems and the environment over time.
photosynthesis in Plants its importance and siteDevendra Kumar
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose. It occurs in the chloroplasts and involves two stages - the light-dependent reactions where light energy is captured to form ATP and NADPH, and the light-independent reactions where carbon dioxide is incorporated into organic compounds to form carbohydrates such as glucose. Many factors can influence the rate of photosynthesis including light intensity, temperature, carbon dioxide levels, and water availability. Photosynthesis is essential for life as it provides energy and organic compounds for all organisms on Earth.
HijackLoader Evolution: Interactive Process HollowingDonato Onofri
CrowdStrike researchers have identified a HijackLoader (aka IDAT Loader) sample that employs sophisticated evasion techniques to enhance the complexity of the threat. HijackLoader, an increasingly popular tool among adversaries for deploying additional payloads and tooling, continues to evolve as its developers experiment and enhance its capabilities.
In their analysis of a recent HijackLoader sample, CrowdStrike researchers discovered new techniques designed to increase the defense evasion capabilities of the loader. The malware developer used a standard process hollowing technique coupled with an additional trigger that was activated by the parent process writing to a pipe. This new approach, called "Interactive Process Hollowing", has the potential to make defense evasion stealthier.
1. The document outlines key concepts about photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, and nutrient and water transport in plants. It defines photosynthesis and respiration equations and describes how their efficiency is determined by various environmental factors.
2. Transportation of water and minerals within plants is described, including the processes of transpiration, diffusion, and osmosis. The roles of xylem and phloem tissues are explained.
3. How stomata control water release from leaves and how plants limit water loss through evaporation is covered. The effects of relative humidity and temperature on transpiration are also stated.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in terrestrial ecology. It begins with definitions of fundamental terms like ecology, organism, population, community, ecosystem, producer, consumer, decomposer, food chain, and trophic level. It then covers ecosystem processes like energy flow, nutrient cycles, and limiting factors. Specific cycles discussed include carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, water, and sulfur. Biotic and abiotic interactions are addressed, including competition, predation, parasitism, and symbiosis. Population dynamics like carrying capacity and growth cycles are also summarized. Human impacts on ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles are outlined.
1. Energy from the sun enters ecosystems through photosynthesis by producers and flows through food chains and webs to consumers, with only about 10% being transferred between trophic levels as heat and inefficiencies.
2. Nutrients cycle through ecosystems, moving between living and nonliving matter through various biogeochemical cycles like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and water cycles, which are essential for life.
3. Human activities like burning fossil fuels are releasing excess carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, interfering with nutrient cycles and causing global warming through the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose. It occurs in two stages: in the light-dependent reactions, sunlight is absorbed and used to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose, producing oxygen as a byproduct. In the light-independent reactions, the glucose is then assembled from carbon dioxide using energy from the light reactions. The light reactions take place in chloroplasts within plant cells, while the dark reactions occur in the chloroplast stroma. Photosynthesis is essential for producing oxygen and food on Earth.
This document provides information about plant nutrition and photosynthesis. It discusses how plants obtain raw materials like carbon dioxide and water, how chloroplasts trap light energy to convert it to chemical energy through photosynthesis, and how glucose and oxygen are produced. The document outlines the processes, equations, and limiting factors of photosynthesis. It also addresses the importance of nitrate ions and magnesium ions for plant growth, and describes the uses and dangers of overusing nitrogen fertilizers, such as eutrophication of water sources.
The three main functions of plants are photosynthesis, respiration, and transpiration. Photosynthesis captures light energy to produce sugars, respiration metabolizes sugars to provide energy for growth and processes, and transpiration is the loss of water vapor through leaves which transports minerals and maintains turgor pressure.
1. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants produce their own food using carbon dioxide, water and sunlight through the action of chlorophyll.
2. The key requirements for photosynthesis are carbon dioxide, water, sunlight, and chlorophyll. Photosynthesis produces glucose and releases oxygen as a byproduct.
3. The rate of photosynthesis is affected by light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature - it proceeds fastest at around 40°C and declines above and below this temperature range.
The document discusses key concepts related to ecosystems, including energy flow, trophic levels, food chains, and food webs. It explains that the sun is the primary source of energy for ecosystems and that energy flows through trophic levels from producers to consumers. While chemical elements cycle through an ecosystem, energy is lost at each transfer between trophic levels and must constantly be replenished by the sun. Food chains and food webs illustrate the complex feeding relationships and energy transfers within an ecosystem.
This lab report examines the effect of light conditions on the rate of photosynthesis. The experiment measured the rate of photosynthesis by timing how long it took for photosynthesis to occur in leaf disks placed in a CO2 solution under different lighting conditions. As predicted, the results showed that the rate of photosynthesis was higher for leaf disks in direct sunlight compared to those in the shade. The conclusion was that light and carbon dioxide are necessary for photosynthesis, and that more light leads to a higher photosynthetic rate.
Photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide, sunlight, water and chlorophyll. It occurs in leaves through light and dark reactions. In light reactions, sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll which drives the production of ATP and NADPH using water. In dark reactions, carbon dioxide is reduced to carbohydrates like glucose using ATP and NADPH in the Calvin cycle. The rate depends on factors like light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, temperature and water availability.
Green plants and other organisms perform photosynthesis, the process by which solar energy is converted into chemical energy and stored in organic molecules. During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight are used to produce glucose and oxygen. The two main stages are the light reaction phase, where light energy is absorbed and used to produce ATP and NADPH, and the Calvin cycle, where carbon dioxide is incorporated into organic compounds to form glucose. Chloroplasts in plant leaves contain chlorophyll which absorbs sunlight to drive photosynthesis, producing oxygen as a byproduct and fueling the biosynthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats that sustain life on Earth.
Diversity & Evolution - Organisms and their environmentthejohnnth
Organisms and their environments provide key terms in ecology such as habitat, ecological niche, predator, prey, population, community, and ecosystem. Energy flows through ecosystems in a non-cyclic manner from the sun to producers to consumers in food chains and food webs, while chemical elements cycle through the ecosystem. Pollution disrupts ecosystems and affects water quality by reducing dissolved oxygen levels, with impacts including eutrophication and harm to aquatic life. Conservation aims to maintain biodiversity and use natural resources sustainably.
This document summarizes plant nutrition and photosynthesis. It discusses that plants are autotrophs that produce their own food through photosynthesis, using carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to produce glucose and oxygen. The process involves light and dark reactions that take place in the chloroplasts of leaf cells. Photosynthesis is affected by factors like carbon dioxide, temperature, and light levels. The document also describes leaf structure and mineral nutrition, noting that plants require macronutrients and micronutrients to carry out their functions.
Chapter 7 Nutrition in Plants Lesson 2 - Transport of water and mineral salts...j3di79
Plants transport water and minerals through xylem from the roots to the leaves. Phloem transports sugars manufactured in the leaves through photosynthesis to all plant cells. Water and dissolved minerals enter leaf veins and diffuse through the mesophyll cells where photosynthesis occurs, producing glucose. Glucose is then used to produce substances like starch, cellulose, sucrose, lignin, lipids, amino acids and proteins.
The document discusses key concepts related to ecosystems and their functioning. It begins by defining an ecosystem as the functional unit where living organisms interact with each other and their physical environment. It then discusses various ecosystem components like species composition, stratification, productivity, decomposition, energy flow and nutrient cycling. The document further explains concepts like trophic levels, food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids. It also covers ecological succession and biogeochemical cycles of nitrogen and phosphorus.
Biogeochemical cycles and conservation ecology 2010 editionMaria Donohue
Biogeochemical cycles describe the recycling of essential chemical elements and compounds between living organisms and their inorganic environment through biological and geological processes. Major biogeochemical cycles include the water cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, and phosphorus cycle, which involve the exchange of water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus between living things and the air, soil, oceans, and land. Disruptions to biogeochemical cycles through human activities like pollution, deforestation, and climate change can negatively impact ecosystems.
RHS Level 2 Certificate Year 1 Week 7 overviewvikkis
1) Photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen using sunlight, chlorophyll and the byproducts of the light-dependent and light-independent phases. Efficiency is determined by temperature, light, carbon dioxide and water availability.
2) Respiration converts glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide, water and energy in mitochondria. The equation is the reverse of photosynthesis. Efficiency is determined by temperature, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water availability.
3) Xylem transports water and minerals from roots to shoots through osmosis and transpirational pull. Phloem transports carbohydrates between plant parts using sieve tubes, sieve cells and companion cells.
The document summarizes key aspects of ecosystems, including producers, consumers, trophic levels, food webs, and biogeochemical cycles. It then discusses specific biogeochemical cycles such as the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle, and water cycle. Key reservoirs and processes are identified for each cycle, including how nutrients move between ecosystems and the environment over time.
photosynthesis in Plants its importance and siteDevendra Kumar
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose. It occurs in the chloroplasts and involves two stages - the light-dependent reactions where light energy is captured to form ATP and NADPH, and the light-independent reactions where carbon dioxide is incorporated into organic compounds to form carbohydrates such as glucose. Many factors can influence the rate of photosynthesis including light intensity, temperature, carbon dioxide levels, and water availability. Photosynthesis is essential for life as it provides energy and organic compounds for all organisms on Earth.
HijackLoader Evolution: Interactive Process HollowingDonato Onofri
CrowdStrike researchers have identified a HijackLoader (aka IDAT Loader) sample that employs sophisticated evasion techniques to enhance the complexity of the threat. HijackLoader, an increasingly popular tool among adversaries for deploying additional payloads and tooling, continues to evolve as its developers experiment and enhance its capabilities.
In their analysis of a recent HijackLoader sample, CrowdStrike researchers discovered new techniques designed to increase the defense evasion capabilities of the loader. The malware developer used a standard process hollowing technique coupled with an additional trigger that was activated by the parent process writing to a pipe. This new approach, called "Interactive Process Hollowing", has the potential to make defense evasion stealthier.
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1. BIOL 4120: Principles of Ecology
Lecture 3: Adaptation to
Physical Environment: Light,
Energy and Heat
Dafeng Hui
Office: Harned Hall 320
Phone: 963-5777
Email: dhui@tnstate.edu
2. Topics (Chapter 3)
3.1 Light is primary source of energy for the
biosphere
3.2 Plants capture the energy of sunlight by
photosynthesis
3.3 Plants modify photosynthesis in high water
stress environments
3.4 Diffusion limits uptakes of dissolved gases from
water
3.5 Temperature limits occurrence of life
3.6 Each organism functions best under certain
temperature
3.7 Homeothermy increases metabolic rate and
efficiency
4. All species have three common
basic functions
Assimilation: acquire energy from external environment
Reproduction: to produce new individuals
Response to external stimuli: able to respond to both
physical (light, temperature etc) and biotic (predator etc).
All organisms acquire energy
• Energy obtained directly from an energy source by a living
organism is called autotrophy (autotroph)
Plants are autotrophs, primary producers
So are certain bacteria like Thiobacullus ferrooxidans
• Energy obtained indirectly from organic molecules by a living
organism is called heterotrophy (heterotroph)
All animals are heterotrophs, secondary producers
Some organisms can be a mixture like lichens where you have an
alga and a fungus living together
Autotrophs obtain solar energy through photosynthesis.
5. All life requires energy to
sustain itself
With very few exceptions,
all life on earth is
dependent on solar
energy
Life on Earth exists
because it’s fitness is
optimal for the
environment created by
solar energy
Shortwave
longwave radiation
Earth is a balanced ecosystem in term of
solar energy inputs and outputs
3.1 Light is the primary source of
energy for the biosphere
6. Light is the primary source of
energy for the biosphere
PAR:
photosynthetically
active radiation
400-700 nm
8. Light absorption spectra of
algae
Ulva: sea lettuce, shallow water
Porphyra: red alga, deep-water
9. 3.2 Plants capture energy of
sunlight by photosynthesis
Photosynthesis (review)
All life is built on a framework of
carbon atoms
The ultimate source of carbon for
organic molecules is CO2
CO2 is transformed into organic
molecules by plants (photosynthesis).
10. Photosynthesis begins with light reactions
• Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll (a
pigment molecule)
• Conversion of the light energy into ATP (adenosine
tri-Phosphate) and NADPH (Reduced form of
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate)
Photosynthesis continues with the dark reactions
• Incorporation of CO2 into simple (organic) sugars
using the energy provided by ATP and NADPH
• Carboxylation is catalyzed by the enzyme rubisco
(ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) carboxylase-
oxygenase)
Photosynthesis is the process by which the
Sun’s energy (shortwave radiation) is used to
fix CO2 into carbohydrates (simple sugars)
and release O2
11. The Calvin cycle (C3 cycle) initially
fixes CO2 into 3-PGA
(phosphoglycerate)
This cycle is called Calvin-Bensen
cycle, or C3 cycle. Plants employing it
are known as C3 plants
C3
13. One major drawback of C3
pathway:
Rubisco can catalyze both
carbonxylation
And RuBP oxygenation
Reduce the efficiency of
photosynthesis.
C3 cycle (Calvin cycle)
PGA
RuBP
CO
3
2
2
C3 plant: trees, forbs,
some grasses
2
2 CO
RuBP
O
15. BIOL 4120: Principles of Ecology
Lecture 3: Adaptation to
Physical Environment: Light,
Energy and Heat
Dafeng Hui
Office: Harned Hall 320
Phone: 963-5777
Email: dhui@tnstate.edu
16. Recap
Water and salt balance by plants and
animals
Solar radiation is the energy source
for life, PAR, water absorption
Photosynthesis
C3 photosynthetic pathway
17. To increase water use
efficiency in a warm dry
environment, plants have
modified process of
photosynthesis
C3
• Normal in mesophyll
with rubisco
C4
• Warm dry environment
• Additional step in
fixation of CO2
• Phosphoenolpyruvate
synthase (PEP) does
initial fixation into
Malate and aspartate
• Malate and aspartate
are transported to
bundle sheath as an
intermediate molecule
• Rubisco and CO2
convert there to
sucrose
3.3 Other photosynthesis
pathways: adaptation to
water and temperature
conditions
18. C4 pathway
Advantages over C3 pathway
1. PEP does not interact with O2
(RuBP react with O2 and reduce the
photosynthesis efficiency)
2. Conversion of malic and aspartic
acids into CO2 within bundle sheath
cell acts to concentrate CO2, create
a much higher CO2 concentration.
C4 plants have a much higher
photosynthetic rate and greater
water-use efficiency.
C4 plants are mostly grasses native to
tropical and subtropical regions and
some shrubs of arid and saline
environments (Crop: corn, sorghum,
sugar cane).
19. CAM pathway
CAM (Crassulacean acid
metabolism) pathway
Hot desert area
Mostly succulents in the
family of Cactaceae
(cacti), Euphorbiaceae
and Crassulaceae)
Similar to C4 pathway
Different times:
Night: open stomata,
convert CO2 to malic
acid using PEP
Day:close stomata, re-
convert malic acid to
CO2, C3 cycle.
22. 3.4 Plant adaptation to control water loss
In addition to photosynthetic pathway
differences, heat and drought-adapted plants
have anatomic and physiological modifications
that reduce transpiration, heat load and enable
plants to tolerate high temperature.
23. 3.5 Photosynthesis of aquatic plants
Unique features
• Lack of stomata
• Direct diffusion of CO2 across cell membrane
Slow in water than in air (10^4 times slower)
• Some plants: CO2 reacts with H2O first to
produce biocarbonate, and Convert
biocarbonate to CO2
Transport HCO3
- into leaf then convert to CO2
Excretion of the enzyme into adjacent waters and
subsequent uptake of converted CO2 across the
membrane.
CO2 could be a constraint in dense sea-grass beds
24.
25.
26.
27. Oxygen concentration in aquatic
environment
O2 is
dissolved in
water
O2
concentration
in water is
determined
by solubility
and diffusion.
Anaerobic
conditions in
the deep
water
High O2 in the
surface due to
diffusion
28. 3.6 Carbon gained in photosynthesis is allocated to
production of plant tissues
Carbon allocation is an
important issue and has not
been well studied.
Difficult to measure, especially
below ground.
Allocation to different parts has
major influences on survival,
growth, and reproduction.
Leaf: photosynthesis
Stem: support
Root: uptake of nutrient and
water
Flower and seed: reproduction.
31. Plants must maintain a positive carbon
balance to survive, grow, and reproduce
Essential plant resources and conditions are
interdependent
• Light (PAR)
• CO2
• H2O and Minerals
• Temperature
Constraints Imposed by the Physical
Environment Have Resulted in a Wide
Array of Plant Adaptations
32. 3.7 Species of Plants are adapted
to light conditions
Plants adapted to a shady
environment
• Lower levels of rubisco
• Higher levels of
chlorophyll (increase
ability to capture light, as
light is limiting)
• low light compensation
and saturation lights
Plants adapted to a full sun
environment
• Higher levels of rubisco
• Lower levels of chlorophyll
• High compensation and
saturation lights
Changes in leaf structure
evolve
Red oak
leaves at
top and
bottom of
canopy
Light intensity
33. Stuart Davies of Harvard University studied the
photosynthesis and respiration of seedlings of nine
tree species under different light
Light affects photosynthesis and respiration
34. Shade tolerant (shade-
adapted) species
• Plant species adapted to
low-light environments
Shade intolerant (sun-
adapted) species
• Plant species adapted to
high-light environments
Change of allocation to leaf of
broadleaved peppermint (Reich et
al.).
Light also affects whether a plant allocates to
leaves or to roots
35. Shade tolerance and intolerance
Shade tolerance
Shade intolerance
Seedling
survival and
growth of
two tree
species
over a year
Augspurger
(1982)
36. BIOL 4120: Principles of Ecology
Lecture 3: Adaptation to
Physical Environment: Light,
Energy and Heat
Dafeng Hui
Office: Harned Hall 320
Phone: 963-5777
Email: dhui@tnstate.edu
37. Recap
C4 and CAM pathways
Aquatic plants
Photosynthesis and environmental
factors
• Light, response curve, adaptation
38. Different responses of
photosynthesis and
respiration to temperature;
Three basic Temperature
points
• Min T, max T and optimal T
3.9 Temperatures influence photosynthesis and
respiration
39. Plants need to make serious evolutionary
adaptations to temperature
Topt: C3: <30oC; C4: 30oC to 40oC; CAM, >40oC
Neuropogon: Arctic lichen (C3)
Ambrosia: cool coastal dune plant (C3)
Tidestromia: summer-active desert C4 perennial
Atriplx: everygreen desert C4 plant
C3
C4
C4
Photosyn. rate and Topt
40. Temperature responses are not fixed
When individuals of the same species are
grown under different thermal conditions, a
divergence in temperature response of net
photosynthesis is often observed
• The Topt shifts in the direction of the
thermal conditions under which the plant
is grown
A similar pattern is seen in individual plants
in response to seasonal shifts in
temperature (acclimation)
Plants Vary in Their Response to
Environmental Temperatures
43. Affinity is a good measure of enzyme function.
Produce different forms of enzyme.
44. Plants need nutrient for
metabolic processes and
synthesize new tissues
According to amount of
nutrient required:
• Macronutrients: needed in
large amount
N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S
• Micronutrients: needed in
lesser quantities
Zn, B, Cu, Ni, Fe
Some nutrients can be
inhibitory
3.12 Plants exhibit adaptations to
variations in nutrient availability
45. Uptake of a
nutrient through
the roots depends
on its
concentration
However there is a
maximum uptake
rate
Effect of nutrient
availability can also
reach a maximum
Plants exhibit adaptations to variations
in nutrient availability
47. Plants respond
differently to extra
nitrogen depending
on their natural
environment’s level
of nitrogen or
other nutrient
Two grass species, carpet bent
grass (A. stolonifera) in high N
and velent bent grass (A.
canina) in low N conditions.
48. Illustration of
tradeoffs of
C4, C3 plants
with CO2
concentration
Increase in
CO2 will
influence the
competition
of C3 and
C4
Other factors: Impact of CO2 on
photosynthesis
49. 3.13 Regulation of internal conditions
involves homeostasis and feedback
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a
relatively constant internal environment in
a varying external environment.
Homeostasis depends on negative feedback
Negative feedback: when a system
deviates from the normal or desired state,
mechanisms function to restore the
system back to that state.
Example: room temperature setting
50. Homeostasis
To stay alive, animals
need to keep their body
within certain limits
• Temperature
• Water balance
• pH
• Salt balance
Feedback systems to
help to keep within
specific limits
Outside limits –
• Dehydration
• Heat shock
• Salt imbalance
• Death
52. Body structure influences
the T exchange
Temperature (Tb, Ts, Ta)
Tb<->Ts conduction
• Core temperature Tb
• Surface temperature Ts
Ears
Fingers
Toes
Ts<->Ta: convection,
radiation, evaporation
Boundary layer (a thin layer of air
surround the body)
Insulation (air, body
covering) influences energy
exchanges
Animals exchange energy with their surrounding
environment
53. 3.14 Animals have different methods of
maintaining their body temperatures
Three groups of animals
Endothermy resulting in homeothermy
• Use of internal heat source (metabolically)
Mammals and birds
Maintain a fairly constant temperature (warm-blooded)
Ectothermy resulting in poikilothermy
• Use of external heat sources
Reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects and invertebrates
Results in a variable body temperature (cold-blooded)
Heterothermy
• Uses both endothermy and ectothermy
Bats, bees and hummingbirds
54. • As the temperature
increases, so does the
metabolic rate
• Therefore these animals
are more active during the
day
• Every 10oC doubles
metabolic rate (Q10)
• Natural condition: low
metabolic rate and high
conductivity
• Activities also controlled by
temperature
• Upper and lower limits vary
Lizards and snakes have a
5oC
Amphibians have a 10oC
Poikilotherms depend on
environmental temperatures
Operative T range: range of body T at which poikilotherms can carry
out their daily activities.
55.
56. During the day, the snake
can maintain a fairly
constant temperature by
adjusting it’s environment
(bask in sun to raise T,
seek shade to cool,
submerge in water etc)
During the night, it has
few options
• Temperature drops 10-
15 degrees
• Become torpid (slow
moving)
• Restricted by
environment
• Maximum size due to
need for surface area
to gather heat
• No minimum size
57. 3.15 Homeotherms escape the thermal
restraints of the environment
Homeotherms can escape the thermal restraints of
the environments, thus can exploit a wide range
of thermal environments
But needs energy to maintain relative constant T
Therefore homeotherms use large amounts of
glucose etc to maintain temperature (aerobic
respiration)
O2 is consumed during respiration
Rate of O2 consumption is used to measure
metabolic rate
Basal metabolic rate is considered as proportional
to their body mass (body mass 0.75) (debate? See
Hui & Jackson 2007 and others)
59. Resting metabolic rate and ambient
temperature
Thermoneutral zone:
a range of
environmental
temperatures within
which the metabolic
rates are minimal.
Critical T: lower and
upper critical T
60. BIOL 4120: Principles of Ecology
Lecture 3: Adaptation to
Physical Environment: Light,
Energy and Heat
Dafeng Hui
Office: Harned Hall 320
Phone: 963-5777
Email: dhui@tnstate.edu
61. Recap
Photosynthesis and environmental
factors
• (Light) Temperature
• Nutrients (and Water)
• CO2
Homeostasis and negative feedback
Endothermy and ecotothermy
62. Homeotherms can escape the thermal
constraints of the environments
Ways to keep body warm:
1. Insulation to reduce the convection: fur, feather, or body
fat
Mammals: fur, change fur in the winter
Fur can keep body heat in and the heat out
Birds: feather
Insects: a dense fur-like coat (moths, bees)
2. When insulation fails: shivering (a form of involuntary
muscular activity that increase heat production.
3. Small mammals: burn brown fat (bats) without shivering.
Ways to keep body Cool:
1. birds and mammals: evaporation of moisture from skin
2. mammals: sweat glands (horse, human), panting
3. birds: gular fluttering
63. 3.16 Endothermy and Ectothermy involve
trade-offs
Endotherms can survive in large range of T,
why not all animals are endotherms?
Trade-offs:
Endothermy Ectotherms
Activity: under all environments limited to environmental T
Energy: high low
Food: most for respiration, less less for respiration
to growth more to growth
Limits on size:
limit on minimum size limit on maximum size
64. Limited in size
Warm-blooded animals: body
mass (volume) produce
heat, lost through surface
area, the ratio of surface to
volume is key factor too.
• Small animals have
larger ratio and greater
relative heat loss to
environment, require
higher mass-specific
metabolic rate to
maintain and consume
more food energy per
unit body weight.
• Too small
Need too much
energy to keep
temperature stable
2 gm limit
Shrew (Solex spp)
eats own body
weight in food every
day to maintain
temperature
Cold-blooded animals absorb heat through
surface, thus the surface area to volume is
key factor. Large animals limited to warm
areas.
S/V=6*1/L
65. 3.17 Torpor and hibernation help
some animals conserve energy
Torpor
Small homeothemic
animals become
heterothermic
Body temperature
drops to ambient at
night
Inactive
Bats, Some mice,
kangaroos
66. Torpor and hibernation help some
animals conserve energy
Hibernation
• Many poikilotherms and some mammals have winter
torpor to save energy
• Selective advantage when resources are few
• Mammals
Heart rate, respiration fall
Temperature drops to ambient
Groundhogs, chipmonks
Not all bears
• No temperature change
• Just long sleep with no eating, drinking, defecating
or urinating
• Females give birth and feed young in this period
• Can wake up easily
• Do not visit a bear cave in winter!
67. 3.18 Some animals use unique physiological
means for thermal balance
Storing body heat:
Camel, oryx and some gazelles
Body T change from 34oc to 41oC for camel
Reduce need for evaporative cooling and save water and energy
Supercooling:
many ectothermic animals of temperate and Arctic regions
When the body T below freezing points without actually freezing
The presence of certain solute (glycerol) in the body lower the
freezing points
Wood frog, grey tree frog, spring peeper
Countercurrent heat exchange:
to conserve heat in a cold environment and to cool vital part of
body during heat stress.
68. Countcurrent heat exchange happens in
homeotherms (porpoise, whale) as well as in certain
poikilotherms (tuna, mackerel shark)
To preserve heat in cold water, and get ride of heat in warm water