Binder1.pdf

G R A M M A R F O R I E LT S
A r t i c l e s
U S I N G A A N D A N

EXPLANATION
• The use of ARTICLES (a, an, the and the zero article) is
one of the most difficult areas of grammar.
• IELTS candidates who only make a small number of
mistakes with ARTICLES when they speak and write
often get a high grade for GRAMMATICAL RANGE
AND ACCURACY.
• When you write or speak English, you have to make
decisions about ARTICLES in nearly every sentence.
• We can use a/an with singular countable nouns.
Knowing exactly when to use a/an is important.

WHEN TO USE A/AN
When we want to refer to one thing (a singular countable noun) for
the first time:
• Pollution is a serious problem.
• It would be good to buy a new table and a wardrobe.
• I come from a really small town which you’ve probably never heard
of.
• A scientist working in a laboratory in Italy has discovered a cure for
a major tropical disease.
• A misunderstanding between a Mexican soldier and an Argentinian
tourist nearly caused a war, or at least a major diplomatic incident.

WHEN TO USE A/AN
When we want to refer to one thing (singular countable noun), but it
doesn’t matter which one:
• You should bring a bottle of water and a sandwich.
• I thought I heard a mouse but it could have been a bird.
• I’m going to buy a new computer with a large screen.
• I’d love to live in a huge house with a garden, an attic and a cellar.
• If you ever need a friend, give me a call.
• This is the first line of a joke: an Englishman, an Irishman and a
Welshman walked into a restaurant.

WHEN TO USE A/AN
When there are many things but we only want to refer to one of these
things:
• The issue of individuals throwing litter in our streets is a serious
problem. However, there are many other serious problems which we
need to deal with at the same time.
• Biology is undoubtedly a fascinating course, just like physics,
chemistry, engineering and further mathematics.
• A single person planting a single tree will not solve the planet’s
problems. However, as a symbolic act it may carry weight.

WHEN TO USE A/AN
In some phrases which describe quantity:
• A large proportion/percentage of youngsters who were surveyed said
that they wanted a job as aTV personality, footballer or pop-star.
• A significant number of deaths are caused by poor air quality.
• A lot of part-time employees would like a full-time contract.
• A large/significant amount of money has been spent on advertising
• A huge/enormous amount of energy could be saved if people
remembered to turn off the lights.
• A great deal of animosity is felt towards anyone who attacks or
abuses a police officer.

WHEN TO USE A/AN
• A great many older people feel discriminated against.
• A few workers are happy with their salaries.
• A small/tiny/negligible amount of time is lost each day when
employees cannot get internet access.
• There is an insignificant amount of danger.The activity is virtually
risk-free.
• A small/tiny/negligible number of employees have decided to go on
strike.
• The table suggests that an insignificant number of Spanish tourists
visited the region in 2002.

WHEN TO USE A/AN
When there is only one example of a noun, or if it is completely clear
which noun we mean, we usually use the. However, when we want to
describe a particular example of a unique thing, we often use a/an:
• I love waking up to a clear blue sky and a bright sun. (There are
other types of sky, such as a dark sky.There are other types of sun,
such as a low sun)
• Nobody wants future generations to have to deal with a climate
which is entirely unpredictable. (There are other types of climate,
such as a stable climate)

WHEN TO USE A/AN
• A future with driverless cars and many more automated processes
seems very likely (There are other types of future, such as a simpler
future)
• Having an internet which children can safely use should be a priority.
(There are other types of internet, such as a dangerous internet)
• A government which does not obey the law is a dangerous thing.
(There are other kinds of government, such as a law-abiding
government, a popular government and a competent government)

WHEN TO USE A
AND WHEN TO USE AN
We use a before words
starting with a sound made with
tongue and/or lips
We use an before words starting
with an open sound
a university course an umbrella
a US official an EU official
a year an MP
a one-year course an open door
a willingness to work an orchestra
a historian an hour
a hotel an FBI agent
a hectic day an SOS call

WHEN TO USE A
AND WHEN TO USE AN
The key difference is not the first letter of the following word. It is the
first sound of the following word:
• Going to an open-day before actually applying to a university can be
extremely useful.
• A European survey funded by an EU department has discovered that
foreigners often visualise British people carrying an umbrella.
• It would be an honour to meet an MP, particularly an honest one.
• During a one-week holiday we only had an hour of sunshine.
• Members of an orchestra need to show a willingness to work hard.

PREPARE for IELTS: Grammar Exercises
Look at the following sentences. Decide if it is correct to use a or an in each case:
1. Going to a/an open-day before actually applying to a/an university can be a/an
useful experience.
2. A/An European survey, funded by a/an EU department, has discovered that
foreigners often visualise British people carrying a/an umbrella.
3. It would be a/an honour to meet a/an MP, particularly a/an honest one.
4. During a/an one-week holiday we only had a/an hour of sunshine.
5. A/An FBI agent has sent a/an SOS message.
ANSWERS
1. Going to an open-day before actually applying to a university can be a useful
experience.
2. A European survey, funded by an EU department, has discovered that foreigners
often visualise British people carrying an umbrella.
3. It would be an honour to meet an MP, particularly an honest one.
4. During a one-week holiday we only had an hour of sunshine.
5. An FBI agent has sent an SOS message.

A r t i c l e s
U S I N G T H E ( P A R T 1 )

EXPLANATION
AND ACCURACY.
• We often use the when the reader/listener knows
exactly which noun we are writing/speaking about.

WHEN TO USE THE
We can use the when the reader knows which thing we are
writing/speaking about. Often this is because we are not
writing/speaking about this thing for the first time:
• Experts have suggested a new law.The law would stop people
drinking alcohol in public places. (The reader knows which law we
are writing about.We are writing about the new law)
• A new theory which explains human aggression has been developed.
The theory has some supporters but a lot of critics. (The reader
knows which theory we are writing about.We are writing about the
new theory which explains human aggression)

WHEN TO USE THE
• Teachers often use new approaches to help their students learn.
However, the results of these strategies can be mixed. (The reader
knows that we are writing about the results of the new approaches)
• I am furious that my bus didn’t come this morning. I was seriously
inconvenienced because of the delay. (The reader knows that we are
writing about the delay caused by the bus not coming)
•

WHEN TO USE THE
• Several undergraduates at Oxford University have recently been
accused of submitting work to their tutors which they had not
actually written themselves.The students concerned may well be
expelled from the university. (We are clearly writing about Oxford
University and the students who have been accused of cheating)
• The arguments previously discussed shed some light on this
controversy. (The reader knows which arguments we are writing
about.We are writing about the arguments previously discussed)

WHEN TO USE THE
writing/speaking about. Often this is because the context makes it
clear which noun we are referring to:
• I don’t know why you couldn’t find the shopping. I left it behind the
door in the kitchen. (This is obviously the shopping left behind the
door and the kitchen in the house where we live)
• Our flat is easy to find.Turn left out of the station and walk along the
main road until you reach the football stadium. Cross at the traffic
lights and the flat is on the corner, right in front of you. (There is only
one possibility in each case)

WHEN TO USE THE
writing/speaking about.This is often because the thing is defined by a
relative clause:
• The children who live in poverty should be helped.
• We need to be aware of the dangers (which are) connected with
spending too much time online.
• I’d like to ask you about the presentation which you prepared.
• The books which are not bought are often pulped.
• The engineers who constructed the building should be praised.
• I’m sorry I drank the beer (which) you’d left in the fridge.

WHEN TO USE THE
writing/speaking about.This is often because the thing is defined by
extra information:
• The right to freedom of speech is of fundamental importance.
• The opportunity to work for a company like that only presents itself
once in a lifetime.
• The fall in demand for single-use plastics has been remarkable.
• I’m afraid I’m going to have to move because of the increase in how
much rent I’m having to pay.
• The chart under discussion refers to sales of fresh fruit.
• The statistics in question indicates that economic growth is low.

WHEN TO USE THE
adding of + noun. Noun + of + noun is a common structure:
• The popularity of online gaming worries some psychologists.
• The loss of a pet can be a traumatic experience.
• There has been a sharp rise in the price of coffee.
• Analysts claim that the level of inflation is dangerously high.
• The behaviour of children is certainly worth studying.
• The temperature of the material is checked constantly.
• The success of this approach will depend on various factors.

WHEN TO USE THE
adding of + noun. Noun + of + noun is a common structure:
• The feeling of satisfaction you get from passing your driving test is
amazing.
• Governments faced with the threat of terrorism often put extra
security measures in place.
Clauses with –ing forms can also define the noun:
• The likelihood of prisoners re-offending is incredibly high.
• The policy of allowing sixteen-year-olds to leave school is flawed.
• The thought of having to get up so early worries me.

WHEN TO USE THE
writing/speaking about.This sometimes happens even when the noun
is not specifically identified:
• Many people who get married think about the wedding itself, the
beautiful dress, the ceremony, the photographs, and the party.They
may not consider what might come later: the arguments, the
disagreements, the quarrels and the rows.
• Some people are put off from applying to university.The lengthy
application process, the interview and the difficult questions make
them look at other alternatives.

A r t i c l e s

EXPLANATION
AND ACCURACY.
• There are several important situations when we usually
use the.

WHEN TO USE THE
We can use the when we make general statements using singular
countable nouns:
• The computer has fundamentally changed the way we interact with
our fellow-humans (This sentence is about the general idea of
computers, and not about any actual, real, individual computers)
• The motorcar was first developed in the late nineteenth century.At
that time, nobody could have imagined what an impact it would have
on our way of life (This refers to the idea/concept of motorcars)
• Some say that the smartphone is the greatest invention since the
wheel (This sentence is about the general concept of smartphones
and wheels. It does not refer to specific, actual, real smartphones or
wheels)

WHEN TO USE THE
We can use the when there is only one possible noun:
• It has been estimated that the sun is approximately nine billion years
old. (There are many suns in the universe, but we are obviously
writing about the sun in our solar system, and there is only one sun
in our solar system)
• The climate has already begun to change, though not necessarily in
ways which scientists predicted. (There may be climates on other
planets, but this sentence clearly refers to the climate on our planet.
There is only one climate on our planet)

WHEN TO USE THE
• Figures show that many jobs were created in the banking industry
between 1990 and 2004. (There is only one banking industry.You
could argue that each country has its own banking industry but here
we are writing about the global banking industry or the national
banking industry in a particular country)
• Unless we take greater care of the environment, future generations
will struggle to survive. (There may be environments on other
planets, but it is clear that this sentence refers to the environment
on our planet.There is only one environment on our planet)
• The human race faces enormous challenges. (There is only one
human race)

WHEN TO USE THE
• There is no point worrying about what happened in the past and
little benefit from being frightened about what might happen in the
future.All we can do is to try to be happy in the present. (There is
only one past, one present and one future)
• When humans look at the sky, they often wonder if there are other
life-forms out there, living light-years away. (It is obvious that this
sentence refers to the sky on our planet.There is only one sky)
• The internet has changed how we live and how we interact with
others (There is only one internet)

WHEN TO USE A/AN
However, when we want to describe a particular example of a unique
noun/thing, we often use a/an:
• I love waking up to a clear blue sky and a bright sun. (There are
other types of sky, such as a dark sky.There are other types of sun,
such as a low sun)
• Nobody wants future generations to have to deal with a climate
which is entirely unpredictable. (There are other types of climate,
such as a stable climate)
• A future with driverless cars and many more automated processes
seems very likely. (There are other types of future, such as a simpler
future)

WHEN TO USE THE
We usually use the with superlatives
• The easiest way to reduce unemployment is for the government to
employ more workers.
• The most important feature of this graph is that overall
consumption of foreign holidays rose sharply.
• The most popular soap-stars, sports-stars and singers can command
enormous salaries these days.
• The longest-running soap opera in Britain has been on the radio for
more than sixty years.
• I’m afraid that ‘s the silliest suggestion I’ve ever heard.

WHEN TO USE THE
We usually use the with superlatives
• One of the biggest changes was that far fewer school-leavers applied
for work in the manufacturing sector.
• The second most valuable commodity referred to in the graph is
coffee.
• By far the most effective strategy is to refuse to take any notice of
what the child is doing.
When there is a possessive, we do not use the:
• The building is in Kazakhstan’s biggest city.
• This is our most pressing challenge.

WHEN TO USE THE
We usually use the with adjectives such as first; second; third; last; final;
next; previous etc.:
• The first important argument relates to physical health.
• The second reason why people commit crimes is slightly less
obvious.
• The final point worth making is that play develops a child’s
imagination.
• In the previous paragraph it was suggested that the benefits to
physical health are enormous. It should also be noted that mental
health can be positively affected.
• During the next phase of the process, water is pumped through the
chamber.

A r t i c l e s

EXPLANATION
AND ACCURACY.
• There are specific occasion when using the is vital in
the IELTSWritingTest.

WHEN TO USE THE
In some important IELTS WritingTask 1 (academic) expressions:
• At the beginning of the period, only about a third of respondents
reported being in full-time education.
• At/Towards/Near the end of the period, the vast majority of
households still possessed a video-recorder.
• In the middle of the period, the amount of food which was exported
was relatively high.
• Over/During the thirty years referred to in the data/chart/table, a
clear upward trend in technology sales can be identified.

WHEN TO USE THE
In some important IELTS WritingTask 2 expressions:
• the economy; the environment; the internet; the media
• the distant/recent past; the present; the foreseeable future
• the cost of living; the standard of living; the quality of life
• the tourist/banking sector; the steel/car industry
• the planet; the world; the globe
• the developed/industrialised world; the developing world;TheThird
World;TheWest;The East
• the government; the authorities; the powers-that-be

WHEN TO USE THE: EXAMPLES
• The government seems to focus its efforts on the economy and
apparently neglects the environment almost entirely. Some in the
media have criticised this focus on the cost of living and the standard
of living, which seems to have been accompanied by a willingness to
ignoreThe Greenhouse Effect.
• The freedom of the press should be guaranteed across the whole
world / entire planet / globe.
• The death penalty remains a controversial issue.

• The internet is having a huge impact.The entire human race seems
to have been affected by it.
• In every corner of the globe - in the developing world and the
developed world alike – the quality of life is improving.
• In the recent past, child labour was widespread. Hopefully, in the
foreseeable future it will be entirely eradicated.
• Young graduates now find it incredibly difficult to get work in the
financial/banking sector. Many are forced to consider jobs in the
tourism industry instead.

A r t i c l e s

EXPLANATION
AND ACCURACY
• We use the in lots of phrases connected with
geography.

WHEN TO USE THE
We use the to refer to mountain ranges, oceans etc.:
• Mountain ranges:The Andes;The Himalayas
• Oceans:The Indian Ocean;The Pacific;The Atlantic
• Rivers:The Danube;TheYangtze
• Deserts:The Sahara;The Kalahari
• EXAMPLE: Climate change is affecting every aspect of our planet:
temperatures in mountain ranges such asThe Himalayas are rising
and the level of salinity in parts ofThe Atlantic has gone up
astonishingly quickly.

WHEN TO USE THE
We use the in expressions with north, south, east and west:
• I live in the south of Russia.
• The north of the country is more industrialised than the south.
• People who live in the east of Canada have often never been to the
west of the country.
• It is sometimes said that those living inTheWest have very little
understanding of life in other parts of the world.Although it is
probably a generalisation, there is some truth in that statement.

WHEN TO USE THE
We sometimes use the with names of countries and organisations:
• Countries with plural names:The Netherlands;The United States
• Countries which are formed by groups of islands:The Maldives;The
Seychelles;The Bahamas;The Philippines
• Countries with longer names:The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia;The
People’s Republic of China;The Czech Republic;The United
Kingdom;The United States of America;The United Arab Emirates
• Organisations (including ones with acronyms said as letters):The
UN;The UNHCR;The EU;The WHO;The IMF;The World Bank;The
Red Cross/Crescent; UNESCO; NAFTA

We sometimes use the with names of countries and organisations:
• The United States is clearly a dominant world power. However,The
People’s Republic of China and other trading groups likeThe
European Union are likely to challenge its supremacy.
• Low-lying island groups such asThe Maldives,The Bahamas andThe
Seychelles are particularly vulnerable to the effects of rising sea-
levels.
• There is a great deal of international respect for organisations such
asThe Red Crescent, but significantly less forThe IMF and evenThe
UN.

WHEN TO USE THE
We use the in quite a lot of other phrases connected with geography:
• The statistics indicate that although levels of poverty are higher in
the southern hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere, this gap
is closing rapidly.
• Very few larger animals can survive in the desert.
• Most humans would find it impossible to live in the jungle.
• If we continue to cut down the rainforest, many animal species will
become extinct because their natural habitats will disappear.
• It is predicted that summertime ice will completely disappear from
The Arctic within a generation, and that ice shelves will break away
fromThe Antarctic with increasing regularity.

WHEN TO USE THE
We use the in quite a lot of other phrases connected with geography:
• The sun is obviously much further away fromThe Earth than the
moon is.
• It is sometimes believed that those living in ancient times must have
gazed up at the sun, the moon and the stars, trying to understand
their meaning. In actual fact, there is plenty of evidence that our
ancestors had a deep understanding of how the universe worked.
• Animals living atThe South Pole andThe North Pole are likely to be
affected by climate change far sooner than those whose natural
habitats are close toThe equator.

A r t i c l e s

EXPLANATION
AND ACCURACY
• We often use the when we want to describe groups.

WHEN TO USE THE
We often use the in expressions which describe a group of people:
• The young are often treated with great suspicion by the police.
• The general public is thoroughly fed up with the current political
system.
• The British andThe French have had a long and complex
relationship over the centuries.
• Those serving in the armed forces should be well paid.
• Volunteers work in the fire service and for the coastguard.
• The authorities need to take steps immediately.
• The government is often unpopular.

WHEN TO USE THE
We often use the in expressions with adjectives used as nouns:
• the rich; the wealthy; the well-off; the affluent ( = those in society
with lots of money)
• the privileged ( = those in society who have the best opportunities)
• the poor; the impoverished ( = those in society without money)
• the destitute; the dispossessed ( = those in society who have nothing)

WHEN TO USE THE
• the underprivileged; the disadvantaged ( = those in society who have
fewest chances and opportunities)
• the unemployed ( = those who do not have a job)
• the homeless ( = those who do not have a home)
• the hungry ( = those who do not have enough food)
• the weak; the vulnerable ( = those in society who are not strong)

WHEN TO USE THE
• the elderly ( = those in society who are old)
• the disabled ( = people in society who do not have a physical, mental
or emotional ability which others have)
• the healthy
• the (chronically/terminally) sick
• the happy
• the young

• The affluent are generally extremely unwilling to pay higher taxes so
that the living standards of the destitute and the dispossessed can be
raised.
• It infuriates me that the privileged sit on their luxury yachts sipping
champagne without a care in the world.
• I am of the opinion that the principal role of government is to feed
the hungry, house the homeless, offer work to the unemployed and
care for the sick in society.
• Most of us have almost no idea what life is like for the
underprivileged in society.

WHEN TO USE THE
We can use the when we define a group after phrases like all of, most
of, many of, some of, few of, a few of, several of, a couple of, none of:
• Few students struggle with exam nerves.
• Few of the students studying at my university found the exam nearly
impossible.
• Almost all drivers have had an accident at some time or other.
• Almost all of the drivers who responded to the survey claimed never
to have had an accident.

WHEN TO USE THE
• Most doctors have spent seven or eight years studying medicine.
• Most of the doctors in Cuba are extremely well-qualified.
• A significant proportion of NewYorkers admitted that they did not
always feel safe in the city.
• A significant proportion of the NewYorkers who were surveyed
admitted that they sometimes felt unsafe in the city.

WHEN TO USE THE
• Some countries are beginning to experience extreme weather,
which could be the result of global warming.
• Some of the countries in Latin America have suffered recently from
flooding and landslides.
• A few mistakes can be tolerated.
• A few of the mistakes made by IELTS candidates are really
unnecessary.

WHEN TO USE THE
• Hardly any people still live in the countryside.
• Hardly any of the people who I studied at school with still live in the
countryside.
• No trains have been running, due to the excessively cold weather.
• None of the trains which were scheduled to leave the station have
actually departed.

A r t i c l e s
T H E Z E R O A R T I C L E

EXPLANATION
AND ACCURACY
• Sometimes we do not use an ARTICLE with a NOUN.
This is calledTHE ZERO ARTICLE.

WHEN TO USE NO ARTICLE
We can use the when we make general statements using singular
countable nouns. However, when we want to refer to a general
concept or idea and the noun is plural or uncountable, we do not
usually include an article:
• Libraries should be built in every town (Libraries is a plural
countable noun.This sentence is about libraries in general)
• Motorists should have to take driving tests every year (Motorists and
driving tests are plural countable nouns.This sentence is about
motorists in general, and not a specific group of motorists. It also
refers to the general idea of driving tests, and not to specific driving
tests)

• Music and dance should be an important part of a child’s education.
(Music and dance are uncountable nouns.We are referring to the
general idea and not to a specific piece of music or a specific dance)
• Although it is said that chocolate can damage your health, some
studies have shown that it can actually have a positive effect.
(Chocolate is an uncountable noun.We are referring to the general
idea of chocolate and not to a specific, actual or real piece of
chocolate)
• Doctors, nurses and teachers should be paid higher salaries. (We are
writing about doctors, nurses and teachers in general.We are not
writing about specific examples)

• Ships have been replaced by planes to transport freight from one
part of the world to another. (We refer to ships, planes and freight in
general)
• These days, information is central to our development. (We are not
referring to a particular piece of information)
• Intolerance and racist and sexist attitudes need to be challenged.
(We are writing about the general ideas of intolerance and racist
and sexist attitudes.We are not writing about specific examples)

• I believe that men and women should receive equal pay. (This
sentence is not about a specific group of men and women)
• People who work in factories often receive low wages. (This sentence
is about people, factories and low wages in general)
• Plastic bottles can usually be recycled but consumers often just
throw them away. (This sentence is about plastic bottles and
consumers in general)
• Newspapers and magazines are far less popular than they used to be.
(This sentence is about newspapers and magazines in general)
• Alcoholic drinks are often sold at sporting occasions. (This sentence
is about alcoholic drinks and sporting occasions in general)

If you use the with this type of noun, your reader will think that you
are referring to a specific/particular group or thing:
• I believe that the women and the men should receive equal pay ( =
the women and the men we have already spoken about; the women
and the men who work in this company etc. )
• The computers definitely need replacing ( = the computers which
we are already talking about; the computers in the office which we
are talking about; the computers in the office where we are sitting)
• The information was completely inaccurate. ( = the information they
gave me; the information we have been talking about)

In some important expressions with prepositions, such as:
• at home; at work; at school; at university
• in bed; in hospital; in prison
• by bus; by car; by train; by plane
• at night; at midnight; at midday
• at Christmas; in September
• in pain; in trouble; in danger; in debt; in peril; at risk

WHEN TO USE NO ARTICLE: EXAMPLES
• Many undergraduates studying at university still live at home, largely
for financial reasons.
• In some cases, employees reported feeling more stress while
travelling to their office by bus or by train than when they were
actually at work.
• Recuperating patients in hospital are often encouraged not to stay in
bed all day.They are, in extreme cases, asked to get up at night, even
when they complain that they are in pain.
• Students who fail to attend university classes are clearly at risk of
being expelled from their course. Even if this drastic step is not
taken, they are in danger of failing their exams.

With abstract nouns:
• Teachers require a wide range of qualities such as patience,
tolerance, understanding and empathy.
• It is estimated that anxiety affects a far larger proportion of
teenagers than it did at any point in the past.
• Many of us are uncomfortable with silence.We generally prefer
noise.
• I have to admit to treating this suggestion with a mixture of
cynicism and scepticism.

With abstract nouns:
• Happiness is extremely difficult to define or explain.
• One of the biggest problems facing the elderly is loneliness.
• The only thing we should fear is fear itself.
• Time is our greatest enemy.
• Wisdom is one of the greatest virtues a person can have.

However, we can use the with abstract nouns if we define them or
make it clear that we are referring to a particular example of an
abstract noun:
• The happiness I felt when I got my exam results is almost
indescribable.
• We need to take steps to reduce the loneliness which elderly people
often feel.
• I was incredibly impressed by him as a teacher.The patience he
showed when dealing with demanding children was extraordinary.

Look at the following sentences. Decide if each gap should be filled by a, an, the or
nothing (-):
1. At ______ beginning of ______ period under discussion, ______ number of people
living in ______ south of ______ country was significantly higher than ______
number of residents living in ______ north.
2. During ______ twenty-year period in question, ______ pizzas were ______ most
popular takeaway food. ______ hamburgers were slightly less popular then ______
pizzas and ______ kebabs were ______ least popular type of food in this category.
3. Probably ______ most important reason why ______ people decide to emigrate
relates to ______ economic factors. ______ factor which often has ______ biggest
influence is ______ unemployment. ______ poor quality housing also forces many
individuals to consider emigration.
4. Many parts of ______ world have been affected by changes in ______
environment. For instance, ______ amount of rain which falls in ______ Himalayas
has changed, ______ Nile has flooded more frequently and ______ number of
storms in ______ Atlantic has gone up. Thanks to ______ Greenhouse Effect,
______ global temperatures are rising. As ______ result of damage to ______
ozone layer, ______ sun is having ______ major effect on ______ climate.
5. ______ economy of ______ United Kingdom has been struggling for some years.
Although ______ increasing number of ______ British people work in ______
banking, ______ finance, ______ tourism and ______ education, ______
percentage working in ______ areas like ______ manufacturing has fallen sharply.
6. ______ terrorism is ______ very serious issue for many governments. ______ large
proportion of ______ population fears being killed or injured by ______ bomb. This
is partly because ______ websites and ______ newspapers publish ______ stories
about ______ possibility of ______ terrorist attack.
ANSWERS
1. At the beginning of the period under discussion, the number of people living in the
south of the country was significantly higher than the number of residents living in
the north.
2. During the twenty-year period in question, - pizzas were the most popular
takeaway food. - Hamburgers were slightly less popular then - pizzas and - kebabs
were the least popular type of food in this category.
3. Probably the most important reason why - people decide to emigrate relates to -
economic factors. The factor which often has the biggest influence is -
unemployment. - Poor quality housing also forces many individuals to consider
emigration.
4. Many parts of the world have been affected by changes in the environment. For
instance, the amount of rain which falls in The Himalayas has changed, The Nile
has flooded more frequently and the number of storms in The Atlantic has gone
up. Thanks to the Greenhouse Effect, - global temperatures are rising. As a result of
damage to the ozone layer, the sun is having a major effect on the climate.

5. The economy of The United Kingdom has been struggling for some years. Although
an increasing number of - British people work in - banking, - finance, - tourism and
- education, the percentage working in - areas like - manufacturing has fallen
sharply.
6. - Terrorism is a very serious issue for many governments. A large proportion of the
population fears being killed or injured by a bomb. This is partly because - websites
and - newspapers publish - stories about the possibility of a terrorist attack.

Look at the following sentences. Decide if each gap should be filled by a, an, the or
nothing (-):
1. There is ______ large and widening gap between ______ rich and ______ poor. It
seems totally unfair that ______ wealthy sip champagne on luxury yachts and drive
______ fast cars while ______ dispossessed struggle to make ends meet.
2. When ______ children are at ______ school, they often behave completely
differently to when they are at ______ home. Parents often find ______ difference
quite hard to understand.
3. ______ scientists have developed ______ new theory about ______ causes of
cancer. ______ new approach focusses on ______ genetic factors far more than on
______ environmental factors. However, ______ researchers involved have
emphasised that ______ unhealthy adults are at ______ risk of developing cancer
and should start to have ______ healthier lifestyle.
4. Quite ______ lot of ______ children choose to apply for ______ place at ______
university. ______ few students decide to take ______ vocational qualification.
______ small number of eighteen-year-olds prefer to look for ______ job.
5. ______ most important qualities which ______ teacher needs include ______
patience, ______ tolerance and ______ understanding.
6. Anyone who uses ______ internet regularly will see ______ lot of ______ news and
______ great deal of ______ information. Those who spend ______ large amount
of their time online will also come across ______ significant amount of ______
advice. Some of ______ advice will be good but, unfortunately, ______ lot of it will
probably be useless.
ANSWERS
1. There is a large and widening gap between the rich and the poor. It seems totally
unfair that the wealthy sip champagne on luxury yachts and drive - fast cars while
the dispossessed struggle to make ends meet.
2. When - children are at - school, they often behave completely differently to when
they are at - home. Parents often find the difference quite hard to understand.
3. - Scientists have developed a new theory about the causes of cancer. The new
approach focusses on - genetic factors far more than on - environmental factors.
However, the researchers involved have emphasised that - unhealthy adults are at
- risk of developing cancer and should start to have a healthier lifestyle.
4. Quite a lot of - children choose to apply for a place at - university. A few students
decide to take a vocational qualification. A small number of eighteen-year-olds
prefer to look for a job.
5. The most important qualities which a teacher needs include - patience, - tolerance
and - understanding.
6. Anyone who uses the internet regularly will see a lot of - news and a great deal of -
information. Those who spend a large amount of their time online will also come

across a significant amount of - advice. Some of the advice will be good but,
unfortunately, a lot of it will probably be useless.

D e m o n s t r a t i v e s ,
p o s s e s s i v e s , i n c l u s i v e s
T H I S , T H A T, T H E S E A N D
T H O S E

EXPLANATION
• There are many words which we can put in front of a noun
to give information about it.These include
DEMONSTRATIVES, POSSESSIVES and INCLUSIVES such
as this/that/these/those, my/your/his/her, some/any,
each/every, all/most/many/much/some/several, none/no,
both/neither/either, few/a few/little/a little.
• These words are extremely common. If you use them
correctly, you can significantly improve the accuracy of your
speaking and writing in the IELTSTest.
• You will meet these words a lot in the IELTS Reading and
ListeningTests.

USING THIS
We can use this as a determiner. It goes before a singular or
uncountable noun. It lets us refer back to an earlier noun, clause, idea
etc.:
• The mixture is placed in a metal box.This container is slowly heated.
• Many protesters are genuinely scared about climate change.This
issue will affect us all in the end.
• Public sector workers have seen pay freezes and even pay cuts
recently.This situation has led to protests, high levels of worker
dissatisfaction, a reduction in productivity and low morale.This, in
turn, has provoked the government into making some state-sector
employees redundant.

USING THIS
We can use this to replace a noun, noun phrase, clause, idea etc.:
• Public sector workers have seen pay freezes and even pay cuts
recently.This situation has led to protests, high levels of worker
dissatisfaction, a reduction in productivity and low morale.This, in
turn, has provoked the government into making some state-sector
employees redundant.
• The mental health of teenagers is often ignored.This will have very
serious consequences when these adolescents grow up.
• Records suggest that the temperature of our planet has already
gone up quite considerably. Because of this, scientists are urging
politicians to take action.

USING THIS
We can use this with phrase like all of; most of; much of; a great deal
of; a significant amount of; some of; hardly any of; none of:
• Literally tonnes of plastic is thrown away each day.
(Practically/Almost/Nearly/Virtually) all of this/it could be recycled.
• We get a lot of our information from the internet.A significant
amount of this/it is either incorrect or misleading.
• British people eat a large amount of fish. Some of this/it is caught
locally, but a great deal is imported.
• I gave the organisation a lot of advice about the merger.
Hardly/Barely/Scarcely any of this/it has been taken.

USING THIS
Using this allows us to start a sentence with old/repeated information
and then add new information.This is a strong feature of well-
connected writing:
• Many zoos remain open.This (fact; situation) annoys animal rights
campaigners.
• More boys than girls study physics.This (fact; situation) obviously
worries educators.
• The cost of housing has risen.This (fact; situation) has led, in turn, to
an increase in the number of homeless people.This is an intolerable
situation.

USING THAT
We can use that as a determiner. It goes before a singular or
uncountable noun. It lets us refer back to an earlier noun, clause, idea
etc.We usually use it to refer to something distant ( = in the
past/future; in a distant place; distant because it is unlikely or untrue):
• Landing humans on Mars would be almost impossible. Even building
the spaceship to take astronauts to that planet is probably beyond
our capabilities. ( = in a distant place)
• Unless we take action, our planet could be uninhabitable within a
century.That prospect is a terrifying one. ( = unlikely; currently
untrue)

USING THAT
• If you eat fatty foods and fail to take regular exercise, you are putting
yourself at risk. Unfortunately, despite a huge amount of information
and advice in the media, some unhealthy individuals still fail to grasp
that concept. ( = unlikely; currently untrue; not believed; conditional)
• In the past, women were not allowed to enrol on certain university
courses.Thankfully, that state of affairs no longer exists. ( = in the
distant past)
• Humans and machines are likely to become increasingly similar over
the coming decades. It may become impossible to differentiate
between them. If that situation arises, it will have serious
implications. ( = in the future; currently untrue)

USING THAT
We can use that to replace a noun or noun phrase. It lets us refer back
to an earlier noun, clause, idea etc.We usually use it to refer to
something hypothetical or unreal:
• Some educators advocate allowing children to learn whatever they
want.That would certainly be a revolutionary change.
• Sending motorists to prison for speeding offences might cut the
number of deaths on our roads. However, I do not think that is the
way forward.
• Some people want to re-introduce capital punishment for murder. I
do not believe that would actually make violent crime less likely.

USING THAT
We can use that + preposition to refer back to an earlier noun phrase
with a preposition:
• The standard of living of those in developed countries is on the rise.
That of citizens of developing countries does not always show the
same improvement.
• The health of older people is generally quite good. However, that of
the younger generation is considerably poorer.
• The price of coffee has risen whilst that of tea has remained
relatively constant.
• Whilst the number of illegal immigrants has fallen, that of legal
migrants has almost doubled.
• Air quality in the city is poor, whereas that in villages is better.

USING THAT
Using that allows us to start a sentence with old/repeated information
and then add new information.This is a strong feature of well-
connected writing:
• Allowing people to continue working after they reach the age of
retirement might mean that young people would struggle to get a
job.That would probably outrage them.
• Some have supported the idea of turning parks and public gardens
into much-needed housing.That might please those struggling to
find a decent home, but would annoy others who already live or
work in the city.

USING THESE
We can use these as a determiner. It goes before a plural noun. It lets
us refer back to an earlier noun, clause, idea etc.:
• Many members of the public are genuinely worried about the state
of the economy.These individuals are calling on the government to
do something.
• In many major cities, it is easy to spot homeless individuals.These
people surely deserve to be treated better.
• Overcrowding and a lack of decent amenities make life in the city
stressful for many.These problems should be addressed by the
authorities.

USING THESE
We can sometimes use these to replace a plural noun. It lets us refer
back to an earlier noun or noun phrase:
• Scientists have recently discovered a number of planets outside our
solar system with similar conditions to those on Earth.These/They
will be investigated further, as it is conceivable that life may have
developed there.
• Sports like football and basketball have a significant number of rules.
These/They have changed very little over the years.
• The methods used to decide which applicant should be given a job
are old-fashioned.These/They should be changed.

USING THESE
We can use these with all of; most of; many of; some of; several of; a
few of; few of; not many of; both of; neither of; none of (either as a
determiner or to replace a noun):
• Teachers use many strategies. (Nearly/Almost/Practically/Virtually)
all of these (approaches) work in some situations, but not in others.
• Governments have many policies aimed at cutting unemployment.
Most of these (strategies) are related to increasing demand in the
economy.
• There are several arguments in favour of decriminalising certain
drugs.This essay will consider some of these (ideas).

USING THESE
• We currently rely heavily on coal and oil. Neither of these (forms of
energy) is/are sustainable in the long term.
• The figures show that many universities decided to stop teaching
foreign languages during the 1990s.The table indicates that a few of
these institutions reversed this decision in the following decade.
• The death penalty is legal inThe USA and China. Both of these
countries have made it clear that they do not intend to stop using
this form of punishment.
• Some people take drugs in order to be accepted by their peers.
Others do it to forget their problems or because they know their
families will disapprove. None of these reasons seems/seem sensible.

USING THOSE
We can use those to refer back to plural nouns:
• Temperatures in summer tend to be extremely high.Those in winter
are obviously considerably lower.
• Houses constructed from stone are more expensive than those
made of brick.
• Universities which offer a supportive environment are far more
popular than those which do not.
• Children encouraged to use their creativity and imagination
generally seem quite happy.Those who are just expected to follow
rules and obey adults are more likely to become depressed.

USING THOSE
We can use those to refer to groups of people.We can use this word
with or without a noun:
• The authorities in many countries have brought in legislation which
curtails the rights of citizens.Those (individuals) who protest or
demonstrate about such draconian laws often find themselves
thrown in prison.
• Those (residents) living near nuclear power plants fear an accident
or an explosion.
• Those (soldiers and civilians) who were killed in the war should be
remembered at annual ceremonies.

USING THOSE
We can use those to refer to groups of people.We can use those with
several grammatical forms:
• Those who believe in something often live longer (relative clause)
• Those seeking promotion need to impress their managers. (present
participle clause)
• Those found guilty of serious crimes should be imprisoned. (past
participle clause)
• Those with serious mental health issues should be given all the
support they need. In the long-run, this approach is both humane
and cost-effective. (prepositional phrase/clause)
• Those willing to work hard are admirable. (adjective phrase/clause)

P O S S E S S I V E F O R M S

EXPLANATION
• These words can be used to describe possession.
• We can use other structures to describe possession.
• If you know how to describe possession, your writing and
speaking will be stronger.This will certainly help in the IELTS
Test.

USING POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
Possessive forms: my; your/one’s; his/her/its; our; their; your
• It is my fervently-held view that public transport should be free for
everyone.
• If you do not stand up for your rights, you cannot expect anyone else
to.
• A father must take his responsibilities seriously. His behaviour and
attitudes are likely to have a major influence on his son or daughter.
• A child will usually look up to both of her or his / its parents.
• The burglar left their fingerprints on the window.
• It is unfair to expect one’s children to be perfect.

• When a company spends a huge amount of money on an advertising
campaign, it usually hopes to see its profits rise.
• We have a responsibility and a duty to defend our commonly-held
values against those who would like to destroy them.
• Some argue that their salaries should be much higher because they
do dangerous jobs, or do work which requires them to accept a huge
amount of responsibility.
• You have all/both been given the chance to study at university.You
should be grateful for your opportunity.
• Private donors sometimes give large sums of money to the
university.Their generosity allows it to increase its range of courses.

We can use the adjective own for emphasis:
• A young child needs to start making some of his or her own
decisions.
• These days, those with gardens or small plots of land grow their own
vegetables.
• You should make your own choices and accept the consequences of
your actions.
• One is entitled to defend oneself in order to fully protect one’s own
interests.
• I did it on my own ( = without any help form others)
• I would hate to live on my own ( = alone; separate from others)

POSSESSIVES
ALTERNATIVES
We can sometimes use of + possessive pronoun to indicate possession.
The noun we use it with usually follows the; this; that; these; those:
• You’ll never guess what has happened! That child of mine has been
accepted into Harvard University!
• She’s/He’s a fantastic player.That goal of hers/his was unbelievable!
• Although these problems of yours are serious, I’m sure we can solve
them.
• Unless we start to care for this world of ours, we are likely to regret
it later.
• The managers of the company have no heart.That decision of theirs
to close down three factories was ruthless and uncaring.

POSSESSIVES
ALTERNATIVES
We can use apostrophes to indicate possession:
• It seems that society’s/humanity’s problems are insurmountable.
• An employer’s responsibilities are not restricted to offering staff a
reasonable salary.
• Undergraduates’ poor exam techniques often cause them to get
disappointing grades.Their tutors’ responses are not always
sympathetic.
• Universities’ roles have changed over the years.
• Although men’s football is still more popular than the women’s
game in terms of viewers, the gap is definitely closing.
• I strongly believe that children’s clothes should not be taxed.
• People’s beliefs are hard to change.

POSSESSIVES
ALTERNATIVES
To indicate possession (that something belongs to
something/somebody) we can use noun + of + noun:
• If the price of food continues to rise, those on lower incomes will
soon struggle to make ends meet.
• The figures indicate that the level of unemployment is expected to
increase, and the cost of raw materials is set to remain constant.
• The rights of all citizens need to be upheld by the courts.
• Surprisingly, the memories of older people tend to be better in some
respects than those of younger adults.
• The popularity of fast-food has gone up markedly.

H O W T O U S E S O M E

USING SOME
We use some to mean a certain number/amount.We can use some
with plural and uncountable nouns, often in affirmative sentences:
• Some experts now claim that drinking red wine can reduce the
possibility of a stroke or heart attack for some individuals in some
cases.
• There are some understandable reasons why young, impressionable
athletes might take performance-enhancing steroids.
• Some people believe that the world was created by God.This version
of history is taught in some schools. However, it is disputed by many.
• I am writing to ask for some information about the upcoming event.

USING SOME
We can use some to replace plural and uncountable nouns:
• If I had a lot of money, I would give you some.
• In my experience, you never get any luck when you really need
some.
• Most of the food produced by supermarkets is sold to consumers.
However, some is never sold and some is bought but never eaten.
• I used to have loads of money but I gave some away to charities.
• If you have any chocolate left, please could I have some?

USING SOME
Some can be used to refer to people.We quite often use
some…others…:
• Some believe that our environment has the greatest impact on our
development, whilst others claim that genetic factors are key.
• Some live long lives, whereas others die young.
• Some seem to thrive when they work in groups, whereas others
obviously benefit more from working alone.
This structure can be used with nouns which are not people:
• Unfortunately, many businesses go bankrupt. Some simply run out of
money, whilst others decide to close for various different reasons.

USING SOME
We can use some in offers and requests:
• I wonder if you would be able to give me some advice.
• Could you help me with some of the English I need for the
presentation?
• I would be grateful if you could send me some details/information
about the forthcoming conference.
• Would you like me to give you some help?
• Shall I bring some food for the party? If you would like, I could make
some pizza.

WORDS CONNECTED TO SOME
We can use several words based on some:
• It is likely that somewhere in our galaxy, microbial life forms exist.
• In my view, somebody/someone from the scientific community
should try to persuade international organisations to spend more
money on research into tropical diseases.
• Something clearly needs to be done about congestion in our major
cities.
• Somehow, we must find a way of using the sun’s energy more
effectively.
• It is somewhat surprising that we still do not have a way of
successfully treating malaria.

H O W T O U S E A N Y

EXPLANATION
• These words are extremely common. If you use them
correctly, you can significantly improve the accuracy of your
speaking and writing. in the IELTSTest.
• You will meet these words a lot in the IELTS Reading and
ListeningTests.

USING ANY
We can use any to mean a certain number/amount.We can use any
with plural and uncountable nouns.We often use any in questions and
in negative sentences:
• There aren’t any reasons why we should stay. ( =There are no
reasons why we should stay)
• We haven’t had any problems so far.
• I hope that there won’t be any delays and that you will arrive safely
and on time.
• It’s Sarah’s birthday next week. Do you have any ideas what she
would like?
• Unfortunately, we haven’t really got any money/time/energy at the
moment so wouldn’t be able to come and visit you.

USING ANY
We can use any to replace plural and uncountable nouns:
• Even if I had a lot of money, I probably wouldn’t give any to charity.
• I’m afraid that even though I asked all my colleagues for help and
advice, I didn’t get any.
• You said in your text that you were going whale-watching. I’d love to
see some whales. Have you ever actually seen any?
• I will ask my colleagues about the horse-riding trip. If any want to
come, we will contact you and book places for them.
• The government has announced that it will not allow refugees into
the country, and has warned that if any are found, they will be
repatriated.

USING ANY
We often use any with negative adverbs:
• There are hardly/barely/scarcely any scientists who would argue that
Darwin’sTheory of Evolution is completely wrong.
• I have to say that there are seldom/rarely any decent films on at our
local cinema so I wouldn’t recommend it.
• Getting a well-paid job is difficult.There are hardly ever / practically
never any good positions advertised online.

USING ANY
We often use any with negative verbs:
• We need to prevent any further delays to the project.
• I have discussed the matter with her and she denies any involvement
in the incident.
• The police are often accused of failing to take any action against
those accused of crimes of domestic violence.
We often use any with other negative language:
• Because of economic sanctions, it was difficult/impossible to buy any
electronic goods.
• I hope and expect to be able to get there without any
difficulties/problems/inconvenience.

USING ANY
We often use any with if/whether:
• If there are any polar bears alive by the year 2050, I will be
astonished.
• If there is any help I can give you, let me know.
• I wonder whether there is any point texting her. She never reads her
messages.
• Some sceptics doubt whether there is any genuine evidence to
support the claim that human beings are causing climate change.

USING ANY
We can use any with singular nouns to mean practically/almost every;
no particular one:
• Any attempt to clone human beings would be heavily criticised by
most of the scientific community.
• Any solution to the dreadful problem of child labour would be
welcomed.
• Any motorist would be able to tell you that roads are becoming
more congested.
• To be honest, I’m short of cash and desperate for work.Any job
would do at the moment.

WORDS CONNECTED TO ANY
We can use several words based on any:
• Although many older people are quite adventurous, some do not
want to go anywhere, preferring the quiet life at home.
• I do not believe that anything can be done to prevent the outbreak
of wars and conflicts - as a species we are aggressive and violent.
• If anybody/anyone could find a cure for cancer, they would probably
become incredibly famous.
• That’s interesting.Anyhow, we’re really here to discuss your role in
the company (an informal word which is used to change the subject
of conversation)

H O W T O U S E E A C H A N D
E V E R Y ( A N D – E V E R )

USING EACH AND EVERY
We use each with singular nouns to refer to a number of people/things
individually:
• Each player in a football team needs to support his or her team-
mates.
• Each (and every) citizen has both a right and a duty to vote in
elections.
We use every with singular nouns to emphasize the group:
• Every (single) person I know believes that the freedoms of speech
and association are fundamental.
We use every with some adverbs:
• Almost/Virtually/Practically/Nearly every driver in the world has
broken the speed limit at one time or another.

WORDS CONNECTED TO EVERY
We can use several words based on every:
• Pharmaceutical companies claim that everything possible is done to
ensure that the drugs they produce are safe and do not have
unwanted side-effects.
• If everyone/everybody in the world resolved to do one good deed
each day, life would be noticeably better for all.
• Everywhere you go, you are likely to meet interesting people with
thought-provoking ideas and an entirely different perspective on life.

WORDS CONNECTED TO EVER
We can use wherever; whenever; whoever; whatever; whichever;
however to mean there are several or many possibilities and it doesn’t
matter which possibility you choose because they are all very similar:
• Wherever you look, you will find people who are less fortunate than
you.
• Whenever a terrorist attack takes place, extra security measures are
introduced.
• Whoever developed artificial blood plasma should be congratulated
for saving millions of lives.
• Whatever you bring and whatever time you arrive, it will be great to
see you.

WORDS CONNECTED TO EVER
We can use wherever; whenever; whoever; whatever; whichever;
however to mean there are several or many possibilities and it doesn’t
matter which possibility you choose because they are all very similar:
• Consumers tend to buy products from whichever retailer has the
best price.
• However difficult the challenge and whatever obstacles they face, the
most successful people know how to prosper.
• However much money you make, and however many expensive cars
you own, you will not be happy unless you have good friends.

Complete the following sentences with one of the following words:
whatever; wherever; whenever; whoever; whichever; however
1. ______ university you decide to apply for, it is important that you actually visit the
campus before agreeing to spend three or four years of your life there.
2. I will complete this project, ______ long it takes and ______ difficult it is.
3. You can wear ______ you want at work on a Friday. The manager has decided that
this might improve productivity.
4. ______ I return home, it always feels great.
5. ______ I work, I always try to have a good relationship with my colleagues.
6. ______ you talk to, it pays to be polite and respectful.
ANSWERS
1. Whichever university you decide to apply for, it is important that you actually visit
the campus before agreeing to spend three or four years of your life there.
2. I will complete this project, however long it takes and however difficult it is.
3. You can wear whatever you want at work on a Friday. The manager has decided
that this might improve productivity.
4. Whenever I return home, it always feels great.
5. Wherever I work, I always try to have a good relationship with my colleagues.
6. Whoever you talk to, it pays to be polite and respectful.

H O W T O U S E A L L , M O S T,
M A N Y , M U C H , S O M E A N D
S E V E R A L

EXPLANATION
to give information about it.These include all, most, many,
much some, several.
• When using these words, it is important to know:
1.Are they used with COUNTABLE NOUNS and/or
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS?
2. Can they be used with of to refer to defined groups?
3. Can they be used with of + OBJECT PRONOUNS?
4. Can they be used with of + POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES?
5. Can they be used alone to refer to people?

ALL, MOST, MANY, MUCH, SOME, SEVERAL
We can use all with plural nouns and with uncountable nouns:
• All soldiers need support and counselling if they witness shocking
and terrible scenes.
• All of the soldiers who fought inThe Great War returned home with
terrible psychological scars.
• I have sent you all of the information in the book.
• Nearly all of my classmates graduated with honours.
• All of them struggle.
• Some soldiers manage to acclimatise themselves to civilian life after
fighting a war. However, nearly all have emotional scars.
• Not all are easily convinced by advertisements.

We can use most with plural nouns and with uncountable nouns:
• Most older people enjoy spending time with their grandchildren.
• Most of the older people I know seem to have incredibly active
lifestyles.
• Most of the information we received is irrelevant.
• Most of the students with the highest grades went to university.
• Most of my holiday was spent in bed with food poisoning.
• Most of them appeared to enjoy themselves.
• Although some feel that online betting should not be regulated,
most believe that governments should pass laws to protect
vulnerable gamblers.

We can use many with plural nouns:
• Many problems can be solved easily if we are willing to compromise.
• Many of the huge multi-national companies which make massive
profits actually exploit workers around the world.
• Although some employees get a great sense of personal satisfaction
from their work, many of them / my friends feel under-valued and
not appreciated by their employers.
• Some school-leavers apply to institutions of higher education.
However, many believe that going to university is actually a waste of
time. Not many believe this type of study represents good value for
money.

We can use much with uncountable nouns:
• There is much debate and discussion surrounding the issue of
censorship in the media.
• Much of the pollution which affected the region has been cleared.
• Much of my childhood was spent in Australia.
• Some of the anger has died down, but much of it remains.
• Much of what is understood about children’s reactions and responses
to violent imagery is based on experimental findings from the 1960s.
• Not much is understood about how the universe is continuously
expanding.

We usually use some with plural nouns and uncountable nouns:
• Some children struggle to concentrate in class.
• Some of the children in my school always handed in their homework
on time.
• Some of the bad weather which we have recently experienced may
be a direct result of climate change.
• Some of my opinions are rather controversial.
• Many endangered species are being protected but it is also true that
some of them are being exploited.
• Some believe that the use of corporal punishment is justified
because it allows teachers and parents to control children. Others
challenge this assertion.

We can use several with plural nouns:
• Several experts have claimed that investing in space exploration is a
waste of money.
• Several of the people I know live in high-rise apartment blocks.
• Several of my friends have been to Japan and had a wonderful time.
• The majority of respondents agreed with the view that the courses
were relevant. However, several of them expressed reservations.
• Most students completed the test successfully but the figures
indicate that several actually failed.

H O W T O U S E F E W , A F E W ,
L I T T L E A N D A L I T T L E

USING FEW AND LITTLE
We can use few with plural countable nouns. It means not many; not
enough:
• (Very) few countries are more beautiful that Chile.
• (Very) few of the people who go to lectures actually take notes on
what is being said.
• (Very) few of my classmates have managed to get well-paid jobs
since leaving university.
• Few of us are millionaires.
• Most adults would probably be willing to fight for their country at a
time of war. Few would refuse.
• Few have the skills necessary to be a fighter-pilot.

We can use a few with plural countable nouns. It means not many; a
small number; possibly enough:
• A few diseases have been entirely eradicated by scientists.
• A few of the holiday-makers questioned indicated that they would
not want to go to Nigeria on vacation. However, the majority of
those asked appeared to be quite keen on the idea.
• A few of my work colleagues are planning a party tomorrow.
• Most countries participate inThe Olympics. Just a few of them
refuse to send teams.
• Most teachers are hard-working and committed. However, a few are
lazy and incompetent.

There are quite a few useful phrases connected with few:
• Only a few / Just a few /Very few (astronauts) have walked on the
surface of the moon though quite a few have obviously wanted to.
• We should make the most of the few / what few opportunities we
have to witness a solar eclipse.
• India is one of the few nations to have launched a rocket recently.
• The ISS orbits our planet no fewer than sixteen times a day.
• If fewer satellites were launched, there would be fewer collisions.
• Figures suggest that the year with the fewest hurricanes was 1945.
• The figures suggest that as the nineteenth century progressed, fewer
and fewer children died before reaching their fifth birthday.

We can use little with uncountable nouns. It means not much; not
enough:
• Little evidence is available to support the notion that life may exist
on other planets.
• Little of the composer’s earlier work survives.
• Little of my time at university was wasted.
• Little (information) is known about the early universe.
• Little has changed over the years. ( = not much)

We can use a little with uncountable nouns. It means not much; a
small amount; possibly enough:
• A little kindness can go a long way.
• A little of the information which we found proved useful.
• Only/Just a little of my time is spent in the office.
• A little is now known about the earliest human societies. It is hoped
that, as time goes by, we will be able to expand our knowledge
further and gain an even deeper understanding. (not much, but a
significant amount)

There are quite a lot of useful phrases connected with little:
• We should make the most of the little time we have left to save the
environment.
• What little is understood aboutThe Big Bang largely comes from
computer simulations and our detection of background cosmic
radiation.
• The number of immigrants rose a little (bit) in 1998.
• To be honest with you, I’m feeling a little (bit) tired.

There are quite a lot of useful phrases connected with little:
• There is less chance of success than there was a year ago.
• The table indicates that the least interest was in science.
• The price is less important than you might think.
• This is probably the least important aspect of the debate.
• Less and less money is invested in mental health. (reducing
continuously)
• Little by little, living standards are rising (always changing, but
changing slowly)

H O W T O U S E N O N E A N D N O

WORDS CONNECTED WITH NONE/NO
We usually use none/no with plural nouns and uncountable nouns:
• No workers actually want a pay freeze or a drop in salary.
• No time can be lost.Action must be taken immediately.
• None of the workers employed as manual labourers to build
stadiums for the upcoming football tournament was paid properly.
• None of the water which is collected needs to be processed.
• Although we invited about a dozen colleagues to the party, none of
them / my workmates came.
• We invited dozens to the meeting but none came.
• All the food was eaten. None was wasted.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT WITH NONE
When we use none as a pronoun, the verb can be singular or plural. It
depends on the noun which none replaces:
• All the food was eaten. None (no food) was wasted.
• I asked my friends for help but none (no help) was forthcoming.
• I spend ages waiting for opportunities but none (no opportunities)
come.
• Many people can be quite narrow-minded, especially if they haven’t
had the opportunity to spend time abroad. Many of my friends
believe that our country is the greatest in the world, but none (of my
friends) have travelled widely.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT WITH NONE
We can use none of as a determiner. It is often better to use a singular
verb with it in formal English, even with plural nouns:
• None of this is relevant.
• Unfortunately, none of the paperwork has been kept.
• None of the arguments makes sense. ( = not one of them)
• None of the students comes by bus. ( = not one of them)
In informal English, or when the meaning is not any of, you can use
none of with a plural verb with a plural noun:
• None of my friends live round here.
• None of those points seem relevant.
• None of the museums allow schoolchildren to enter free of charge.

WORDS CONNECTED WITH NO
We can use several words based on no:
• There is no reason why the disabled should not lead fulfilling and
rewarding lives.
• There is no point expecting multi-national conglomerates to start
acting ethically; they have to be forced to change.
• Nothing can be done to change our past actions.
• Nowhere is poverty more evident/obvious than in the shanty towns
and favelas which surround some of the world’s most prosperous
cities.
• Nobody/No-one can deny the fact that China is becoming
increasingly powerful economically.

WORDS CONNECTED WITH NO
We can use several phrases based on no:
• No matter how old you are, it is still possible to learn.
• No amount of training can really prepare soldiers for war.
• Sadly for some, Britain is no longer one of the world’s dominant
powers.
• No sooner had the rain ended than the sun came out.
• On no account should you touch that spider.
• Under no circumstances should capital punishment be used.
• Our company’s success is due, in no small measure, to our marketing
strategy.

Look at the sentences below. Choose the best determiner to fill each gap:
1. The issue of obesity is one of the most serious difficulties which confronts us.
This/These problem could cost governments hundreds of thousands of dollars and
could lead to an eventual reduction in life expectancy.
2. The issues of food waste and obesity are clearly connected to the way we live.
Both/Neither of these problems reflect our unhealthy attitude towards what we
eat.
3. Most/All of the food we throw away ends up in landfill sites. Around ten percent
of it is sent to farms and fed to cattle and a further five percent is turned into fuel.
4. Those/These who work in food manufacturing sometimes do not worry about food
waste. They realise that if consumers throw food items away, they will have to buy
more. That/Those situation is obviously good for the profits of food producers.
5. Those/These shoppers who purchase more food than they actually need are often
criticised by both/neither environmentalists and politicians.
6. Supermarket customers load up their shopping trolleys every/all week. They often
take home far more than they actually need when they do their weekly shop.
ANSWERS
1. The issue of obesity is one of the most serious difficulties which confronts us. This
problem could cost governments hundreds of thousands of dollars and could lead
to an eventual reduction in life expectancy.
2. The issues of food waste and obesity are clearly connected to the way we live.
Both of these problems reflect our unhealthy attitude towards what we eat.
3. Most of the food we throw away ends up in landfill sites. Around ten percent of it
is sent to farms and fed to cattle and a further five percent is turned into fuel.
4. Those who work in food manufacturing sometimes do not worry about food waste.
They realise that if consumers throw food items away, they will have to buy more.
That situation is obviously good for the profits of food producers.
5. Those shoppers who purchase more food than they actually need are often
criticised by both environmentalists and politicians.
6. Supermarket customers load up their shopping trolleys every week. They often
take home far more than they actually need when they do their weekly shop.

Look at the sentences below. Choose the best determiner to fill each gap:
1. Every/All day, from the moment they open their doors to the time when they close
the check-outs and switch off their cash registers, supermarkets are full of
shoppers.
2. The managing directors of two of the country’s leading food producing companies
were invited to discuss the issue of food waste with a group of politicians and
academics. Unfortunately, none/neither of them attended the meeting.
3. Two well-known celebrity chefs have appeared on television recently urging
householders to cut back on food spending. Unfortunately, all/both of these
professional chefs own restaurants which regularly throw away vast amounts of
unwanted food.
4. Environmental campaigners have written to the bosses of the country’s one
hundred largest companies, asking them to make a public commitment to reducing
food waste. Sadly, none/neither of the managers have replied.
5. The government has tried to highlight the issue of food waste with an awareness-
raising campaign and the threat that householders who throw away large
quantities of food will be fined. Some/Neither of these strategies have been
particularly effective.
6. Most/Some individuals, when asked, agree that wasting food when there is
poverty and starvation in the world is actually criminal. However, there is a small
minority of people who do not see it as a problem.
ANSWERS
1. All day, from the moment they open their doors to the time when they close the
check-outs and switch off their cash registers, supermarkets are full of shoppers.
2. The managing directors of two of the country’s leading food producing companies
were invited to discuss the issue of food waste with a group of politicians and
academics. Unfortunately, neither of them attended the meeting.
3. Two well-known celebrity chefs have appeared on television recently urging
householders to cut back on food spending. Unfortunately, both of these
professional chefs own restaurants which regularly throw away vast amounts of
unwanted food.
4. Environmental campaigners have written to the bosses of the country’s one
hundred largest companies, asking them to make a public commitment to reducing
food waste. Sadly, none of the managers have replied.
5. The government has tried to highlight the issue of food waste with an awareness-
raising campaign and the threat that householders who throw away large
quantities of food will be fined. Neither of these strategies have been particularly
effective.
6. Most individuals, when asked, agree that wasting food when there is poverty and
starvation in the world is actually criminal. However, there is a small minority of
people who do not see it as a problem.

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