This document discusses the concept of diglossia, which refers to a situation where two varieties of the same language exist side by side within a speech community. It introduces diglossia and defines it as a stable language situation where a community uses a primary dialect as well as a divergent, codified superposed variety used for formal purposes like education, writing, and official spoken contexts. It then discusses different aspects of diglossia, including the functions of high vs low varieties, prestige and acquisition of the varieties, standardization efforts, differences in grammar, lexicon, and phonology between varieties. The document concludes that in diglossia, no one speaks the high variety as a mother tongue.
The document provides an introduction to discourse analysis. It defines discourse as language use beyond the sentence level, including features such as being meaningful, coherent, and purposive. Discourse analysis examines language in use and how context contributes to meaning. Speech act theory and Grice's cooperative principle are discussed as are key concepts like adjacency pairs in conversation analysis. The document offers examples throughout to illustrate discourse analysis concepts and techniques.
This document discusses semantics and pragmatics, implicature, and Grice's theory of implicature. It defines semantics as the study of literal meaning and pragmatics as the study of intended meaning. Pragmatics considers what is meant rather than solely what is said. Grice's theory proposes that speakers follow a cooperative principle with maxims of quantity, quality, relation, and manner to ensure conversations are cooperative and successful. Implicature is the additional meaning implied rather than stated. There are different types of implicature including scalar, conversational, conventional, generalized, and particularized.
This document defines bilingualism and multilingualism as speaking and understanding two or more languages. It discusses bilingualism at the individual and societal levels, and provides examples of officially bilingual countries like Canada and Belgium. It also describes different types of bilingual speakers and domains of language use. The document defines diglossia as the use of two varieties of the same language in different social contexts. It provides examples of diglossia in Arabic countries and medieval Europe. Diglossia is characterized by a "high" variety used in formal settings and a "low" variety used informally.
The document discusses various linguistic concepts related to cohesion and coherence in texts, including:
- Text, texture, ties, cohesion, and different types of reference such as exophoric, endophoric, anaphora, and cataphora.
- Substitution and its types including nominal, verbal, and clausal substitution.
- Ellipsis and its occurrence when structurally necessary elements are left unsaid, discussing nominal, verbal, and clausal ellipsis.
- Examples are provided to illustrate each concept.
The document discusses the Lexical Approach and compares it to psycholinguistic evidence from semantic and repetition priming experiments. It argues that the Lexical Approach is compatible with findings that words are closely linked in the mind and that encountering word combinations facilitates later recognition. The paper aims to show that the Lexical Approach is supported by psycholinguistic evidence and linguistic theory and that its key concepts apply to Chinese as well as English.
This document provides an overview of pragmatics and its relationship to discourse analysis. It discusses how pragmatics looks at meaning in relation to context and background knowledge. Key aspects of pragmatics discussed include speech act theory, implicature, presupposition, and politeness principles. Speech act theory examines the performative functions of language like statements, requests, promises. Implicature refers to implied meanings beyond what is literally said. Presupposition involves shared background assumptions. Politeness principles govern how people communicate to maintain social harmony. The document provides examples and references prominent pragmatics scholars like Grice, Searle, and Lakoff.
This document discusses the concept of diglossia, which refers to a situation where two varieties of the same language exist side by side within a speech community. It introduces diglossia and defines it as a stable language situation where a community uses a primary dialect as well as a divergent, codified superposed variety used for formal purposes like education, writing, and official spoken contexts. It then discusses different aspects of diglossia, including the functions of high vs low varieties, prestige and acquisition of the varieties, standardization efforts, differences in grammar, lexicon, and phonology between varieties. The document concludes that in diglossia, no one speaks the high variety as a mother tongue.
The document provides an introduction to discourse analysis. It defines discourse as language use beyond the sentence level, including features such as being meaningful, coherent, and purposive. Discourse analysis examines language in use and how context contributes to meaning. Speech act theory and Grice's cooperative principle are discussed as are key concepts like adjacency pairs in conversation analysis. The document offers examples throughout to illustrate discourse analysis concepts and techniques.
This document discusses semantics and pragmatics, implicature, and Grice's theory of implicature. It defines semantics as the study of literal meaning and pragmatics as the study of intended meaning. Pragmatics considers what is meant rather than solely what is said. Grice's theory proposes that speakers follow a cooperative principle with maxims of quantity, quality, relation, and manner to ensure conversations are cooperative and successful. Implicature is the additional meaning implied rather than stated. There are different types of implicature including scalar, conversational, conventional, generalized, and particularized.
This document defines bilingualism and multilingualism as speaking and understanding two or more languages. It discusses bilingualism at the individual and societal levels, and provides examples of officially bilingual countries like Canada and Belgium. It also describes different types of bilingual speakers and domains of language use. The document defines diglossia as the use of two varieties of the same language in different social contexts. It provides examples of diglossia in Arabic countries and medieval Europe. Diglossia is characterized by a "high" variety used in formal settings and a "low" variety used informally.
The document discusses various linguistic concepts related to cohesion and coherence in texts, including:
- Text, texture, ties, cohesion, and different types of reference such as exophoric, endophoric, anaphora, and cataphora.
- Substitution and its types including nominal, verbal, and clausal substitution.
- Ellipsis and its occurrence when structurally necessary elements are left unsaid, discussing nominal, verbal, and clausal ellipsis.
- Examples are provided to illustrate each concept.
The document discusses the Lexical Approach and compares it to psycholinguistic evidence from semantic and repetition priming experiments. It argues that the Lexical Approach is compatible with findings that words are closely linked in the mind and that encountering word combinations facilitates later recognition. The paper aims to show that the Lexical Approach is supported by psycholinguistic evidence and linguistic theory and that its key concepts apply to Chinese as well as English.
This document provides an overview of pragmatics and its relationship to discourse analysis. It discusses how pragmatics looks at meaning in relation to context and background knowledge. Key aspects of pragmatics discussed include speech act theory, implicature, presupposition, and politeness principles. Speech act theory examines the performative functions of language like statements, requests, promises. Implicature refers to implied meanings beyond what is literally said. Presupposition involves shared background assumptions. Politeness principles govern how people communicate to maintain social harmony. The document provides examples and references prominent pragmatics scholars like Grice, Searle, and Lakoff.
Psycholinguistics is the study of language in the mind. It draws on fields like cognitive psychology, linguistics, and neuroscience. There are three main areas of study: language storage and retrieval, language use, and language acquisition. For language storage, early models proposed information passes between sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Current models distinguish between working memory, which temporarily holds linguistic information, and long-term memory, where permanent linguistic knowledge is stored. Language use looks at the cognitive processes involved in speaking, writing, listening, and reading. Models of speaking propose it involves conceptualization, grammatical encoding, phonological encoding, articulation, and self-monitoring. Psycholinguistics aims
This document summarizes key concepts in discourse analysis and vocabulary, including:
- Lexical cohesion involves repetition of words and semantic relations between words to create text cohesion. The main relations are reiteration and collocation.
- Reiteration restates items through repetition, synonymy, or hyponymy. Collocation refers to words that frequently occur together.
- Speakers reuse and build on each other's vocabulary in conversation through reiteration.
- Vocabulary plays an important role in organizing texts through signaling larger patterns like problem-solution or claim-counterclaim.
- Register involves vocabulary choices appropriate for a given context defined by field (topic), tenor (participants), and mode
This document discusses the concepts of reference and sense in linguistics. Reference deals with the relationship between language and real-world entities, while sense relates to the system of relationships between linguistic elements themselves. Referring expressions identify entities, with referring and non-referring expressions defined. Referents can be unique, variable, concrete, abstract, countable or non-countable. Sense involves the meanings and relationships between words and phrases. Ambiguous, anomalous, contradictory and paraphrased sentences are examined.
Hyponymy is a semantic relationship where the meaning of one word (hyponym) is encompassed within the meaning of another word (hypernym). For example, daisy and rose are hyponyms of the hypernym flower. Hyponyms that share the same hypernym, such as daisy and rose, are called co-hyponyms. The document provides examples of hyponymy relationships using tree diagrams to show how more specific terms (hyponyms) are grouped under more general superordinate terms for animals, sports, and types of clothing.
(1) Deixis refers to the use of words or expressions whose meanings depend on the context of the utterance, such as who is speaking, their location in space and time, gestures, or the topic of discussion. Common deictic expressions include pronouns, demonstratives, temporal adverbs, and articles.
(2) Deixis is important in pragmatics and conversation analysis because it concerns how the structure of language relates to the context in which it is used. Deictic expressions point to elements either in the immediate physical context ("proximal") or not ("distal").
(3) There are different types of deixis, including personal deixis referring to people, temporal
This document discusses linguistic politeness and face. It explains that Brown and Levinson theorized that all cultures have a need to be polite in order to maintain face, which refers to one's public self-image and expectations of how one wishes to be treated. The document outlines that people behave as if their face wants, or expectations of self-image, will be respected by others. It also discusses that speakers can perform face-threatening acts and face-saving acts in their language use. Face-threatening acts are those that damage another's face, while face-saving acts are ways of speaking that lessen threats to another's face.
Derivation is the process of forming new words from existing words through the addition of affixes. There are two types of bound morphemes in English: inflectional morphemes, which do not change the word class, and derivational morphemes, which can change the word class with or without changing the meaning. Derivational affixes are divided into two classes - class 1 affixes typically affect the phonology of the base word, while class 2 affixes are phonologically neutral. Derivation is constrained and some affixes can only be added to words of a certain origin or phonological structure. Complex derivation can change the grammatical category of a word through multiple affixations.
This document provides an overview of concepts related to conversation analysis. It discusses terms like interaction, conversation structure, and conversation analysis. Specific concepts covered include pauses and overlaps in conversation, conversational style, adjacency pairs, and preference structure. Adjacency pairs refer to automatic response patterns like greetings. Preference structure divides responses into preferred and dispreferred based on social expectations. Dispreferred responses require more hesitation and account-giving language. Overall, the document analyzes different elements that shape conversations between participants.
Morphology # Productivity in Word-FormationAni Istiana
This document discusses word formation processes and productivity in morphology. It defines productivity as the generality of a word formation process, considering both its degree of application to potential word bases and how it may change over time. Productivity exists on a spectrum from fully productive to semi-productive to unproductive. Semi-productive processes like suffixation with -ist or -ant are constrained by factors like the origin of the base word. Creativity in word formation can be rule-governed, following regular morphological patterns, or rule-bending, where new words are formed idiomatically without conscious rules.
This document discusses sociolinguistic concepts related to language variation, including:
- Varieties include languages, dialects, accents, registers, and styles of a language. Variation occurs at the lexical level through slang and levels of formality.
- Dialects are regional or social varieties of a language characterized by their own phonological, syntactic, and lexical properties. They can also be associated with ethnic groups or socioeconomic classes.
- Registers or styles are varieties of language used in particular social settings defined by levels of formality or social events like baby talk.
- An idiolect is the unique language use of an individual person influenced by various dialects, registers, and languages
The document presents an overview of deixis, which refers to linguistic expressions whose meaning depends on the context of the utterance. It discusses the main categories of deixis, including person deixis (pronouns like I, you), place deixis (demonstratives like this, that), time deixis (temporal adverbs like now, then), discourse deixis (words referring to parts of the discourse), and social deixis (expressions encoding social relationships). Key points are that deictic expressions cannot be understood without context and indicate something relative to the speaker.
The role of context in interpretation chapter (2) mohammad fayez al-habbalFayez Habbal
The document discusses key concepts in pragmatics and discourse analysis, including reference, presupposition, implicature, and inference. It provides definitions and examples for each concept. Reference refers to how speakers use linguistic expressions to refer to entities. Presupposition refers to assumptions speakers make about a hearer's background knowledge. Implicature involves implied meanings beyond literal meaning, based on conversational maxims. Inference in discourse analysis relies on socio-cultural knowledge rather than formal logic.
This document discusses implicature, which refers to what a speaker suggests or implies beyond the literal meaning of an utterance. There are two types of implicature: conversational implicature, which is derived from conversational principles and assumptions, and conventional implicature, which is associated with specific words. Conversational implicature can be generalized or particularized. Scalar implicature communicates additional information based on a scale of values used in an utterance. The document provides examples to illustrate these concepts of implicature.
Relevance theory proposes that human cognition is geared toward maximizing relevance. It has two main principles: the cognitive principle states that the mind seeks relevance, and the communicative principle states that utterances create expectations of optimal relevance. The theory provides an explanation for how utterances are comprehended through hypotheses about explicit and implied meanings. It also addresses issues like lexical narrowing, loose language, and irony. Relevance theory aims to provide an experimentally testable model of pragmatic language comprehension.
1. Code switching refers to switching between two or more languages or language varieties within a conversation. It can occur between speaker turns or within a single turn.
2. Diglossia describes a stable language situation where two varieties of the same language are used differently, such as a high (H) variety for formal contexts and a low (L) variety for informal contexts.
3. Examples of diglossia include Arabic (H variety for formal contexts vs. colloquial Arabic as L variety), and Swiss German (H variety) vs. local dialects (L varieties). Code switching is a conversational strategy while digloss
This document discusses the topic of lexical pragmatics. It defines lexical pragmatics as investigating how linguistically specified word meanings are modified in use. Lexical pragmatics aims to account for how the concept communicated by a word can differ from its encoded meaning. The document then discusses several ways in which word meanings are pragmatically narrowed, such as approximation and neologism, through processes like word narrowing, affixation, and blending. Metaphor is also examined, with metaphors consisting of a tenor, vehicle, and ground of similarity. Finally, the document notes that pragmatics is sometimes called a "wastebasket" as it prioritizes structural correctness over meaning.
Deixis refers to linguistic elements whose meaning depends on context. There are several types of deixis:
1. Person deixis refers to pronouns like I, you, he/she that indicate speaker and addressee.
2. Place deixis uses words like here and there to indicate locations relative to the speaker.
3. Time deixis references moments like now and then in relation to utterance time.
4. Discourse deixis refers back to parts of the ongoing conversation using words like before, after.
5. Social deixis encodes social relationships through honorifics and polite forms. Deictic elements are crucial for communication as their meaning relies on shared context
This document provides an overview of pragmatics and summarizes several key concepts in pragmatics. It begins with defining pragmatics as the systematic study of language use in context. It then distinguishes pragmatics from semantics and discourse analysis. Several pragmatic concepts are then summarized in 1-2 sentences each, including speech act theory, conversational implicature, conversational maxims, politeness, presupposition, deixis, and reference and inference. The document aims to introduce some of the main topics and approaches in the field of pragmatics.
Hedges are linguistic devices used by speakers to acknowledge they may not fully adhere to the maxims of quality, quantity, relation and manner. Examples of hedges include "I'm not sure if..." or "As far as I know..." which show respect for the quality maxim. Hedges allow speakers to convey uncertainty or lack of information while still communicating effectively. Inference is a conclusion drawn by a listener based on their background knowledge, while a presupposition is an implicit assumption that underlies what is said.
Pragmatics is the study of how context contributes to meaning. It studies how people choose language in social interactions and how those choices affect others. Pragmatics looks at speaker meaning rather than just word meanings alone. It examines how inferences, context, and the unsaid contribute to communicated meaning. Pragmatics also studies deixis, which uses language to point or refer to people, places, times, and things that depend on shared context between speakers and listeners. Politeness and face are also part of pragmatics, examining how people navigate social relationships and maintain self-image through their language choices.
Psycholinguistics is the study of language in the mind. It draws on fields like cognitive psychology, linguistics, and neuroscience. There are three main areas of study: language storage and retrieval, language use, and language acquisition. For language storage, early models proposed information passes between sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Current models distinguish between working memory, which temporarily holds linguistic information, and long-term memory, where permanent linguistic knowledge is stored. Language use looks at the cognitive processes involved in speaking, writing, listening, and reading. Models of speaking propose it involves conceptualization, grammatical encoding, phonological encoding, articulation, and self-monitoring. Psycholinguistics aims
This document summarizes key concepts in discourse analysis and vocabulary, including:
- Lexical cohesion involves repetition of words and semantic relations between words to create text cohesion. The main relations are reiteration and collocation.
- Reiteration restates items through repetition, synonymy, or hyponymy. Collocation refers to words that frequently occur together.
- Speakers reuse and build on each other's vocabulary in conversation through reiteration.
- Vocabulary plays an important role in organizing texts through signaling larger patterns like problem-solution or claim-counterclaim.
- Register involves vocabulary choices appropriate for a given context defined by field (topic), tenor (participants), and mode
This document discusses the concepts of reference and sense in linguistics. Reference deals with the relationship between language and real-world entities, while sense relates to the system of relationships between linguistic elements themselves. Referring expressions identify entities, with referring and non-referring expressions defined. Referents can be unique, variable, concrete, abstract, countable or non-countable. Sense involves the meanings and relationships between words and phrases. Ambiguous, anomalous, contradictory and paraphrased sentences are examined.
Hyponymy is a semantic relationship where the meaning of one word (hyponym) is encompassed within the meaning of another word (hypernym). For example, daisy and rose are hyponyms of the hypernym flower. Hyponyms that share the same hypernym, such as daisy and rose, are called co-hyponyms. The document provides examples of hyponymy relationships using tree diagrams to show how more specific terms (hyponyms) are grouped under more general superordinate terms for animals, sports, and types of clothing.
(1) Deixis refers to the use of words or expressions whose meanings depend on the context of the utterance, such as who is speaking, their location in space and time, gestures, or the topic of discussion. Common deictic expressions include pronouns, demonstratives, temporal adverbs, and articles.
(2) Deixis is important in pragmatics and conversation analysis because it concerns how the structure of language relates to the context in which it is used. Deictic expressions point to elements either in the immediate physical context ("proximal") or not ("distal").
(3) There are different types of deixis, including personal deixis referring to people, temporal
This document discusses linguistic politeness and face. It explains that Brown and Levinson theorized that all cultures have a need to be polite in order to maintain face, which refers to one's public self-image and expectations of how one wishes to be treated. The document outlines that people behave as if their face wants, or expectations of self-image, will be respected by others. It also discusses that speakers can perform face-threatening acts and face-saving acts in their language use. Face-threatening acts are those that damage another's face, while face-saving acts are ways of speaking that lessen threats to another's face.
Derivation is the process of forming new words from existing words through the addition of affixes. There are two types of bound morphemes in English: inflectional morphemes, which do not change the word class, and derivational morphemes, which can change the word class with or without changing the meaning. Derivational affixes are divided into two classes - class 1 affixes typically affect the phonology of the base word, while class 2 affixes are phonologically neutral. Derivation is constrained and some affixes can only be added to words of a certain origin or phonological structure. Complex derivation can change the grammatical category of a word through multiple affixations.
This document provides an overview of concepts related to conversation analysis. It discusses terms like interaction, conversation structure, and conversation analysis. Specific concepts covered include pauses and overlaps in conversation, conversational style, adjacency pairs, and preference structure. Adjacency pairs refer to automatic response patterns like greetings. Preference structure divides responses into preferred and dispreferred based on social expectations. Dispreferred responses require more hesitation and account-giving language. Overall, the document analyzes different elements that shape conversations between participants.
Morphology # Productivity in Word-FormationAni Istiana
This document discusses word formation processes and productivity in morphology. It defines productivity as the generality of a word formation process, considering both its degree of application to potential word bases and how it may change over time. Productivity exists on a spectrum from fully productive to semi-productive to unproductive. Semi-productive processes like suffixation with -ist or -ant are constrained by factors like the origin of the base word. Creativity in word formation can be rule-governed, following regular morphological patterns, or rule-bending, where new words are formed idiomatically without conscious rules.
This document discusses sociolinguistic concepts related to language variation, including:
- Varieties include languages, dialects, accents, registers, and styles of a language. Variation occurs at the lexical level through slang and levels of formality.
- Dialects are regional or social varieties of a language characterized by their own phonological, syntactic, and lexical properties. They can also be associated with ethnic groups or socioeconomic classes.
- Registers or styles are varieties of language used in particular social settings defined by levels of formality or social events like baby talk.
- An idiolect is the unique language use of an individual person influenced by various dialects, registers, and languages
The document presents an overview of deixis, which refers to linguistic expressions whose meaning depends on the context of the utterance. It discusses the main categories of deixis, including person deixis (pronouns like I, you), place deixis (demonstratives like this, that), time deixis (temporal adverbs like now, then), discourse deixis (words referring to parts of the discourse), and social deixis (expressions encoding social relationships). Key points are that deictic expressions cannot be understood without context and indicate something relative to the speaker.
The role of context in interpretation chapter (2) mohammad fayez al-habbalFayez Habbal
The document discusses key concepts in pragmatics and discourse analysis, including reference, presupposition, implicature, and inference. It provides definitions and examples for each concept. Reference refers to how speakers use linguistic expressions to refer to entities. Presupposition refers to assumptions speakers make about a hearer's background knowledge. Implicature involves implied meanings beyond literal meaning, based on conversational maxims. Inference in discourse analysis relies on socio-cultural knowledge rather than formal logic.
This document discusses implicature, which refers to what a speaker suggests or implies beyond the literal meaning of an utterance. There are two types of implicature: conversational implicature, which is derived from conversational principles and assumptions, and conventional implicature, which is associated with specific words. Conversational implicature can be generalized or particularized. Scalar implicature communicates additional information based on a scale of values used in an utterance. The document provides examples to illustrate these concepts of implicature.
Relevance theory proposes that human cognition is geared toward maximizing relevance. It has two main principles: the cognitive principle states that the mind seeks relevance, and the communicative principle states that utterances create expectations of optimal relevance. The theory provides an explanation for how utterances are comprehended through hypotheses about explicit and implied meanings. It also addresses issues like lexical narrowing, loose language, and irony. Relevance theory aims to provide an experimentally testable model of pragmatic language comprehension.
1. Code switching refers to switching between two or more languages or language varieties within a conversation. It can occur between speaker turns or within a single turn.
2. Diglossia describes a stable language situation where two varieties of the same language are used differently, such as a high (H) variety for formal contexts and a low (L) variety for informal contexts.
3. Examples of diglossia include Arabic (H variety for formal contexts vs. colloquial Arabic as L variety), and Swiss German (H variety) vs. local dialects (L varieties). Code switching is a conversational strategy while digloss
This document discusses the topic of lexical pragmatics. It defines lexical pragmatics as investigating how linguistically specified word meanings are modified in use. Lexical pragmatics aims to account for how the concept communicated by a word can differ from its encoded meaning. The document then discusses several ways in which word meanings are pragmatically narrowed, such as approximation and neologism, through processes like word narrowing, affixation, and blending. Metaphor is also examined, with metaphors consisting of a tenor, vehicle, and ground of similarity. Finally, the document notes that pragmatics is sometimes called a "wastebasket" as it prioritizes structural correctness over meaning.
Deixis refers to linguistic elements whose meaning depends on context. There are several types of deixis:
1. Person deixis refers to pronouns like I, you, he/she that indicate speaker and addressee.
2. Place deixis uses words like here and there to indicate locations relative to the speaker.
3. Time deixis references moments like now and then in relation to utterance time.
4. Discourse deixis refers back to parts of the ongoing conversation using words like before, after.
5. Social deixis encodes social relationships through honorifics and polite forms. Deictic elements are crucial for communication as their meaning relies on shared context
This document provides an overview of pragmatics and summarizes several key concepts in pragmatics. It begins with defining pragmatics as the systematic study of language use in context. It then distinguishes pragmatics from semantics and discourse analysis. Several pragmatic concepts are then summarized in 1-2 sentences each, including speech act theory, conversational implicature, conversational maxims, politeness, presupposition, deixis, and reference and inference. The document aims to introduce some of the main topics and approaches in the field of pragmatics.
Hedges are linguistic devices used by speakers to acknowledge they may not fully adhere to the maxims of quality, quantity, relation and manner. Examples of hedges include "I'm not sure if..." or "As far as I know..." which show respect for the quality maxim. Hedges allow speakers to convey uncertainty or lack of information while still communicating effectively. Inference is a conclusion drawn by a listener based on their background knowledge, while a presupposition is an implicit assumption that underlies what is said.
Pragmatics is the study of how context contributes to meaning. It studies how people choose language in social interactions and how those choices affect others. Pragmatics looks at speaker meaning rather than just word meanings alone. It examines how inferences, context, and the unsaid contribute to communicated meaning. Pragmatics also studies deixis, which uses language to point or refer to people, places, times, and things that depend on shared context between speakers and listeners. Politeness and face are also part of pragmatics, examining how people navigate social relationships and maintain self-image through their language choices.
Merhaba Arkadaşlar,
Formasyon almayı çok istiyordum. Bu isteğime ulaştığım için çok mutlu oldum. Ama formasyona başladıktan sonra hem çalışıp hem de derslere gelmek beni çok yoruyordu. Eğitim Teknolojileri ve Materyal Tasarımı Dersi bana ilk başlarda bilgisayar kullanmayı çok bilmediğim için sunumu hazırlarken zorlanmıştım. Benim konum Gezi Yazsı idi. Başlangıçta konumu internetten ve KPSS kitaplarından araştırdım.
İlk olarak Gezi Yazısı hakkında bilgi verdim. Dikkat çekme aşamasında gezi yazısı ile ilgili video izlettim. Sonra Gezi Yazısının özellikleri ve gezi yazarları hakkında bilgi verdim. Günümüz yazarlarından gezi yazısı ile ilgili seslendirme yaptım. Sonra çalışma sayfası sunumunu yaparak sunumu sonlandırdım.
Başak Hocam size çok teşekkür ediyorum. Bu ders sayesinde teknolojiyi kullanma yatkınlığım arttı.
Merhaba Arkadaşlar,
Formasyon almayı çok istiyordum. Bu isteğime ulaştığım için çok mutlu oldum. Ama formasyona başladıktan sonra hem çalışıp hem de derslere gelmek beni çok yoruyordu. Eğitim Teknolojileri ve Materyal Tasarımı Dersi bana ilk başlarda bilgisayar kullanmayı çok bilmediğim için sunumu hazırlarken zorlanmıştım. Benim konum Gezi Yazsı idi. Başlangıçta konumu internetten ve KPSS kitaplarından araştırdım.
İlk olarak Gezi Yazısı hakkında bilgi verdim. Dikkat çekme aşamasında gezi yazısı ile ilgili video izlettim. Sonra Gezi Yazısının özellikleri ve gezi yazarları hakkında bilgi verdim. Günümüz yazarlarından gezi yazısı ile ilgili seslendirme yaptım. Sonra çalışma sayfası sunumunu yaparak sunumu sonlandırdım.
Başak Hocam size çok teşekkür ediyorum. Bu ders sayesinde teknolojiyi kullanma yatkınlığım arttı.
2. Yaklaşımlar, kuramlar
Biçimbilim terimini İlk olarak Alman şair, romancı,
filozof Wolfgang Goethe biyoloji terimi olarak ortaya
atar.
Yun. Morph (yapı, biçim)
Yerbilim, tıp, çağdaş dilbilim alanlarında kullanılır
Sözcüklerin nasıl oluştuğunu, onların içyapılarının
nasıl biçimlendiğini ele alan bir alt alandır.
3. Yaklaşımlar, kuramlar
Amerikan Yapısalcılık Okulu (Bloomfield) ile
bağımsız bir disiplin olarak öne çıkar
Üretici dilbilgisinin (Chomsky) ortaya attığı
“sözlükçe” bileşeniyle bu alana ilginin çoğalmasını
sağlamış
Halle (1973), Aronoff (1976), Jackendoff (1975),
Kiparsky (1982) dilin biçimbilimsel yönüne ve
sözlükçeye ilişkin çalışmalar
Anderson – Genişletilmiş Sözcük ve Paradigma
Kuramı (1977), Dressler – Doğal Biçimbilim (1985),
McCarthy (1979) – Seslerüstü biçimbilim
4. Biçimbilim
Biçimbilimsel çalışmaların hedef birimi “sözcük”tür
Bütün anadili konuşucuları binlerce sözcük bilir
Bu sözcükler, dile ilişkin bilgimizin bir parçası,
zihinsel dilbilgimizi oluşturan bileşenlerden biridir
Ancak, bir kişinin dilindeki tüm sözcükleri,
anlamlarının mükemmel tanımlarını verecek şekilde
bilmesi mümkün değildir
5. Biçimbilim
Artağan: verimli, bereketli
Arpej: akort oluşturan seslerin birbirini izleyerek
çalınması
Başefendi: kıdemli memur, baş katip
Çeribaşı: alay beyi
Divitin: bir yüzü havlu, pamuklu veya yünlü kumaş
Ayrık ek, korvet, kornea...
6. Sözcük
Geleneksel görüş
Kök sözcük (root word): ortaya çıkmak için herhangi
bir süreçten geçmediği için, herhangi bir biçimlenme
sergilemez
Bir sözcüğün üzerindeki bütün yapılabilir parçalar
çıktıktan sonra geriye kalan bölüm
*kök, sözcüğün parçalanamaz, anlamlı en küçük
biçimini temsil eder
Gövde, sözcüğün yüklendikleri parçalardan geriye kalan
bölümü
7. Sözcük
Geleneksel görüş
Köken:dilin eski dönemlerinde parçalanabilen ama
bugün parçalarına ayrılamayan sözcükler
Irgala- (ırga ve la diye parçalanamaz olması)
Çalış- (çal ve ış diye parçalanamaz olması)
Otur (ot ve ur diye parçalanamaz olması)
8. Sözcük
Geleneksel görüş
Kök-gövde ayrımında önemli olan köke gelen ekin
türüdür. Ama çekim ekleri de yapım ekleri de aynı
köke gelebilir!
Çekim Türetim
ev-im ev-cil
gel-iyor gel-in
kapı-da kapı-cı
Kök – gövde ayrımı ek türlerine göre mi?
“Taban”
9. Sözcük
Her kök gövde olmayabilir, her gövde de kök
olmayabilir. Ama bu ikisi her koşulda “taban”dır
Ev-cil
Ev-im
Evcil-siniz
10. Sözcük
Bir sözcüğü bilmek, o sözcüğün anlamını ve
sesletimini bilmek demektir
Anadili konuşucuları, zihinlerinde depolanmış
durumda olan her bir sözcüğün anlamından başka
bilgilere de sahiptir
Örn: bir sözcüğün hangi sözcük ulamına ait olduğunu,
yani ad, adıl, sıfat, ilgeç, eylem, belirteç ya da bağlaç
olup olmadığını sezgisel olarak bilir
11. Sözlükçe (lexicon)
Anadilinde konuşucunun bildiği bütün sözcüklerin
depolandığı yere, dilbilimde sözlükçe adı verilir
Sözlükçede sözcüklerin anlamlarının yanı sıra
dilbilgisel ulamları ve benzeri başka bilgiler bulunur
“Zihnimizdeki sözlük” diğer sözlüklerden farklıdır.
Birey,dilin sözlüğündeki her sözcüğü bilmeyebilir,
ama bir sözcük için sözlükte verilenden daha çok
bilgiye sahiptir
Bu bilgiler sözcüğün kullanımına yönelik
12. Sözlükçe
Sözlükçede sözcükbirime ait anlamsal, sesbilimsel,
sözdizimsel pek çok bilgi bulunmaktadır. Örn SÜT
sözcükbirime ait
Anlambilimsel bilgi: memeli dişilerin yavrularını
beslemek için memelerinden gelen besin değeri yüksek
beyaz sıvı
Sesbilimsel bilgi: /sYt/
Sözdizimsel bilgi: sayılamaz ad
13. Sözcükbirim (lexeme)
Biçimbilimde, sözcük yerine kullanılan, sesblimsel
gerçekleşmesi her sözcüğün olası her biçimlenişi ile
sağlanan ve bu biçimlerin tümünü birden temsil eden
soyut bir üst birimdir.
Sözcükbirim EV
ev sözcükbiçim
evi sözcükbiçim
evde sözcükbiçim
evim sözcükbiçim
evimiz sözcükbiçim
evleri sözcükbiçim
15. Sözcük sınıfları
İçerik sözcükleri (lexical content words)
Dilde yeni eklemelerle sayısı artabilen, sözcük sınıfı.
Açık sınıf da denir. Örn: adlar, eylemler, belirteçler,
sıfatlar...
Bilgisayar, bankamatik, cep telefonu, zapla-, (arkayı) dörtle...
Dilbilgisel ya da işlevsel sözcükler (function words)
Dilde sayısı değişmeyen ve değişmesi çok zor görünen
sözcük sınıfı. Kapalı sınıf da denir.
Ve, veya gibi bağlaçlar, için, ile gibi ilgeçler, ben, sen gibi
adıllar...
16. Biçimbirim (morpheme)
Anlamlı en küçük birim. Sözcükten daha küçük
parçalara ulaşmayı sağlayan ama aynı zamanda
sözcükbirimi de kapsayabilen bir terim.
Gelecek
gel-ecek
ev-ci-lik-te
av-cı, ön-cü, ot-çu, süt-çü
çam-lık, tuz-luk, ön-lük
ev-de, araba-da, ayak-ta
17. Biçimbirim
Biçimbirimin çeşitli sesbilimsel etmenlere bağlı
olarak ortaya çıkan her farklı biçimlenmesine
biçimcik (morph) denir
Biçimbirimin sesbilgisel içerik kazanarak gerçekleşmiş
biçimi ya da biçimlerinden biri
Birden fazla biçimciğin oluştuğu durumlarda
biçimbirim altbiçimciklenme (allomorphy) sergiler
Altbiçimciklenme sergileyen bir biçimbirimin sayısı
birden fazla olan her biçimciği altbiçimciktir
(allomorph)
21. Biçimbirim türleri
Dilde tek başlarına bulunmayan ama biçimbirim olduklarına
dair belirli bir sezgisellik taşıyan biçimlere bağımlı biçimbirim
(bound morpheme) denir.
Anlamları dilbilgisel işlevlerinden gelmektedir.
Bağımlı biçimbirimler
Çıkarıldıklarında tümcenin anlamı kolayca anlaşılabilir olmaktan
uzaklaşır (2)
Eklendikleri birimleri değiştirsek de dilbilgisel işlevleri aynı kalır.
Yani, bu birimler kendi belirledikleri tümcelerin kurulmasını
zorunlu kılar (3)
Aynı köke eklenerek kendi içsel anlamlarından kaynaklanan farklı
anlamlarda sözcüklerin üretilmesini sağlar (5)
22. Biçimbirim türleri
Bağımsız biçimbirimler (free morpheme), başka
herhangi bir biçimbirime gerek duymadan tek başına
var olan biçimbirimlerdir
Araba
Ev
Cam
Ağaç
Elma
23. Bağımlı – bağımsız biçimbirim
Tümcelerdeki bağımlı – bağımsız biçimbirimleri
gösteriniz
Ebru sabahtan akşama kadar burada seni bekledi
Hiç beklenmedik bir biçimde beni yanına çağırmasına
kimse anlam veremedi
Arkadaşının hastalandığını duyunca çok üzülmüştü
Mustafa oraya gelmememe şaşırmıştı
24. Sıfır biçimcik (zero morph)
Eksizlik görünümleri için kullanılır
Geçmiş zaman 3. kişi: geldi-0
Emir kipi 2. kişi: gel-0
Yalın durumu: ev-0
Belirtme durumu: halı-0 almak
Tamlayan durumu: vatan-0 için
25. Portmanto biçimcik
Birden fazla biçimbirimi temsil eden ama sesçil
içeriği, temsil ettiği biçimbirimlerle birebir
eşlenemeyecek kadar çözümlenemez olan biçimciktir
Geliyor-sun-uz
Gel-di-k
-k (1) {1.KİŞİ}
{ÇOĞUL}
26. Tekçil biçimbirim
Yalnızca bir parçasının dağılım sergilediği, diğer
parçasının hiçbir bağlamda görülmediği sözcüklerdeki
ekler
yağ-mur
er-kek
yan-aş
yut-kun
27. Sözcük yapım kuralları
Sözlüksel boşluklar (lexical gaps):
Dilin ses olanakları içinde birleşip bir bütün
oluşturma ve sözlüğe eklenme olasılığı olan, ancak bu
duruma getirilmemiş sözcükler. Olasılıkları vardır
enileç, alas…
Örnekler Türkçe için sözlüksel boşluklardır
Bu birleşimlerin yapılabilme olasılığı, dilde yeni
birimlerin üretilebilme olasılığını da getirir
28. Biçimlenme süreçleri ve alanları
Ekleme (affixation)
Belirgin bir köke, ek eleme işidir. Bu süreç, eklenen
öğenin köke nasıl eklendiği, kökün neresine
eklendiğine göre türlere ayrılır
Son-ek (suffix)
En yaygın eklenme yolu, tabanın sonuna eklenmedir
geç-iş, kal-ıt, göç-men,
kapı-cı-lar-dan, göz-lük-çü-lük, masa-da-ki-ler-den,
ol-uş-tur-ul-a-ma-y-an
30. Önek (Prefix)
Bu tür ekler Türkçede bulunmaz. Türkçede bulunmaz ama
birçok dilde örnekleri vardır. Çoğu Yunan ve Latin
kökenlidir
pro-noun
de-verbal
ir-realis
im-possible
ab-origin
ex-wife
31. Önek
Türkçede kimi bağımsız biçimbirimler, bu biçimde
kullanılarak işlev taşır.
ön-bilgi, ön-görüşme, ön-söz
alt-geçit, üst-geçit
iç-giysi, iç-güvey
Bu eklerde her zaman karşıtlık söz konusu değildir
ön-görüşme *arka-görüşme
alt-çarşı üst-çarşı
ön-söz *arka-söz
32. Önek
Türkçede yabancı dillerden geçmiş örnekler vardır
normal a-normal
propaganda anti-propaganda
resmi gayrı-resmi
mahrem na-mahrem
33. İçek (Infix)
Çok az dilde görülen bir ekleme sürecidir
Bontoc (Bir Filipin dili)
fikas (güçlü) fumikas (güçlü olmak)
kilad (kırmızı) kumilad (kırmızı olmak)
fusul (düşman) fumusul (düşman olmak)
34. Serpik ek (circumfix)
Bir biçimbirimin belirli bağlamlarda iki ayrı yerde
birden ve iki ayrı sesbilgisel içerikle birden sunulur
Almanca
machen ge-mach-t (yapmak)
lieben ge-lieb-t (sevmek)
fragen ge-frag-t (sormak)
Chikasaw (Bir Amerikan yerli dili)
chockm-a (o iyi)
ik-chockm-o (o iyi değil)
35. Başkalaşma
Kök-ek ayrımının olanaklı olmadığı durumlar. Kök sözcük,
sözcük içi etkileşimler sonucu seslerinin değişmesiyle
biçim değiştirir
Arapça
derese “ders çalışmak” > derrese “ders çalıştırmak”
Almanca
mutter “anne” > mütter “anneler”
İngilizce
thief “hırsız > thieve “hırsızlık yapmak”
win > won
dig > dug
36. Çekimleme (inflection)
Sözcüklerin belli bir bölümünün, özellikle de son
bölümünün sesbilimsel olarak başkalaşması
En fazla slav dillerinde görülür
raditi “çalışmak”
rad-im “çalışıyorum” rad-iş “çalışıyorsun”
rad-i “çalışıyor” rad-imo “çalışıyoruz”
rad-ite “ çalışıyorsunuz” rad-e
“çalışıyorlar”
“rad” bir kök değildir. Dolayısıyla, dim, i, imo, ite… de
ek değildir.
37. Bükümleme (flection, fusion)
Arapça, İbranice gibi diller taban sesleriyle, özellikle
de ünlüleriyle oynayarak yeniden biçimlendirir
Çekimleme gibi sözcüklerin başkalaşması ile
sonuçlanan bir süreçtir. Bükümleme sürecine giren
sözcük başkalaşmayı, çekimlemede olduğu gibi
yalnızca bir bölümde değil, bütününde sergiler
Arapça:
ketebe “yazmak”, ketebtu “yazıyor”,
yektubu “yazıyor”, uktup “yaz”
38. Tonlama
Bazı diller, tabanın sesleri üzerinde değil, vurgu, ton
gibi seslerüstü birimleri üzerinde değişimlere izin
vererek yeniden biçimlenmelere yol açar.
Türkçede cins adlardan sözcüklerin son seslemindeki
sözcük vurgusunu diğer seslemlere çekerek özel adlar
oluşturulabilir.
orDU > Ordu beBEK > Bebek
Türkçe için tipik değildir
39. Birleşme (compounding)
İki ya da daha fazla sözcüğün birlikteliğinden ortaya
başka bir sözcük çıkarma sürecidir
Birleşme yoluyla oluşmuş bu sözcüklere: birleşik
sözcük (compound word) denir
üstgeçit, uçuçböceği
Birleşik sözcüğü oluşturan öğelerden biri baş (head)
diğeri tümleçtir (complement)
üstgeçit > üst “tümleç” geçit “baş”
Baş adsa “bileşik ad”, sıfatsa “bileşik sıfat”..
40. Bileşik sözcük
Bileşik sözcüklerden her ikisi de aynı sözcük türünde
ise, bileşiğin kendisi de bu türde olur
Bileşikteki sözcüklerin farklı türde olması durumunda
bileşiğin sözcük türü genellikle son sözcüğün
türünde olur
dikkafalı, gözüaçık, gelişigüzel (sıfat)
önsöz, akbaba, kırkayak, albeni (ad)
Bu özelliği genellemek mümkün değildir
gelgit, ateşkes
41. Yineleme/ikileme(reduplication)
Tabanın belli bir parçasını ya da tamamını
yineleyerek, bir tabandan türetim veya çekim yapma,
başka sözcükbiçimler ve sözcükbirimler üretme
Pekiştirme, çoğullama, arttırma, büyütme, abartma
gibi işlevler de yüklenirler
Sapsarı, kıpkızıl, büyük büyük, ev ev (dolaşmak)
Tam yineleme
Yarı yineleme
42. Yineleme
Tam yineleme
Sözcüğün olduğu gibi yinelenmesi
hızlı hızlı zaman zaman
sık sık küçük küçük
Yarı yineleme
Sözcüğün yinelenen bölümü başta, ortada ya da sonda
olabilir
sıcak sımsıcak
kırmızı kıpkırmızı
mavi masmavi
44. Yineleme
Bazı çiftlerde ilk ünsüzle birlikte yineleme görülür
bet beniz
tas tarak
sap saman
yamrı yumru
Bir başka ikilemede /m/ sesinin eklendiği görülür
kalem malem
sakız makız
ders mers
45. Yineleme
Anlamsal olarak da çeşitlemeler gösterebilir
sorgu sual akıl fikir
kılık kıyafet ak pak
deli divane ileri geri
Biçimbilimsel olarak da türetimsel ve çekimsel yapılar
sergilerler
yalana dolana başvurdu
güle oynaya gittiler
eli yüzü düzgün
46. Kayma (conversion)
Sözcük üzerinde herhangi bir değişikliğe gitmeden
sözcük sınıfının bir başka sınıfa dönüştürülmesidir
acı acı-
ekşi ekşi-
güzel (kız), güzel (konuşmak), bir güzel gördüm
head, to head
protest, survey...
47. Kırpma (clipping)
Anlamında ve sözcük türünde bir değişiklik olmadan
sözcüğün belli bir parçasının atılması sürecidir
demo demonstrasyon
lab laboratuvar
oto otomobil
İbo İbrahim
Apo Abdullah
Genellikle sözcüklerin gayrı resmi ve pratik biçimi
Teknik sözcükler, özel adlar bu sürece daha yatkın
48. Geri oluşum (Back formation)
Bir sözcükten belli bir parçayı atarak yeni sözcük
ortaya atma işidir
Kırpmadan farkı > yeni sözcük oluşturması
babysit < babysitter
self-destruct < self-destruction
edit < editor
Türkçede örneği yok
? iletiş- iletişim
? abar- abartmak
50. Kısa adlar (acronyms)
Pek çok sözcüğün ilk harflerinden oluşan kısaltmalar
UNESCO (United National Educational, Sicientific and
Cultural Organization)
Radar (radio detecting and ranging)
TDK (Türk Dil Kurumu)
KDV
MGK
DGM
Fak-Fuk-Fon
51. Kaynaşmalar (Blends)
Motel > motor + hotel
Smog > smoke + fog
Brunch > Breakfast + lunch
Avrasya > avrupa + asya
52. Eponymy
İsimlerden alınan sözcükler
Sandwich > Earl Sandwich’in adı (kumar oynarlken
yemek yiyebilmek için yemeklerini iki ekmek dilimi
arasına koyması
Sezeryan > Julious Caesar (doğum yöntemi)
53. Coinage
Kimi ticari marka adlarının dile yerleşerek aynı türde
adlar için genellenmesi
selpak
aygaz
tursil
vimle-
