Based on your knowledge of colonial America which region will have.docx

Based on your knowledge of colonial America which region will
have the greatest impact on future America?
Colonies Include: Chesapeake/Southern, New England, Middle
Colony
Thesis:
Outline: (Three paragraphs - one supporting statement - four
factual)
Conclusion:
Chapter 27:
Stars and Galaxies
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 27 Lecture
1
This lecture will help you understand:
Observing the Night Sky
The Brightness and Colors of Stars
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
The Life Cycles of Stars
Black Holes
Galaxies

Observing the night sky:
constellations are groups of stars named over antiquity
familiar constellation is Ursa Major, the Great Bear
The monthly constellations seen in the night sky change as
Earth's path around the Sun progresses.
Can you see that during a solar eclipse, the darkened daytime
sky would show constellation positions as normally seen six
months earlier or later?
The Big Dipper is a well-known constellation. The pairs of stars
at the end of its bowl point to Polaris, the North Star.
The seven stars of the Big Dipper are at very different distances
from Earth.

A time-exposure of the night sky shows streaks of stars from
our "carousel Earth."
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
Knowing the names of the constellations tells us much about the
stars that comprise them.
people in the cultures that named them.
difference between stars and planets.
All of the above.
9
B. people in the cultures that named them.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
Knowing the names of the constellations tells us much about the
stars that comprise them.
people in the cultures that named them.
difference between stars and planets.
All of the above.
Explanation:
The names of constellations tell us nothing about the makeup of
the stars that compose them. They are more interesting
historically.

10
B. people in the cultures that named them.
A star's color indicates its temperature:
a red star is cooler than a blue star
a blue star is almost twice as hot as a red star (blue light has
almost twice the frequency of red light in accord with )
Which of these stars radiates light of the longest wavelength?
Red star.
Yellow star.
Blue star.
Violet star.
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
12
A. Red star.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
Which of these stars radiates light of the longest wavelength?
Red star.
Yellow star.
Blue star.
Violet star.

Explanation:
The longest wavelength is emitted by the star with the lowest
frequency, the red-hot star. (If the question had asked for the
highest frequency, that would be emitted by the violet star.)
13
A. Red star.
We measure the brightness of a star in two ways:
apparent brightness—the brightness as it appears to us
luminosity—the intrinsic brightness, independent of how bright
it appears
The luminosity of stars is compared to that of the Sun, which is
noted LSun.
We measure the Sun's luminosity as LSun. If we were on a
spaceship twice as far away from the Sun, its apparent
brightness would appear
the same.
half as much.
one quarter as much.
four times as much.
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
15
C. one quarter as much.

CHECK YOUR ANSWER
We measure the Sun's luminosity as LSun. If we were on a
spaceship twice as far away from the Sun, its apparent
brightness would appear
the same.
half as much.
one quarter as much.
four times as much.
Explanation:
In accordance with the inverse-square law, twice as far away
means one quarter the brightness.
16
C. one quarter as much.
The Hertzsprung–Russell Diagram
Graph of intrinsic brightness versus surface temperature for
stars
Note: positions that form a main sequence for average stars, and
exotic stars above or below the main sequence.
The H–R diagram is to an astronomer what the periodic table is
to a chemist.

CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
On the H–R diagram, the Sun is
an average star.
seen to be special.
a low-temperature star.
especially bright.
18
A. an average star.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
On the H–R diagram, the Sun is
an average star.
seen to be special.
a low-temperature star.
especially bright.
19
A. an average star.
A dying star that has collapsed to a small size and is cooling off
would appear in which part of the H–R diagram?
Lower left.
Upper left.

Lower right.
Upper right.
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
20
A. Lower left.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
A dying star that has collapsed to a small size and is cooling off
would appear in which part of the H–R diagram?
Lower left.
Upper left.
Lower right.
Upper right.
Explanation:
Such a star would be a white dwarf.
21
A. Lower left.
Life cycle of stars:
begins as a nebula
advances to a protostar
becomes a star when fusion in its core occurs
Depending on its mass, the star may become a red giant and
then burn out to become a white dwarf.

White dwarf:
cools for eons until it is too cold to emit light
if part of a binary, pulls matter from its partner, which can lead
to a nuclear blast (nova)
Final stage of more massive stars is collapse, then an explosion
called a supernova.
Remnant of a supernova is the Crab Nebula.
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
The source of energy in the Sun and stars is
chemical reactions.
thermonuclear reactions.
Both of the above.
None of the above.
25
B. thermonuclear reactions.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
The source of energy in the Sun and stars is

chemical reactions.
thermonuclear reactions.
Both of the above.
None of the above.
Explanation:
The Sun and other stars are balls of plasma, much too hot for
chemical reactions to occur.
26
B. thermonuclear reactions.
Stars Sizes
Planets
Sun
Vega
Stars Sizes
Sun
Arcturus
Alpha Ceti
Vega
(Red Giant)
(Red Giant)
Stars Sizes

Sun
Arcturus
Alpha Ceti
Vega
Betelgeuse A
(Red Supergiant)
Stars Sizes
Sun
Arcturus
Alpha Ceti
Vega
Betelgeuse A
(Red Hypergiant)
Cephei A
Stars Sizes
Sun
Arcturus
Alpha Ceti
Vega
(Red Hypergiant)
Cephei A
All these stars are within 3000 light-years of Earth, which
means they are our immediate neighbors within the Milky Way

Galaxy.
Betelgeuse A
Black Holes
Black hole:
what remains when a supergiant star collapses into itself
named because gravitation at its surface is so intense that even
light cannot escape
Black Holes
Black hole
Why gravitation at the surface of a star increases when it
collapses
star shrinks to half its radius gravitation at its surface
increases by 4 (inverse-square law)
Black Holes
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
When a star collapses to one-tenth size, gravitation at its
surface becomes
one tenth as much.
the same.

10 times as much.
100 times as much.
34
D. 100 times as much.
Black Holes
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
When a star collapses to one-tenth size, gravitation at its
surface becomes
one tenth as much.
the same.
10 times as much.
100 times as much.
Explanation:
This follows from the inverse-square law introduced in Chapter
4.
35
D. 100 times as much.
When a giant star collapses to become a black hole, gravity is
greatly increased
at it surface.
at its center.
in all surrounding space.
All of the above.
Black Holes

CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
36
A. at it surface.
Black Holes
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
When a giant star collapses to become a black hole, gravity is
greatly increased
at it surface.
at its center.
in all surrounding space.
All of the above.
Explanation:
It is important to know that gravitation increases mainly at the
surface of the collapsed star. Gravity at the surface before
collapse is the same at that same distance from the center of the
black hole after collapse.
37
A. at it surface.
Black Holes
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
If the Sun collapsed to become a black hole, the orbit of Earth
would
remain unchanged.
be pulled inward toward the black hole.
spiral outward away from the black hole.
be a straight-line path.

38
A. remain unchanged.
Black Holes
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
If the Sun collapsed to become a black hole, the orbit of Earth
would
remain unchanged.
be pulled inward toward the black hole.
spiral outward away from the black hole.
be a straight-line path.
Explanation:
F = G(m1 × m2)/d2. Letting this equation guide our thinking,
we see that none of its terms differ. Although the density of the
black hole has greatly increased, its mass is the same before and
after collapse. Because the mass of Earth and the solar black
hole are the same, and distance between centers is the same, the
force holding Earth in orbit wouldn't change. Equations nicely
guide thinking!
39
A. remain unchanged.
Galaxies
Galaxy:
huge assemblage of stars, interstellar gas, and dust
most familiar—Milky Way

Galaxies
Three types of galaxies:
elliptical
irregular
spiral
This is a giant elliptical galaxy M87
Galaxies
A pair of irregular galaxies—the Large Magellanic Cloud and
neighboring Small Magellanic Cloud
Galaxies
This is Spiral Galaxy NGC 6744, thought to be much like our
Milky Way.
Galaxies are not the largest things in the universe. There are
clusters of galaxies, and then galaxy superclusters—larger than
can be imagined!

Galaxies
Some galaxies are known as active galaxies and are emitting
huge amount of energy. By comparison, these active galaxies
emit many orders of magnitude more energy than our own Milky
Way! Two examples of active galaxies include:
Starburst galaxies
Galaxies with an active galactic nucleus
Galaxies
Starburst galaxies form stars at a very high rate. They result
from violent disturbances, such as the collision between two
galaxies.
This image shows the aftermath of the collision of two spiral
galaxies. Areas in blue are regions of rapid star formation.
Galaxies
Some active galaxies have supermassive black holes in their
centers into which large amounts of matter is falling, sometimes
causing jets that extend thousands of light years from the
galactic center (called an active galactic nucleus, or AGN).

This jet coming from M87 consists of charged particles being
accelerated to velocities near the speed of light.
The motion of individual stars in a galaxy normally follow
elliptical orbits around the center of the
galaxy.
completely random paths.
straight lines for the most part.
circular orbits around the center of the galaxy.
Galaxies
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
47
A. elliptical orbits around the center of the galaxy.
Galaxies
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
The motion of individual stars in a galaxy normally follow
elliptical orbits around the center of the galaxy.
completely random paths.
straight lines for the most part.
circular orbits around the center of the galaxy.
Explanation:

Within galaxies, stars move in elliptical orbits around the center
of the galaxy.
48
A. elliptical orbits around the center of the galaxy.
Clusters and Superclusters
The Milky Way Galaxy and its neighboring galaxies are known
as the Local Group.
Our local group is situated between the Virgo and Eridanus
clusters, which all together make our Local Supercluster.
Our Local Supercluster is part of a network of superclusters.
As far as we can see, superclusters hold together like a foam
within which there are bubbles of super large voids.

Chapter 26:
The Solar System
Chapter 26 Lecture
1
The Solar System and Its Formation
The Sun
The Inner Planets
The Outer Planets
Earth's Moon
Failed Planet Formation
The solar system consists of:
Sun
System of planets
Asteroids
Comets
Planets are divided into two classes:

Inner planets:
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Outer planets:
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
The Nebular theory:
Theory that the Sun and planets formed together from a cloud of
gas and dust—a nebula.
Nebular theory formation:
Gravitation between materials in the cloud pulled it inward.
When pulled inward, spin increased in accord with the
conservation of angular momentum.
The spinning cloud conformed to the shape of a spinning disk.
Nebular theory formation:
The center of the disk is the protosun.

Away from the center, planetesimals formed.
Planetesimals accreted more matter to become planets.
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
Which of the following orbits around the Sun?
Planets.
Comets.
Asteroids.
All of the above.
8
D. All of the above.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
Which of the following orbits around the Sun?
Planets.
Comets.
Asteroids.
All of the above.
9
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
As a nebula shrinks under the influence of gravity, it
spins slower.

spins faster.
loses its spin.
spins into a protosun.
10
B. spins faster.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
As a nebula shrinks under the influence of gravity, it
spins slower.
spins faster.
loses its spin.
spins into a protosun.
Explanation:
In accordance with the conservation of angular momentum, as
the radius of the nebula decreases, its spin rate increases (like a
skater who pulls her arms inward in a spin).
11
B. spins faster.
The Sun
Sun:
nearest star to Earth
composed of mostly hydrogen in the plasma phase
hydrogen is fused to helium by thermonuclear fusion in its core
4.5 million tons of mass are converted to energy each second
a tiny fraction of this energy reaches and sustains Earth

The Sun
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
Strictly speaking, in every second that passes, the mass of the
Sun
decreases.
remains constant.
increases.
reinvents itself.
13
A. decreases.
The Sun
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
Strictly speaking, in every second that passes, the mass of the
Sun
decreases.
remains constant.
increases.
reinvents itself.
Explanation:
It is this decrease that bathes the solar system with radiant
energy. Solar mass is converted to energy via the celebrated
equation, E = mc2.
14
A. decreases.
The Inner Planets
The inner planets—four nearest to the Sun composed of high-

density solid rock:
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Orbital speeds of planets around the Sun decrease with
increasing distance from the Sun.
The Inner Planets
Mercury:
closest to the Sun
slightly larger than our Moon
almost no atmosphere due to small size
daytime is long and hot (up to 430ºC)
nighttime is long and cold (about –170ºC)
The Inner Planets
Venus:
next closest to the Sun
diameter about 0.95 that of Earth
very dense atmosphere, mostly carbon dioxide
volcanically active
very harsh place
The Inner Planets
Earth:
third planet from the Sun—our home
at a distance where most of its water is neither solid nor gas,

but liquid
The Inner Planets
Mars:
fourth planet from the Sun—a potential away-from-home habitat
little more than half Earth's size
thin atmosphere—95% carbon dioxide and 0.15% oxygen
(A planet with a thin atmosphere is ineffective in reducing the
temperature difference between day and night!)
equatorial temperatures range from 30ºC in day to –130ºC at
night
presently the focus of planetary exploration
The Inner Planets
Mars:
The Outer Planets
Outer planets:
gaseous, low-density worlds
appreciably larger than Earth
more widely spaced than the inner planets
in order of distance from Sun:
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune

The Outer Planets
Jupiter:
first of the outer planets, beyond Mars
more than 11 times Earth's diameter—giant of the solar system
composition more liquid than gaseous or solid
atmospheric pressure more than a million times that of Earth's
The Outer Planets
Jupiter:
The Outer Planets
Jupiter:
atmosphere is 82% hydrogen, 17% helium, 1% methane,
ammonia, and other
molecules—cough!
no definite surface as occurs on the inner rocky planets
solid core of iron, nickel, and other minerals
Because of its thick atmospheric blanket, daytime and nighttime
temperatures are about the same for equal altitudes above its
"surface."
The Outer Planets
Jupiter's four largest moons
The Outer Planets

Jupiter's moon Europa has an ice-capped ocean, which may hold
extraterrestrial life
The Outer Planets
Saturn:
most remarkable for its easily seen rings
twice as far from Earth as Jupiter
diameter about ten times that of Earth, excluding the rings
lowest density of all
planets—could float in giant bathtub (density is less than that of
water)
The Outer Planets
Saturn:
surrounded by rings—hypothesized to be bits of a moon never
formed, or remnants of a moon torn apart by tidal forces
inner part of rings, like any satellite, travels faster than outer
part of the ring system
Rocks that make up the rings orbit independently of other rocks.
The Outer Planets
Saturn's largest moon, Titan, was visited by the Cassini
spacecraft.

The Outer Planets
Uranus:
twice as far from Earth as
Saturn is
diameter about four times
that of Earth
98º tilt to the orbital plane—
a most unusual feature
faint ring system
methane atmosphere
very cold place
The Outer Planets
Neptune:
lies beyond Uranus
diameter almost four times that of Earth, somewhat smaller than
Uranus
atmosphere mainly hydrogen and helium
highly elongated elliptical path about the Sun
The Outer Planets
Pluto:
since 2006, classified as a dwarf planet
very unlike other planets in composition, size, and orbit
highly elliptical orbit, like comets
spends most of its orbital time well beyond Neptune, in the
Kuiper Belt
composition like that of Kuiper-Belt objects
look-alike neighbors not classified as planets
former planetary status was more historical than astronomical

The Outer Planets
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
Which planet is more dense than water?
Mars.
Venus.
Neptune.
All of the above.
33
The Outer Planets
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
Which planet is more dense than water?
Mars.
Venus.
Neptune.
All of the above.
Explanation:
Saturn is the only planet with a density less than that of water.
34
Earth's Moon
Earth's Moon:
more is known about the Moon than any other celestial body
diameter about one quarter that of Earth

no atmosphere—no weather and erosion to conceal past scarring
of its surface (wears no "makeup")
Earth's Moon
Twelve people have stood on the Moon. Here we see Buzz
Aldrin, one of the three Apollo 11 astronauts.
Earth's Moon
Earth's Moon
Phases of the Moon:
Earth's Moon
The Moon spins about its polar axis as it revolves around Earth.
Earth's Moon
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
During the time of a new Moon, the
Sun is between Earth and the Moon.

Moon is between the Sun and Earth.
Earth is between the Sun and the Moon.
None of the above.
40
B. Moon is between the Sun and Earth.
Earth's Moon
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
During the time of a new Moon, the
None of the above.
Explanation:
A new Moon is mainly in the daytime sky, between Earth and
the Sun. When it is exactly between them, we have a solar
eclipse.
41
B. Moon is between the Sun and Earth.
Earth's Moon
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
During the time of a full Moon, the
None of the above.

42
C. Earth is between the Sun and the Moon.
Earth's Moon
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
During the time of a full Moon, the
None of the above.
Explanation:
A full Moon occurs when Earth is between the Sun and Moon,
while in Earth's view, the hemisphere of the Moon is fully in
sunshine. When Earth is exactly between the Sun and the Moon,
we have a lunar eclipse.
43
C. Earth is between the Sun and the Moon.
Earth's Moon
A magnetic compass aligns with a magnetic field.
Like a compass in a magnetic field, the
Moon aligns with Earth's gravitational
field.
Earth's Moon
Eclipses occur when the Moon's shadow falls on part of Earth.

This is a solar eclipse.
Earth's Moon
A lunar eclipse occurs when Earth's shadow falls on the Moon.
Earth's Moon
Eclipse:
The red light of sunrises and sunsets all around Earth is
refracted onto the Moon's surface during a lunar eclipse.
Asteroids:
small rocky bodies that orbit the Sun
most are located between Mars and Jupiter
some encounter Earth
unnoticed on ground—conspicuous on ice (the reason many are
found
in Antarctica)

Comets:
differ from asteroids in chemical composition
are masses of water, methane, and ice—dirty snowballs
most located in Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud
highly elliptical (highly eccentric) orbital paths
tail of comets swept outward from Sun by solar wind
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
Asteroids are small rocky bodies that
orbit the Sun.
mainly reside between Mars and Jupiter.
are smaller than Earth's Moon.
All of the above.
51
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
Asteroids are small rocky bodies that
orbit the Sun.
mainly reside between Mars and Jupiter.
are smaller than Earth's Moon.

All of the above.
52
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
The tails of comets point in a direction
toward the Sun.
away from the Sun.
at nearly right angles to the Sun.
None of the above.
53
B. away from the Sun.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
The tails of comets point in a direction
toward the Sun.
away from the Sun.
at nearly right angles to the Sun.
None of the above.
Explanation:
The solar wind blows the tails in a direction away from the Sun.
54
B. away from the Sun.

Meteoroids
are relatively small (sand-grain to boulder size) pieces of debris
chipped off asteroids or comets
Meteor:
a meteoroid that strikes Earth’s atmosphere
often called a "falling star"
Meteorite
a meteoroid that survives the trip through the atmosphere and
reaches Earth's surface
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
Which of these makes contact with Earth's surface?
Meteor.
Meteorite.
Meteoroid.
None of the above.
57
B. Meteorite.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
Which of these makes contact with Earth's surface?
Meteor.
Meteorite.

Meteoroid.
None of the above.
Explanation:
A meteorite has changed its status from meteoroid to meteor to
meteorite.
58
B. Meteorite.
Chapter 25:
Driving Forces of Weather
Chapter 25 Lecture
1
Atmospheric Moisture
Weather Variables
Cloud Development
Air Masses, Fronts, and Storms
Violent Weather
Weather Forecasting
2

Weather
Four factors influence the weather:
Atmospheric moisture
Temperature
Air pressure
Arrangement of land and water features
3
Atmospheric Moisture: Temperature and Water Vapor
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of
molecules.
At high temperatures, water molecules are fast with enough
energy to bounce out of the liquid state and into the vapor
state—evaporation. With increased temperature, there is
increased evaporation, and more water vapor in the air. Air with
a lot of water vapor is humid.
When temperatures cool, water-vapor molecules slow down and
lack the energy to remain in the vapor
state—they begin to clump together—condensation. Depending
on the temperature, water vapor may condense to form dew,
clouds, or fog, and if cloud droplets get big enough—rain; and
if cold enough, frost, snow, or freezing rain.
4
Atmospheric Moisture: Humidity
No matter how "dry" the air may feel, there is always some
amount of water vapor in the air.

Humidity is the mass of water vapor in a given mass of air.
In other words, humidity is the air's water-vapor content.
When air is saturated with water vapor it is at maximum
humidity—any additional water vapor will condense to form
water droplets.
5
Atmospheric Moisture: Water-Vapor Capacity
Saturation occurs when the air's temperature drops, causing
water vapor to condense.
The temperature at which saturation occurs is called the dew
point.
When the air is saturated (maximum humidity) it has reached its
water-vapor capacity.
Saturation and Water-Vapor Capacity are temperature
dependent.
6
Atmospheric Moisture: Water-Vapor Capacity
The air's capacity for water vapor varies with temperature.
Warm air can accommodate more water vapor than cold air.
Higher temperature means more energetic water-vapor
molecules— evaporation.
Increased Temperature
Increased Water-Vapor Capacity
As air cools, it accommodates less and less water vapor. Cooler
temperature means slower moving water-vapor molecules—
condensation.

Decreased Temperature
Decreased Water-Vapor Capacity
7
Atmospheric Moisture: Relative Humidity
Relative humidity—the ratio of the air's water-vapor content to
its capacity—is the most common way to describe atmospheric
moisture.
Relative humidity depends on actual water-vapor content and air
temperature
water-vapor content (humidity)
water-vapor capacity
Relative humidity:
× 100%
8
In saturated air, condensation and evaporation are in
equilibrium.
Evaporation rate depends
on temperature.
Condensation rate depends
on humidity and temperature.

When evaporation rate
equals the condensation
rate, the relative humidity
is 100%.
When evaporation exceeds
condensation, the air is no
longer saturated and relative
humidity is less than 100%.
If condensation exceeds
evaporation, the air is
super-saturated and water
droplets form.
9
Warm air has a higher capacity for water vapor than cool air.
When air is completely saturated it is at its maximum specific
humidity—water-vapor capacity. At saturation, relative
humidity is 100%, and the air temperature is the same as the
dew point.
10
Atmospheric Moisture: Dew Point
Dew point: Temperature at which saturation occurs.
Condensation occurs when the dew point is reached.
Water vapor condenses high in the atmosphere to form clouds.
Water vapor condenses close to the ground surface to form dew,

frost, and/or fog.
Dew Point can be used to indicate water-vapor content:
High dew point = high water-vapor content
Low dew point = low water-vapor content
11
Atmospheric Moisture: Dew Point
Dew point is always less than, or equal to air temperature
The difference between air temperature and dew point can be
used to indicate whether relative humidity is low or high.
When the difference is big—relative humidity is low
When the difference is small—relative humidity is high
12
Weather Variables
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
As air temperature increases, what happens to relative
humidity?
Relative humidity increases.
Relative humidity decreases.
Relative humidity is unaffected by temperature.
13
B. Relative humidity decreases.
Weather Variables

CHECK YOUR ANSWER
As air temperature increases, what happens to relative
humidity?
Relative humidity is unaffected by temperature.
Explanation:
As temperature increases, the air is able to accommodate more
water vapor. Water-vapor capacity increases and relative
humidity decreases.
14
B. Relative humidity decreases.
When dew point is high, what happens to relative humidity?
Relative humidity is unaffected by dew point.
Weather Variables
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
15
A. Relative humidity increases.
Weather Variables
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
When dew point is high, what happens to relative humidity?
Relative humidity is unaffected by dew point.

Explanation:
Dew point is the temperature to which the air must be cooled to
become saturated. A high dew point indicates a high water-
vapor content, which means an increase in relative humidity.
16
A. Relative humidity increases.
Weather Variables: Temperature and Pressure
Air pressure: The force exerted by the movement of air
molecules into one another. The faster the air molecules move,
the greater their kinetic energy and the greater the air pressure.
Warm air exerts more air pressure on its surroundings than
cooler air.
17
Weather Variables: Temperature and Pressure
The denser the air, the more molecular collisions and the higher
the air pressure.
Air pressure, density, and temperature are interrelated.
Adiabatic processes occur when air is expanded or compressed
without heat exchange.
18
Weather Variables: Adiabatic Processes
With adiabatic expansion, the temperature of a dry (unsaturated)

air parcel decreases by about 10ºC for each kilometer rise.
This rate of cooling for dry air is called the dry adiabatic lapse
rate.
19
Chinooks—warm, dry winds—occur when cold air moving down
a mountain slope is compressed as it moves to lower elevations
and becomes warmer.
20
Adiabatic processes also occur in moist air.
As rising air cools to its dew point, water vapor condenses to
form clouds.
Because the process of condensation releases heat, the
surrounding moist air cools at a lesser rate of 6ºC for each
kilometer rise.
This rate of cooling for moist air is called the moist adiabatic
lapse rate.
21

Weather Variables: Atmospheric Stability
In normal conditions, air temperature decreases with altitude.
This rate of cooling varies from place to place, and can vary
over the course of a day.
This rate of cooling with altitude is called the environmental
lapse rate.
The average environmental lapse rate decreases about 6.5ºC for
each kilometer rise in elevation.
22
Weather Variables: Atmospheric Stability
If rising air stays warmer than the surrounding air, it will
continue to rise instead of returning to its starting position. This
is unstable air.
Eventually, the air parcel will expand and cool sufficiently to
match the surrounding air. When the temperatures match, the air
parcel stops rising, but it does not sink back to its starting
position.
Unstable rising air tends to form clouds with vertical
development: Cumulus type clouds.
Stable air resists upward vertical motion and tends to form
clouds that spread horizontally: Cirrus and stratus type clouds.
23
Weather Variables
When upper regions of the atmosphere are warmer than lower
regions, which is opposite of what normally occurs, we have a
temperature inversion.

24
Weather Variables
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
What does the image below demonstrate?
Condensation
Air pressure
Temperature inversion
All of the choices
25
A. Condensation
Weather Variables
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
What does the image below demonstrate?
Condensation
Air pressure
Temperature inversion
All of the choices
26
A. Condensation

Cloud Development
27
Cloud Development
Clouds develop when condensation rate exceeds evaporation
rate above the lifting condensation level.
A rising air parcel cools at the dry adiabatic lapse rate until it
reaches saturation. After saturation, the moist adiabatic lapse
rate controls how thick the cloud will become.
28
Cloud Development
Height of the cloud base and how thick the cloud becomes
depend on:
Environmental lapse rate
Dry adiabatic lapse rate
Moist adiabatic lapse rate
29
Cloud Development
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
Which of the following clouds appears at highest altitude?
Stratus

Nimbostratus
Altocumulus
Cirrus
30
D. Cirrus
Cloud Development
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
Which of the following clouds appears at highest altitude?
Stratus
Nimbostratus
Altocumulus
Cirrus
31
D. Cirrus
What happens to the relative humidity of a rising air parcel at
the lifting condensation level?
Relative humidity decreases marking the upper limit of cloud
formation.
Relative humidity increases and the air parcel stops rising.
Relative humidity increases to 100% and the air
parcel is saturated.
Relative humidity decreases and cloud formation begins.
Cloud Development
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR

32
C. Relative humidity increases to 100% and the air parcel is
saturated.
Cloud Development
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
What happens to the relative humidity of a rising air parcel at
the lifting condensation level?
Relative humidity decreases marking the upper limit of cloud
formation.
Relative humidity increases and the air parcel stops rising.
Relative humidity increases to 100% and the air parcel is
saturated.
Relative humidity decreases and cloud formation begins.
Comment:
The lifting condensation level marks the base of the cloud.
33
C. Relative humidity increases to 100% and the air parcel is
saturated.
Cloud Development: Precipitation Formation
Each step toward precipitation is part of the collision-
coalescence process.
Formation of dust
Updrafts
Growth of stationary drops of water
Falling of raindrops

Vertical development in the cloud is necessary so that enough
droplet collisions occur.
34
Cloud Development: Precipitation Formation
Raindrops shrink as they fall, because the evaporation rate
exceeds the condensation rate once they leave the cloud.
If enough evaporation occurs, raindrops may disappear before
they reach the ground this is called virga.
35
Air masses fall into six categories:
36
37

Atmospheric lifting—lifting of air.
Three types:
Convectional lifting—cumulus clouds
Orographic lifting—rain shadow
Frontal lifting—cirrus clouds changing to cumulonimbus clouds
38
Convectional lifting:
39
Orographic lifting:
40
Frontal lifting:
Cold front

41
Frontal lifting:
Warm front
42
Frontal lifting
Occluded front
43
Air Masses, Fronts, and Storms: Cyclones
A cyclone is an area of low pressure around which winds flow.
Due to the Coriolis force, winds in a cyclone move:
Counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
Clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere
Air converges in the center (lowest pressure) and is forced to
rise upward.
44

What is the name for a front that occurs when a cold front and
warm front merge?
Convection
Occluded
Stationary
Turbulent
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
45
B. Occluded
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
What is the name for a front that occurs when a cold front and
warm front merge?
Convection
Occluded
Stationary
Turbulent
46
B. Occluded
Violent Weather
Storms are defined as violent and rapid changes in the weather.
Three major types of severe storms:
Thunderstorms
Tornadoes

Hurricanes
47
Violent Weather
Thunderstorms begin with humid air rising, cooling, and
condensing into a single cumulus cloud.
When fed by unstable, moist air, a cumulus cloud grows into a
thundercloud.
Thunderstorms contain immense amounts of energy.
48
Violent Weather
All thunderstorms include thunder and lightning.
The electrical energy flowing from cloud to ground is lightning.
As lightning heats up the air, the air expands and we hear
thunder.
49
Violent Weather
Tornado: a funnel-shaped column of air rotating around a low-
pressure core that reaches from a cumulonimbus cloud to the
ground.
A funnel cloud is similar to a tornado, but it does not touch the
ground.

Tornadoes are dangerous because of their suction and also the
battering from their high winds.
50
Violent Weather
Hurricanes are the greatest storms on Earth—energy comes from
latent heat released from condensing water vapor.
Rising warm air creates low pressure near the surface, drawing
in more moist air.
Winds rotate around a central low-pressure area—the eye of the
storm.
There is a continuous supply of energy from tropical waters—a
hurricane weakens as fuel is cut off (as it makes land fall or
enters an area of cooler water).
51
Violent Weather
Strong vertical wind shear can cause warm air to tilt inward and
spiral. It can develop into a tropical depression.
If the storm intensifies, it progresses into a tropical storm, with
increased wind speeds.
Hurricane—winds up to 300 km/hour.
52

Violent Weather
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
What is the eye of a hurricane?
Area of high pressure
Area of highest level of precipitation
Area of low pressure
Area where upper-level air descends
53
C. Area of low pressure
Violent Weather
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
What is the eye of a hurricane?
Area of high pressure
Area of highest level of precipitation
Area of low pressure
Area where upper-level air descends
54
C. Area of low pressure
Weather Forecasting
Weather forecasting involves collecting data from all over the
world.
Computers can plot and analyze data and predict weather,
although the many variables make accuracy difficult.

55
Weather Forecasting
Weather symbols are used to represent data for various
locations—sky cover, wind direction and speed, dew point,
temperature, and pressure. On the weather map, these station
models are used to draw lines of equal pressure (isobars), which
are used to represent frontal systems.
56
Chapter 24:
The Oceans, Atmosphere, and Climatic Effects
Chapter 24 Lecture
1
Earth's Atmosphere and Oceans
Components of Earth's Oceans
Ocean Waves, Tides, and Shorelines
Components of Earth's Atmosphere
Solar Energy
Driving Forces of Air Motion
Global Circulation Patterns

2
Seventy-one percent of Earth's surface is covered by water.
Water's high specific heat capacity accounts for moderate
temperatures in coastal lands.
3
Earth's early atmosphere appeared before the Sun was fully
formed.
Hydrogen
Helium
The Sun's formation swept away Earth's original atmosphere
and a new atmosphere formed.
4
Earth's atmosphere developed in stages:
Hot gases escaped through volcanoes and fissures.
Free oxygen occurred as a result of photosynthesis by
cyanobacteria.
Ozone began to accumulate in the upper atmosphere.
Water vapor condensed to form oceans.

Components of Earth's Oceans: The Ocean Floor
The ocean floor encompasses continental margins and deep
ocean basins.
6
Continental margins are between shorelines and deep ocean
basins.
Continental shelf—shallow, underwater extension of the
continent.
Continental slope—marks boundary between continental and
oceanic crust.
Continental rise—wedge of accumulated sediment at base of
continental slope.
7
The ocean bottom is etched with deep canyons, trenches, and
crevasses.
Underwater mountains rise upward from the seafloor.
The deep-ocean basin:
Basalt from seafloor spreading plus thick accumulations of
sediment
Abyssal plains, ocean trenches, and seamounts

8
The deep-ocean basin:
Abyssal plains—flattest part of the ocean floor due to
accumulated sediment
Ocean trenches—long, deep, steep troughs at subduction zones
Seamounts—elevated seafloor from volcanism
Mid-ocean ridges:
Sites of seafloor spreading (volcanic and tectonic activity)
A global mid-ocean ridge system winds all around the Earth
9
The deepest parts of the ocean are at the ocean trenches near
some of the continents.
The shallowest waters are in the middle of the oceans around
underwater mountains (mid-ocean ridge system).
10
Ocean trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean floor because
that is where oceanic crust meets continental crust.
that is where subduction occurs.

no sediment accumulates in trenches.
all accumulated sediment settles in the abyssal plain.
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
11
B. that is where subduction occurs.
Ocean trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean floor because
that is where oceanic crust meets continental crust.
that is where subduction occurs.
no sediment accumulates in trenches.
all accumulated sediment settles in the abyssal plain.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
12
B. that is where subduction occurs.
Oceanic crust does meet continental crust at deep ocean
trenches, but these plate boundaries do not all have deep
trenches.
C. and D. sediment does accumulate in the trenches.
Characteristics of waves—waves get their energy from the
wind.
The crest is the peak of the wave.
The trough is the low area between waves.
Wave height is the distance between a trough and a crest.
Wavelength is the horizontal distance between crests.
Wave period is the time interval between the passage of two

successive crests.
13
Height, length, and period of a wave depend on:
Wind speed
Length of time wind has blown
Fetch—the distance that the wind has traveled across open
water
14
Waves on the ocean surface are orbital waves.
Wave energy moves forward: the disturbance moves, not the
water.
Occurs in the open sea in deep water.
15
Waves at the shoreline:
In shallow water, at a depth of about one-half the wavelength,
the wave begins to "feel bottom"

The wave grows higher as it slows and wavelength shortens
As a steep wave front collapses, the wave breaks
The turbulent water created
by the crash is called surf
16
When a wave approaches the shore, the water depth decreases.
This affects the wave by flattening its circular motion,
decreasing its speed, and increasing distance between waves and
wave height.
increasing its speed and distance between waves, and decreasing
wave period.
decreasing its speed and distance between waves, causing wave
height to increase.
increasing its speed and distance between waves, causing wave
height to increase.
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
17
C. decreasing its speed and distance between waves, causing
wave height to increase.
When a wave approaches the shore, the water depth decreases.
This affects the wave by flattening its circular motion,
decreasing its speed, and increasing distance between waves and
wave height.
increasing its speed and distance between waves, and decreasing
wave period.

decreasing its speed and distance between waves, causing wave
height to increase.
increasing its speed and distance between waves, causing wave
height to increase.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
18
C. decreasing its speed and distance between waves, causing
wave height to increase.
Ocean Waves, Tides, and Shorelines: Wave Refraction
As waves enter shallow water:
Forward direction changes.
Wave nearest to shore slows and lags behind incoming waves.
The incoming waves also slow and begin to pivot.
As this continues the wave crest bends and pivots around the
slower portion of the wave—wave refraction.
19
Longshore Current:
The oblique approach of waves—flow is parallel to the shore.
20

Impact of wave refraction on shorelines:
Wave energy unevenly distributed
Concentrated in headland areas—area of erosion
Diluted in adjacent coves and bays—area of deposition
21
Ocean Waves, Tides, and Shorelines: The Work of Ocean Waves
Characteristic coastal erosional landforms:
Wave cut platform
Sea cliff
Sea cave
Sea arch
Sea stack
22
Ocean Waves, Tides, and Shorelines: The Work of Ocean Waves
Characteristic coastal depositional landforms:
Beach
Spit
Lagoon
Barrier island
Inlet

23
Coral reefs are composed of actively growing coral organisms.
Organisms secrete calcium carbonate as they grow—that is what
we see.
Many reefs survive on photosynthetic algae.
Coral bleaching is an indicator of global warming.
24
Ocean Waves, Tides, and Shorelines: Link to Physics: Ocean
Tides
Tides occur because of the differences in the gravitational pull
exerted by the Moon on opposite sides of Earth.
25
Tides
Because Earth spins on its axis once a day, it should have two
distinct tides 12 hours apart.
But because the Moon moves around Earth, the times of the
tides vary each day.

26
Tides
Alignment of the Sun, Earth, and Moon causes spring tides—
more dramatic highs and lows.
27
Tides
When the pull of the Sun and Moon are perpendicular to each
other, we get neap tides—the highs not as high, and the lows
not as low.
28
29
Earth's atmosphere is divided into layers, each with different

characteristics:
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
Ionosphere
Exosphere
30
Troposphere:
Lowest and thinnest layer
16 km at equator, 8 km at poles
90% of the atmosphere's mass
Where weather occurs
Water vapor and clouds
Temperature decreases with altitude
6ºC per kilometer
Top of troposphere averages –50ºC
31
Stratosphere:
Top of troposphere to 50 km above surface
Ozone layer
Absorbs harmful UV radiation
Temperature increases because of ozone absorption of UV
radiation.

Ranges from –50ºC at base to 0ºC at top
32
Mesosphere:
Extends from stratosphere to altitude of 80 km
Temperature decreases with altitude
Gases in this layer absorb very little UV radiation.
0ºC at bottom to –90ºC at top
33
Thermosphere:
Temperature increases with altitude
Temperature is related to average speed of gas molecules—very
high speed gives high temperatures
Temperatures up to 1500ºC
Very low density of gas molecules means very little heat
absorption—it would feel cold.
34
Ionosphere:
Electrified region within the thermosphere and upper

mesosphere
Auroras: fiery displays of light near Earth's magnetic poles
Exosphere:
The interface between Earth and space
Beyond 500 km, atoms and molecules can escape to space
35
The average temperature of Earth's atmosphere varies in a zig-
zag pattern with altitude.
36
Solar Energy
Solar radiation is electromagnetic energy emitted by the Sun.
Visible, short-wavelength radiation
Terrestrial radiation is reemitted solar radiation from Earth's
surface.
Infrared, longer-wavelength radiation
37
Solar Energy
The Sun warms Earth's ground, and the ground, in turn, warms
Earth's atmosphere.

Earth's temperature varies according to the degree of solar
intensity—the amount of solar radiation per area.
Where solar intensity is higher, temperatures are higher.
38
Solar Energy
Solar intensity is highest where the Sun's rays strike Earth's
surface straight on.
Flashlight beam at 90º angle to the surface
Equatorial regions
Solar intensity is weaker where the Sun's rays strike Earth's
surface at an angle.
Flashlight beam at an angle
Higher latitudes
39
Solar Energy
Variation in solar intensity with latitude and the tilt of the
Earth's axis helps to explain the different seasons.
40
Solar Energy

When the Sun's rays are closest to perpendicular at any spot on
the Earth, that region's season is summer.
Six months later, as the rays fall upon the same region more
obliquely, the season is winter.
In between are the seasons fall and spring.
41
Solar Energy: The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
Human activities pump greenhouse gases into the atmosphere:
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, CFCs.
The result is a warming
Earth.
42
Underlying Driving Force:
Unequal heating of Earth's surface
Atmospheric pressure:
Force the atmosphere exerts on a surface area
At any level in the atmosphere, force = total weight of air above
that level.
At higher elevations, with fewer air molecules above the
atmospheric pressure is less.

43
Convection Cycle:
Warm air parcel rises; Cooler air parcel sinks
Warm air is less dense than cool air
Convection currents stir the wind:
Wind is air that flows horizontally from higher pressure to
lower pressure.
The greater the pressure gradient, the stronger the wind.
Driving Forces of Air Motion: Temperature-Pressure
Relationship
44
Relationship
Pressure differences are caused by uneven heating of the Earth's
surface.
Local differences in heating contribute to small-scale local
winds.
Planet-scale differences occur because of solar intensity
variations—equatorial regions have greater solar intensity than
polar regions.
Differences contribute to global wind patterns, the prevailing
winds.
45
Atmospheric pressure is greatest near the Earth's surface
because

of the weight of all the air above.
90% of Earth's atmosphere is in the troposphere.
of warmer temperatures.
of water vapor.
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
46
A) of the weight of all the air above.
Atmospheric pressure is greatest near the Earth's surface
because
of the weight of all the air above.
90% of Earth's atmosphere is in the troposphere.
of warmer temperatures.
of water vapor.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
47
A) of the weight of all the air above.
What drives air from areas of high pressure to areas of low
pressure?
Convection currents.
Wind.
The pressure-gradient force.
Water vapor.
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR

48
C. The pressure-gradient force.
What drives air from areas of high pressure to areas of low
pressure?
Convection currents.
Wind.
The pressure-gradient force.
Water vapor.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
49
C. The pressure-gradient force.
Relationship
Warm air characteristics:
Warm air expands
Warm air has lower density and lower pressure
Cool air characteristics:
Cool air contracts
Cool air has higher density and higher pressure
50
Relationship
Local winds:

Not all surfaces are heated equally.
Example: Land heats and cools more rapidly than water.
Unequal heating results in pressure differences. And pressure
differences result in wind.
Remember: Wind is air that flows horizontally from higher
pressure to lower pressure.
51
More energy is required to raise the temperature of water than
that of land. Once heated, water will retain the heat longer than
land. This concept is related to
expansion of warm air.
pressure differences of land and water.
Water's high specific heat capacity.
expansion of seawater.
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
52
C. Water's high specific heat capacity.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
More energy is required to raise the temperature of water than
that of land. Once heated, water will retain the heat longer than
land. This concept is related to
expansion of warm air.
pressure differences of land and water.
Water's high specific heat capacity.
expansion of seawater.

53
C. Water's high specific heat capacity.
At a hypothetical school yard there is a blacktop area and a
grassy area. On a particularly warm day, a small breeze
develops. Air moves from
the grassy area to the blacktop.
the blacktop to the grassy area.
low pressure to high pressure.
Not enough information.
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
54
A. the grassy area to the blacktop.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
At a hypothetical school yard there is a blacktop area and a
grassy area. On a particularly warm day, a small breeze
develops. Air moves from
the grassy area to the blacktop.
the blacktop to the grassy area.
low pressure to high pressure.
Not enough information.
Explanation:
Air above the blacktop is hotter (low pressure) than air above
the grassy area (higher pressure). Air moves from high to low,
so breeze will blow from grassy area to blacktop.

55
A. the grassy area to the blacktop.
Earth's rotation greatly affects the path of moving air.
Coriolis force: Moving bodies (such as air) deflect to the right
in the Northern Hemisphere, to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere.
Deflection of wind varies according to speed and latitude.
Faster wind, greater deflection
Deflection greatest at poles, decreases to zero at equator
56
Factors that affect wind:
The pressure gradient force: air moves from high pressure to
low pressure
The Coriolis force: apparent deflection of winds due to Earth's
rotation
Frictional force: air moving close to ground encounters friction
57

58
Global circulation of the atmosphere results from unequal
heating of Earth's surface and Earth's rotation.
59
At the equator:
Rising warm, moist air creates a zone of low surface pressure:
Doldrums
Trade winds (0º–30º)
At 30º N and S latitude:
Air cools and sinks to create dry air and high pressure: Horse
latitudes
Deserts
Westerlies (30º–60º)
At 60º N and S latitude:
Cool, dry air meets warm, moist air to create a zone of low
pressure: Polar Front
Polar easterlies (60º–90º)

60
The prevailing westerly winds are affected by the Coriolis
effect by the deflection of winds
to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and
left in the Southern Hemisphere.
to the left in the Northern Hemisphere and right in the Southern
Hemisphere.
laterally toward the poles.
westward.
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
61
A. to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and left in the
Southern Hemisphere.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
The prevailing westerly winds are affected by the Coriolis
effect by the deflection of winds
to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and left in the Southern
Hemisphere.
to the left in the Northern Hemisphere and right in the Southern
Hemisphere.
laterally toward the poles.
westward.
Explanation:
Winds are named for the direction from which they blow.
Westerlies blow from the west to the east.

62
A. to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and left in the
Southern Hemisphere.
The prevailing winds in North America are westerly—they blow
from west to east. Westerly winds contribute to cooling the
western coast
in the winter and warming it in the summer.
in the summer and warming it in the winter.
so that the temperature is the same all year long.
and making temperature variations more extreme.
CHECK YOUR NEIGHBOR
63
B. in the summer and warming it in the winter.
CHECK YOUR ANSWER
The prevailing winds in North America are westerly—they blow
from west to east. Westerly winds contribute to cooling the
western coast
in the winter and warming it in the summer.
in the summer and warming it in the winter.
so that the temperature is the same all year long.
and making temperature variations more extreme.
64
B. in the summer and warming it in the winter.
Global Circulation Patterns: Oceanic Circulation

Ocean currents are streams of water that move, relative to the
larger ocean.
Like the atmosphere, oceans have several vertical layers:
surface zone, transition zone, and deep zone.
65
Global Circulation Patterns: Surface Currents
Surface currents are created by wind.
Surface ocean currents correspond to the direction of the
prevailing winds.
66
Ekman transport: Coriolis force causes water currents to deflect
up to 45º.
67
Factors that influence ocean currents:
For short distances, wind is strongest factor
For longer distances, Coriolis force comes into play:

Coriolis causes surface currents to turn and twist into
semicircular whirls called gyres.
Northern Hemisphere gyres rotate clockwise.
Southern Hemisphere gyres rotate counterclockwise.
68
Gyres cause heat transport from equatorial regions to higher
latitudes.
The Gulf Stream current carries
vast quantities of warm
tropical water to higher
latitudes.
69
Global Circulation Patterns: The El Niño Condition
Years in which the Trade winds fail to strengthen are called El
Niño years.
El Niño Southern Oscillation influences climate on both sides of
the Pacific Ocean.
70

Global Circulation Patterns: Deep Water Currents
Deeper waters are driven not by winds but by gravity.
Polar water freezes, increasing the salinity of the liquid water.
Cold, salty water continuously sinks to the ocean bottom.
The sinking water pushes deeper water out of the way, causing
the bottom water to flow outward along the ocean floor.
A combination of deep-water mixing by ocean-floor tidal
stirring and upwelling due to favorable winds brings the deep
waters slowly back to the surface.
This conveyor-belt process may take thousands of years.
71

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