IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper, journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call for research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, call fo
This document discusses applying a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis to HIV-1. It outlines some of the key strengths of HIV-1 that facilitate its pathogenicity, such as its reverse transcriptase enzyme and ability to target immune cells. Weaknesses discussed include its reliance on chemokine co-receptors and conserved protein determinants. Opportunities for infection presented by the host include multiple portals of entry and susceptibility increased by STIs. Threats to the virus include its limited host reservoir and potential vulnerability to certain inhibitors and vaccines. The document proposes using SWOT analysis to holistically develop strategies for undermining HIV-1.
ABSTRACT- Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a major contributor to the global burden of the disease, opportunistic infections, and tumors follow. HIV also directly attacks the immune system and affects certain body’s system (like Central Nervous System, Respiratory and Cardiovascular Systems, Digestive System etc). HIV transmission is complex and depends on the number of behavioral and biological co-factors. The hallmark of HIV infection is the progressive depletion of CD4 helper T cells because of reduced production and increased destruction. Although the typical HIV infected patient shows a sustained CD4 cell increase, a remarkable number of subjects never achieve normal ranges of CD4. HIV infection is also characterized by a marked increase in immune activation, which includes both the adaptive and innate immune systems and abnormalities in coagulation. Extraordinary efforts in the fields of clinical, pharmacology, and biology care have contributed to progressively turn HIV infection from an unavoidably fatal condition into a chronic manageable disease, at least in the countries where HIV infected people have full access to the potent anti-retroviral (ARV) drug combinations that permit a marked and sustained control of viral replication. Although their pathogenesis is still under discussed, they are likely to originate from immune dysfunction associated with HIV infection and chronic inflammation. The last consideration regards the dis-homogenous pattern of HIV disease worldwide. Key-words- Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIV), Antiretroviral (ARV) therapy, Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), Cell mediated immunity (CMI), Anti-retroviral agents
The document discusses HIV/AIDS, including its causes, characteristics, and modes of transmission. Key points include:
- HIV weakens the immune system, leaving the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections and cancers that can cause AIDS.
- Without treatment, most HIV-positive people will develop AIDS within 10-15 years. Effective antiretroviral treatment can prevent progression to AIDS.
- Common opportunistic infections associated with AIDS include Pneumocystis pneumonia, tuberculosis, and cancers like Kaposi's sarcoma.
The document discusses the origin of HIV and AIDS. It explains that HIV is closely related to viruses found in chimpanzees (HIV-1) and sooty mangabeys (HIV-2) in West Africa. The leading theory is that the viruses crossed into humans in the early 20th century when humans hunted and butchered chimpanzees and monkeys for meat. The earliest known case of HIV in a human was identified in 1959 in the Democratic Republic of Congo. By the 1980s, HIV had spread globally and was recognized as the cause of AIDS.
This document provides information about an Ebola virus outbreak in Delhi, India. It warns residents to avoid certain hospitals where cases have been detected. It provides advice on precautions like eating tulsi leaves and proper hand washing. The document also includes background information on Ebola viruses, describing their structure, transmission, geographical distribution, outbreak history and clinical observations of symptoms. It discusses ethics around outbreak responses and potential bioterrorism threats. The end promotes an organization's vision to improve healthcare access in India.
THE BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT WHAT IS HIV AND HOW IT DESTRUCT THE IMMUNE SYSTEM. THEN LEADS TO AIDS. PRESENTATION ALSO EXPLAINS THE DIAGNOSIS OF HIV, ITS TREATMENT
WHY WE DONT HAVE VACCINE FOR HIV AND WHAT ARE THE PRESENT SCENARIO OF VACCINE DEVELOPMENT..
I HOPE IT WILL EXPLAIN WELL ABOUT HIV INFECTION AND AIDS, MAY PROVE USEFUL FOR YOU GUYS.....
HIV causes AIDS by infecting and destroying CD4+ T cells. It is transmitted sexually or through blood/bodily fluids. After entering the body, HIV binds to CD4 receptors on T cells, integrates into the host cell DNA, and uses the cell's machinery to replicate. This leads to the destruction of infected T cells and ultimately a collapse of the immune system as CD4+ T cell counts decline severely. As the immune system is compromised, opportunistic infections and cancers then develop, characterizing the onset of AIDS.
This document summarizes AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) and HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). It discusses that AIDS is caused by HIV, which belongs to the lentivirus family (HIV-1 and HIV-2) and targets CD4 T-cells. HIV transmission occurs through sexual contact, blood exposure, and from mother to infant. The life cycle and structure of HIV is also outlined. The clinical features of AIDS are described in three stages: acute, chronic, and crisis phases. Treatment options like antiretroviral therapy and acupuncture are also mentioned.
This document provides guidance for oral healthcare providers on treating patients with HIV/AIDS. It discusses HIV basics, how HIV affects oral health, important considerations in the medical history, common oral health problems associated with HIV, and infections and cancers that may occur. Key parts of the medical history for an HIV patient include their latest CD4 and viral load counts, current medications, history of opportunistic infections, and other health issues like hepatitis or substance use. No routine premedication is needed but antibiotics may be considered for severely immune compromised patients. Overall the document aims to educate dental providers on the oral manifestations of HIV and best practices for safe care of this patient population.
ABSTRACT- Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a major contributor to the global burden of the disease, opportunistic infections, and tumors follow. HIV also directly attacks the immune system and affects certain body’s system (like Central Nervous System, Respiratory and Cardiovascular Systems, Digestive System etc). HIV transmission is complex and depends on the number of behavioral and biological co-factors. The hallmark of HIV infection is the progressive depletion of CD4 helper T cells because of reduced production and increased destruction. Although the typical HIV infected patient shows a sustained CD4 cell increase, a remarkable number of subjects never achieve normal ranges of CD4. HIV infection is also characterized by a marked increase in immune activation, which includes both the adaptive and innate immune systems and abnormalities in coagulation. Extraordinary efforts in the fields of clinical, pharmacology, and biology care have contributed to progressively turn HIV infection from an unavoidably fatal condition into a chronic manageable disease, at least in the countries where HIV infected people have full access to the potent anti-retroviral (ARV) drug combinations that permit a marked and sustained control of viral replication. Although their pathogenesis is still under discussed, they are likely to originate from immune dysfunction associated with HIV infection and chronic inflammation. The last consideration regards the dis-homogenous pattern of HIV disease worldwide. Key-words- Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIV), Antiretroviral (ARV) therapy, Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), Cell mediated immunity (CMI), Anti-retroviral agents
The document discusses HIV/AIDS, including its causes, characteristics, and modes of transmission. Key points include:
- HIV weakens the immune system, leaving the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections and cancers that can cause AIDS.
- Without treatment, most HIV-positive people will develop AIDS within 10-15 years. Effective antiretroviral treatment can prevent progression to AIDS.
- Common opportunistic infections associated with AIDS include Pneumocystis pneumonia, tuberculosis, and cancers like Kaposi's sarcoma.
The document discusses the origin of HIV and AIDS. It explains that HIV is closely related to viruses found in chimpanzees (HIV-1) and sooty mangabeys (HIV-2) in West Africa. The leading theory is that the viruses crossed into humans in the early 20th century when humans hunted and butchered chimpanzees and monkeys for meat. The earliest known case of HIV in a human was identified in 1959 in the Democratic Republic of Congo. By the 1980s, HIV had spread globally and was recognized as the cause of AIDS.
This document provides information about an Ebola virus outbreak in Delhi, India. It warns residents to avoid certain hospitals where cases have been detected. It provides advice on precautions like eating tulsi leaves and proper hand washing. The document also includes background information on Ebola viruses, describing their structure, transmission, geographical distribution, outbreak history and clinical observations of symptoms. It discusses ethics around outbreak responses and potential bioterrorism threats. The end promotes an organization's vision to improve healthcare access in India.
THE BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT WHAT IS HIV AND HOW IT DESTRUCT THE IMMUNE SYSTEM. THEN LEADS TO AIDS. PRESENTATION ALSO EXPLAINS THE DIAGNOSIS OF HIV, ITS TREATMENT
WHY WE DONT HAVE VACCINE FOR HIV AND WHAT ARE THE PRESENT SCENARIO OF VACCINE DEVELOPMENT..
I HOPE IT WILL EXPLAIN WELL ABOUT HIV INFECTION AND AIDS, MAY PROVE USEFUL FOR YOU GUYS.....
HIV causes AIDS by infecting and destroying CD4+ T cells. It is transmitted sexually or through blood/bodily fluids. After entering the body, HIV binds to CD4 receptors on T cells, integrates into the host cell DNA, and uses the cell's machinery to replicate. This leads to the destruction of infected T cells and ultimately a collapse of the immune system as CD4+ T cell counts decline severely. As the immune system is compromised, opportunistic infections and cancers then develop, characterizing the onset of AIDS.
This document summarizes AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) and HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). It discusses that AIDS is caused by HIV, which belongs to the lentivirus family (HIV-1 and HIV-2) and targets CD4 T-cells. HIV transmission occurs through sexual contact, blood exposure, and from mother to infant. The life cycle and structure of HIV is also outlined. The clinical features of AIDS are described in three stages: acute, chronic, and crisis phases. Treatment options like antiretroviral therapy and acupuncture are also mentioned.
This document provides guidance for oral healthcare providers on treating patients with HIV/AIDS. It discusses HIV basics, how HIV affects oral health, important considerations in the medical history, common oral health problems associated with HIV, and infections and cancers that may occur. Key parts of the medical history for an HIV patient include their latest CD4 and viral load counts, current medications, history of opportunistic infections, and other health issues like hepatitis or substance use. No routine premedication is needed but antibiotics may be considered for severely immune compromised patients. Overall the document aims to educate dental providers on the oral manifestations of HIV and best practices for safe care of this patient population.
Power point presentation -The History of HIV/AIDSSol Velazquez
The document summarizes the history and origins of HIV/AIDS, beginning with the first reported cases in 1981 among homosexual men in the US. It describes the identification of the virus (HIV) in 1983 and its links to similar viruses found in African primates like chimpanzees (SIV). Theories suggest the virus crossed over to humans through activities like bushmeat hunting and processing or vaccine production in Africa in the early 20th century. By the 1980s HIV/AIDS had spread globally and become a major epidemic affecting millions of people.
AIDS is a syndrome in which the body undergoes the loss of cellular immunity which lower the body’s ability to fight against disease. The cause of AIDS is a retrovirus called Human Immunodeficiency Virus HIV . The symptoms of AIDS usually start from 3 6 weeks and are mild symptoms like fever, rash, swollen glands, and body ache which are followed by characteristic AIDS symptoms which may appear within 10 years of infection. In world till 2017 genome sequencing of the virus, sub typing of the virus, recombinant forms of the virus has been deeply discovered and studied which helps in better diagnosis and in choosing the strategies for treatment. The objective of this review is to give a brief history and current picture of HIV prevalence and describe its pathophysiology and modes of transmission. And how it is diagnosed, sign and symptoms, treatment and how it can be prevented. Ch. Teshil Maring | Gaurav Kumar Sharma | Kaushal Kishore Chandrul "A Review: AIDS" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-5 , August 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd45188.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/45188/a-review-aids/ch-teshil-maring
The document discusses HIV/AIDS, providing definitions and explaining how HIV infects cells, replicates, and over time destroys the immune system. It notes that HIV targets and infects CD4 cells (T-cells), using them to replicate and eventually killing them. This depletion of CD4 cells leaves the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections defining AIDS. The stages of HIV infection and factors that affect disease progression are also summarized.
HIV is a retrovirus that causes AIDS by destroying CD4 cells and weakening the immune system. It can be transmitted through unprotected sex, contaminated blood or needles, or from mother to child. While not curable, HIV is manageable with antiretroviral treatment. People progress through acute, asymptomatic, symptomatic, and AIDS stages over many years without treatment. Opportunistic infections often cause death in late stage AIDS when CD4 counts drop very low. Testing and prevention strategies like abstinence, monogamy, condoms and sterile needles can help control the epidemic.
1) HIV is a retrovirus that causes AIDS by depleting CD4 T cells, weakening the immune system.
2) HIV enters host cells via CD4 and CCR5/CXCR4 receptors, integrating its genetic material which is then transcribed and new virions are assembled and released, infecting other cells.
3) As CD4 cells are gradually depleted, the immune system weakens over time, allowing opportunistic infections and cancers to develop, eventually leading to AIDS if untreated.
HIV/AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which selectively infects CD4+ T cells. Over time, HIV destroys and impairs the immune system, making the body increasingly susceptible to opportunistic infections. There are two types of HIV, HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV is most commonly transmitted through unprotected sex, contaminated blood transfusions, needle sharing, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding. As the immune system weakens from HIV, individuals become vulnerable to various infections and cancers that define AIDS. There is currently no cure for HIV/AIDS.
This document provides an overview of HIV and AIDS. It states that an estimated 3.5 million people were living with HIV/AIDS in Southeast Asia in 2009, with women accounting for 37% of cases. The majority of HIV infections are transmitted sexually or through injecting drug use. It also summarizes the structure and life cycle of HIV, stages of HIV infection, opportunistic infections associated with AIDS, methods of diagnosis and monitoring HIV, and antiretroviral drugs used to treat HIV/AIDS.
HIV ITS PREVENTION AND CONTROL is a presentation that aim to introduce HIV(Human immunodeficiency Virus),its pathogenesis, clinical manifestation, diagnosis, treatment, prevention and control
A modified form of HIV is being tested as a potential treatment for cancer. Researchers are removing patients' T-cells and using HIV to insert genes that program the cells to recognize and attack cancer. The modified T-cells are multiplied and reinfused into patients, where they act like "serial killers" against the cancer cells. In initial tests, two patients saw their cancers drastically reduced or eliminated, with up to five pounds of tumor cells disappearing. The modified T-cells have also been shown to persist in the body for over a year, reactivating to kill new cancer cells. One six-year-old girl with leukemia that was not responding to other treatments saw her cancer go into remission after this experimental HIV therapy
The document discusses the threat of agroterrorism in Southeast Asia. It defines agroterrorism and outlines several animal diseases that could be used for this purpose, including foot-and-mouth disease, avian influenza, Rift Valley fever, and Ebola. It notes the vulnerability of the region's livestock industry and food system. Several viruses are highlighted as potential bioweapons, such as Zika, that could have devastating economic and public health impacts through the agricultural sector. Close monitoring is needed to prevent the deliberate or accidental spread of dangerous diseases.
This document reviews protease inhibitors, drugs used to treat AIDS. It discusses how HIV works by having the protease enzyme cleave viral polyproteins. Protease inhibitors were designed to bind to the protease and prevent this cleavage, stopping viral replication. Several protease inhibitor drugs are described, including lopinavir, ritonavir, and indinavir. While effective, protease inhibitors can cause side effects like increased blood sugar, changes in fat distribution, and liver problems. The summary concludes that protease inhibitors play an important role in regulating proteins and curing AIDS by binding HIV protease and preventing viral protein cleavage.
1. HIV is a retrovirus that causes AIDS by destroying CD4 cells and weakening the immune system. It is most commonly spread through unprotected sexual intercourse in South Africa.
2. Most people infected with HIV are asymptomatic for many years before developing AIDS, which makes it easy to spread without knowing. Screening tests like ELISA and rapid tests detect antibodies to HIV.
3. While treatment can suppress HIV and prevent AIDS, there is currently no cure. The epidemic has had a devastating social and economic impact in South Africa by reducing life expectancy and leaving many orphaned children.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is the virus that causes AIDS. It is transmitted through bodily fluids and attacks CD4+ T cells of the immune system. The disease progresses through three stages as the number of CD4+ cells declines, resulting in opportunistic infections. Diagnosis involves antibody and viral load tests, while treatment is with antiretroviral drugs. Prevention strategies focus on safe sex practices, needle safety, and screening of pregnant women to prevent mother-to-child transmission.
The document discusses the transmission of HIV/AIDS through various modes:
1) Sexual transmission is the most common mode, occurring through unprotected vaginal, anal and oral sex. Anal intercourse poses the highest risk while oral sex has a lower but present risk.
2) Transmission can also occur through blood, such as transfusions or sharing needles. Procedures involving piercing of skin like tattoos or circumcision can also transmit HIV.
3) Mother-to-child transmission is another mode, where the virus can be passed during pregnancy, delivery or through breastfeeding. The risk of transmission from an HIV-positive mother to her newborn ranges from 12-35%.
1) HIV is a virus that destroys CD4 immune cells, leading to AIDS if left untreated. With medication, a person can live with HIV for decades without progressing to AIDS.
2) HIV was first observed in 1981 and is believed to have originated from chimpanzees in West Africa. It is transmitted through sexual contact, blood, and from mother to child.
3) Over 42 million people worldwide are currently living with HIV. While treatments have increased life expectancy, aging poses new health challenges for those with HIV due to increased risk of conditions like dementia, heart disease, and infections.
A LECTURE ON AIDS FOR FIRST MBBS STUDENTS, DEPT OF BIOCHEMISTRY.
A CLASS ON EPIDEMIOLOGY, VIROLOGY,HIV-MORPHOLOGY, GENOME, LIFE CYCLE,MODE OF TRANSMISSION, IMMUNOLOGY, PATHOPHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOGENESIS, LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT.
This document discusses emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. It begins with trends in infectious diseases, then defines emerging and re-emerging diseases. Factors that contribute to emergence include changes in the agent, host, and environment. Examples are provided of diseases that have emerged or re-emerged recently, including SARS, avian influenza, hepatitis C, and antibiotic resistance. The response from public health is also mentioned.
The document provides an overview of HIV/AIDS, including its history, origin, life cycle, types, statistics, transmission, prevention, and treatment. It begins with definitions of HIV/AIDS, noting it attacks CD4 cells and destroys the immune system. It then discusses the early origins and identification of AIDS in the 1980s and various theories for the origin of HIV. It provides details on the life cycle and types of HIV viruses. Statistics on global prevalence and transmission methods like unprotected sex, needle sharing, and mother-to-child are presented. The document concludes with sections on prevention, treatment, and ICTC centers.
Avian influenza is usually an inapparent or nonclinical
viral infection of wild birds that is caused by a group of
viruses known as type A influenzas. These viruses are maintained in wild birds by fecal-oral routes of transmission. This virus changes rapidly in nature by mixing of its genetic components to form slightly different virus subtypes. Avian influenza is caused by this collection of slightly different viruses rather than by a single virus type. The virus subtypes are identified and classified on the basis of two broad types of antigens, hemagglutinan (H) and neuraminidase (N); 15 H and 9 N antigens have been identified among all of the known type A influenzas.
The document discusses HIV/AIDS, providing definitions and descriptions. It begins by defining HIV as the human immunodeficiency virus that infects and damages cells of the immune system, specifically CD4+ T cells. It then defines AIDS as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, which is the final stage of HIV infection where the immune system is severely damaged. The document goes on to provide a brief history of HIV/AIDS, describing its identification and naming over time. It concludes by outlining global statistics on people living with HIV/AIDS and discussing the Bangladesh situation.
There are nearly 100 viruses of the herpes group that infect many different animal species.
Official name of herpesviruses that commonly infect human is Humans herpesvirus (HHV)
herpes simplex virus types 1 (HHV 1)
Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HHV 2)
Varicella-zoster virus (HHV 3)
Epstein-Barr virus, (HHV 4)
Cytomegalovirus (HHV 5)
Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV 6)
Human herpesvirus 7 (HHV 7)
Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV 8) (Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus).
Herpes B virus of monkeys can also infect humans
hELMINTHS#corona virus#Aspergillosis#BUGANDO#CUHAS#CUHAS#CUHAS
Power point presentation -The History of HIV/AIDSSol Velazquez
The document summarizes the history and origins of HIV/AIDS, beginning with the first reported cases in 1981 among homosexual men in the US. It describes the identification of the virus (HIV) in 1983 and its links to similar viruses found in African primates like chimpanzees (SIV). Theories suggest the virus crossed over to humans through activities like bushmeat hunting and processing or vaccine production in Africa in the early 20th century. By the 1980s HIV/AIDS had spread globally and become a major epidemic affecting millions of people.
AIDS is a syndrome in which the body undergoes the loss of cellular immunity which lower the body’s ability to fight against disease. The cause of AIDS is a retrovirus called Human Immunodeficiency Virus HIV . The symptoms of AIDS usually start from 3 6 weeks and are mild symptoms like fever, rash, swollen glands, and body ache which are followed by characteristic AIDS symptoms which may appear within 10 years of infection. In world till 2017 genome sequencing of the virus, sub typing of the virus, recombinant forms of the virus has been deeply discovered and studied which helps in better diagnosis and in choosing the strategies for treatment. The objective of this review is to give a brief history and current picture of HIV prevalence and describe its pathophysiology and modes of transmission. And how it is diagnosed, sign and symptoms, treatment and how it can be prevented. Ch. Teshil Maring | Gaurav Kumar Sharma | Kaushal Kishore Chandrul "A Review: AIDS" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-5 , August 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd45188.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/45188/a-review-aids/ch-teshil-maring
The document discusses HIV/AIDS, providing definitions and explaining how HIV infects cells, replicates, and over time destroys the immune system. It notes that HIV targets and infects CD4 cells (T-cells), using them to replicate and eventually killing them. This depletion of CD4 cells leaves the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections defining AIDS. The stages of HIV infection and factors that affect disease progression are also summarized.
HIV is a retrovirus that causes AIDS by destroying CD4 cells and weakening the immune system. It can be transmitted through unprotected sex, contaminated blood or needles, or from mother to child. While not curable, HIV is manageable with antiretroviral treatment. People progress through acute, asymptomatic, symptomatic, and AIDS stages over many years without treatment. Opportunistic infections often cause death in late stage AIDS when CD4 counts drop very low. Testing and prevention strategies like abstinence, monogamy, condoms and sterile needles can help control the epidemic.
1) HIV is a retrovirus that causes AIDS by depleting CD4 T cells, weakening the immune system.
2) HIV enters host cells via CD4 and CCR5/CXCR4 receptors, integrating its genetic material which is then transcribed and new virions are assembled and released, infecting other cells.
3) As CD4 cells are gradually depleted, the immune system weakens over time, allowing opportunistic infections and cancers to develop, eventually leading to AIDS if untreated.
HIV/AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which selectively infects CD4+ T cells. Over time, HIV destroys and impairs the immune system, making the body increasingly susceptible to opportunistic infections. There are two types of HIV, HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV is most commonly transmitted through unprotected sex, contaminated blood transfusions, needle sharing, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding. As the immune system weakens from HIV, individuals become vulnerable to various infections and cancers that define AIDS. There is currently no cure for HIV/AIDS.
This document provides an overview of HIV and AIDS. It states that an estimated 3.5 million people were living with HIV/AIDS in Southeast Asia in 2009, with women accounting for 37% of cases. The majority of HIV infections are transmitted sexually or through injecting drug use. It also summarizes the structure and life cycle of HIV, stages of HIV infection, opportunistic infections associated with AIDS, methods of diagnosis and monitoring HIV, and antiretroviral drugs used to treat HIV/AIDS.
HIV ITS PREVENTION AND CONTROL is a presentation that aim to introduce HIV(Human immunodeficiency Virus),its pathogenesis, clinical manifestation, diagnosis, treatment, prevention and control
A modified form of HIV is being tested as a potential treatment for cancer. Researchers are removing patients' T-cells and using HIV to insert genes that program the cells to recognize and attack cancer. The modified T-cells are multiplied and reinfused into patients, where they act like "serial killers" against the cancer cells. In initial tests, two patients saw their cancers drastically reduced or eliminated, with up to five pounds of tumor cells disappearing. The modified T-cells have also been shown to persist in the body for over a year, reactivating to kill new cancer cells. One six-year-old girl with leukemia that was not responding to other treatments saw her cancer go into remission after this experimental HIV therapy
The document discusses the threat of agroterrorism in Southeast Asia. It defines agroterrorism and outlines several animal diseases that could be used for this purpose, including foot-and-mouth disease, avian influenza, Rift Valley fever, and Ebola. It notes the vulnerability of the region's livestock industry and food system. Several viruses are highlighted as potential bioweapons, such as Zika, that could have devastating economic and public health impacts through the agricultural sector. Close monitoring is needed to prevent the deliberate or accidental spread of dangerous diseases.
This document reviews protease inhibitors, drugs used to treat AIDS. It discusses how HIV works by having the protease enzyme cleave viral polyproteins. Protease inhibitors were designed to bind to the protease and prevent this cleavage, stopping viral replication. Several protease inhibitor drugs are described, including lopinavir, ritonavir, and indinavir. While effective, protease inhibitors can cause side effects like increased blood sugar, changes in fat distribution, and liver problems. The summary concludes that protease inhibitors play an important role in regulating proteins and curing AIDS by binding HIV protease and preventing viral protein cleavage.
1. HIV is a retrovirus that causes AIDS by destroying CD4 cells and weakening the immune system. It is most commonly spread through unprotected sexual intercourse in South Africa.
2. Most people infected with HIV are asymptomatic for many years before developing AIDS, which makes it easy to spread without knowing. Screening tests like ELISA and rapid tests detect antibodies to HIV.
3. While treatment can suppress HIV and prevent AIDS, there is currently no cure. The epidemic has had a devastating social and economic impact in South Africa by reducing life expectancy and leaving many orphaned children.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is the virus that causes AIDS. It is transmitted through bodily fluids and attacks CD4+ T cells of the immune system. The disease progresses through three stages as the number of CD4+ cells declines, resulting in opportunistic infections. Diagnosis involves antibody and viral load tests, while treatment is with antiretroviral drugs. Prevention strategies focus on safe sex practices, needle safety, and screening of pregnant women to prevent mother-to-child transmission.
The document discusses the transmission of HIV/AIDS through various modes:
1) Sexual transmission is the most common mode, occurring through unprotected vaginal, anal and oral sex. Anal intercourse poses the highest risk while oral sex has a lower but present risk.
2) Transmission can also occur through blood, such as transfusions or sharing needles. Procedures involving piercing of skin like tattoos or circumcision can also transmit HIV.
3) Mother-to-child transmission is another mode, where the virus can be passed during pregnancy, delivery or through breastfeeding. The risk of transmission from an HIV-positive mother to her newborn ranges from 12-35%.
1) HIV is a virus that destroys CD4 immune cells, leading to AIDS if left untreated. With medication, a person can live with HIV for decades without progressing to AIDS.
2) HIV was first observed in 1981 and is believed to have originated from chimpanzees in West Africa. It is transmitted through sexual contact, blood, and from mother to child.
3) Over 42 million people worldwide are currently living with HIV. While treatments have increased life expectancy, aging poses new health challenges for those with HIV due to increased risk of conditions like dementia, heart disease, and infections.
A LECTURE ON AIDS FOR FIRST MBBS STUDENTS, DEPT OF BIOCHEMISTRY.
A CLASS ON EPIDEMIOLOGY, VIROLOGY,HIV-MORPHOLOGY, GENOME, LIFE CYCLE,MODE OF TRANSMISSION, IMMUNOLOGY, PATHOPHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOGENESIS, LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT.
This document discusses emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. It begins with trends in infectious diseases, then defines emerging and re-emerging diseases. Factors that contribute to emergence include changes in the agent, host, and environment. Examples are provided of diseases that have emerged or re-emerged recently, including SARS, avian influenza, hepatitis C, and antibiotic resistance. The response from public health is also mentioned.
The document provides an overview of HIV/AIDS, including its history, origin, life cycle, types, statistics, transmission, prevention, and treatment. It begins with definitions of HIV/AIDS, noting it attacks CD4 cells and destroys the immune system. It then discusses the early origins and identification of AIDS in the 1980s and various theories for the origin of HIV. It provides details on the life cycle and types of HIV viruses. Statistics on global prevalence and transmission methods like unprotected sex, needle sharing, and mother-to-child are presented. The document concludes with sections on prevention, treatment, and ICTC centers.
Avian influenza is usually an inapparent or nonclinical
viral infection of wild birds that is caused by a group of
viruses known as type A influenzas. These viruses are maintained in wild birds by fecal-oral routes of transmission. This virus changes rapidly in nature by mixing of its genetic components to form slightly different virus subtypes. Avian influenza is caused by this collection of slightly different viruses rather than by a single virus type. The virus subtypes are identified and classified on the basis of two broad types of antigens, hemagglutinan (H) and neuraminidase (N); 15 H and 9 N antigens have been identified among all of the known type A influenzas.
Similar to IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper, journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call for research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, call fo
The document discusses HIV/AIDS, providing definitions and descriptions. It begins by defining HIV as the human immunodeficiency virus that infects and damages cells of the immune system, specifically CD4+ T cells. It then defines AIDS as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, which is the final stage of HIV infection where the immune system is severely damaged. The document goes on to provide a brief history of HIV/AIDS, describing its identification and naming over time. It concludes by outlining global statistics on people living with HIV/AIDS and discussing the Bangladesh situation.
There are nearly 100 viruses of the herpes group that infect many different animal species.
Official name of herpesviruses that commonly infect human is Humans herpesvirus (HHV)
herpes simplex virus types 1 (HHV 1)
Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HHV 2)
Varicella-zoster virus (HHV 3)
Epstein-Barr virus, (HHV 4)
Cytomegalovirus (HHV 5)
Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV 6)
Human herpesvirus 7 (HHV 7)
Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV 8) (Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus).
Herpes B virus of monkeys can also infect humans
hELMINTHS#corona virus#Aspergillosis#BUGANDO#CUHAS#CUHAS#CUHAS
The document discusses pathophysiology of HIV/AIDS. It defines HIV as a retrovirus that causes AIDS by infecting CD4+ T cells and suppressing the immune system. This leaves the body susceptible to opportunistic infections. The document summarizes the stages of HIV infection from acute infection to development of AIDS, as well as the clinical manifestations and complications of HIV/AIDS such as wasting syndrome, opportunistic infections, and cancers. Treatment options for HIV/AIDS are also briefly mentioned.
This presentation provides an overview of HIV and AIDS, including:
1. Definitions of HIV as the virus that causes AIDS and weakens the immune system, and AIDS as the final stage of HIV infection.
2. HIV-1 is the most common type worldwide and generally causes AIDS faster than HIV-2, which is mostly found in West Africa.
3. HIV is transmitted through bodily fluids and can be spread through unprotected sex, blood contact, or from mother to child during pregnancy or breastfeeding. Proper precautions can prevent transmission.
1. HIV/AIDS remains a major global public health issue, with sub-Saharan Africa disproportionately affected.
2. HIV targets CD4 cells and progressively destroys the immune system, leaving the body vulnerable to opportunistic infections.
3. The virus has several stages in its lifecycle within the human body, allowing it to evade detection and establish chronic, long-term infection.
The document discusses AIDS and lentiviruses. It covers topics such as the origin of HIV from primate lentiviruses, the classification and properties of lentiviruses, HIV infections in humans including pathogenesis and pathology, virus receptors, and the roles of CD4 T lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages, and lymphoid organs in HIV infection.
A review on approaches and current progress in the development of HI...ManojKumbhare2
This document provides an overview of HIV vaccine development. It discusses the challenges of developing an HIV vaccine, including the high mutation rate of the virus and lack of appropriate animal models. The document outlines the main approaches to HIV vaccine development, including generating neutralizing antibodies, activating CD8+ T cells through viral vectors, and using prime-boost approaches. It also describes the structure and life cycle of HIV, the disease burden, and immune responses important for a vaccine, such as broadly neutralizing antibodies and cellular immunity. The conclusion states that developing an HIV vaccine remains a significant scientific challenge.
1) The document describes the origin, virology, immunology, pathogenesis and natural course of HIV. It began as an unknown disease in the 1980s and has since caused a global pandemic.
2) HIV infects CD4 cells of the immune system, evades detection, and over time destroys the immune response. This allows opportunistic infections and cancers to develop, defining AIDS.
3) The four phases of the HIV epidemic moved from rural areas to urban populations, involved risk groups through sexual and needle-based transmission, then escalated globally before stabilizing in some regions through control efforts.
This document provides a summary of mathematical modeling of HIV/AIDS treatment. It discusses the background and history of the HIV epidemic, noting that the number of people living with HIV has increased to 32-38 million globally since 1981. Prevention programs like antiretroviral treatment (ART) have helped reduce prevalence since 1999. The document examines the natural history and transmission of HIV, antiretroviral therapy, socioeconomic risks, and the genetic structure and replication cycle of HIV. It states the problem is determining the optimal timing for ART initiation to increase immunity and decrease mortality and mobility from the disease.
HIV is a virus that causes AIDS by weakening the immune system. It is transmitted through bodily fluids and can survive for days outside the body. While treatments can slow the virus, there is currently no cure and those infected have it for life. The pandemic originated in Africa and has led to millions of deaths worldwide. Diagnosis involves testing for antibodies and CD4 cell counts, while prevention focuses on avoiding fluid exchange and using protection during sex or needle sharing. Combination drug regimens can suppress the virus but not eliminate it.
This document summarizes a student's paper on HIV/AIDS pathogenesis. It begins by outlining the epidemiology of HIV/AIDS, including its origins in 1959 in Congo and transmission routes. It then describes the structure and replication cycle of HIV in detail. The stages of HIV disease progression are explained as acute infection, asymptomatic chronic phase, and symptomatic AIDS. The paper also reviews presentations by HIV experts and fellow student presentations addressing treatment options and the social impacts of HIV/AIDS.
The document discusses HIV and AIDS. It provides information on:
- The structure and life cycle of HIV.
- How HIV infects and destroys CD4+ T cells, leading to immunosuppression and susceptibility to opportunistic infections.
- The typical stages of untreated HIV infection from acute infection to AIDS, defined as a CD4 count below 200 or an AIDS-defining condition.
- Common opportunistic infections and cancers seen in AIDS patients due to severe immune deficiency.
HIV/AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which attacks CD4 T-cells and weakens the immune system. This leaves individuals vulnerable to opportunistic infections. While there is no cure for AIDS, antiretroviral drug combinations can suppress the virus and allow immune recovery. However, HIV persists in reservoirs and treatment must continue to prevent resurgence. Prevention efforts focus on behavior changes like abstinence and condom use as well as reducing needle sharing. Access to treatment varies globally and developing nations often lack resources for advanced therapies available elsewhere. Education has helped curb transmission in some African countries but challenges remain in combating misinformation and harmful practices.
This document discusses immunodeficiency and HIV/AIDS. It defines immunodeficiency as a compromised immune system and describes how it is classified as either primary/congenital or secondary/acquired. HIV is described as a retrovirus that causes AIDS by infecting CD4 cells and impairing the immune system over time. The document outlines HIV transmission, structure, lifecycle, and global prevalence, with statistics provided on prevalence in Zambia.
This document discusses HIV and periodontal disease. It provides background on HIV, describing its identification in 1983 and the two types, HIV-1 and HIV-2. It reviews pathogenesis and epidemiology of HIV as well as stages of infection. The relationship between periodontal disease and HIV is complex, with some studies finding higher prevalence and severity of periodontitis in HIV+ individuals compared to controls, while other studies found limited differences or no relationship when accounting for CD4 count and ART. Periodontal disease in HIV patients can include conditions like linear gingival erythema and necrotizing ulcerative periodontal diseases.
The document provides information about AIDS/HIV in 3 paragraphs:
1) It defines AIDS as acquired immune deficiency syndrome caused by the HIV virus. It affects immune cells called CD4+ T cells. HIV was first reported in 1981 in the US.
2) Pediatric AIDS contributes to 15-20% of cases in developing countries. HIV can be transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding. By 2007, over 2 million children lived with HIV.
3) HIV attacks and destroys CD4+ T cells, weakening the immune system. If untreated, HIV progresses to AIDS. Common opportunistic infections in children with AIDS include Pneumocystis pneumonia and MAC (Mycobacterium
This document summarizes key information about HIV/AIDS, including its history, virology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. It describes how HIV was first identified in 1981 as the cause of AIDS, belongs to the retrovirus family, and has two types, HIV-1 and HIV-2. Over 30 million people have died of AIDS since 1981, and approximately 2.5 million people are newly infected with HIV each year.
Similar to IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper, journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call for research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, call fo (20)
Congenital Agenesis Of The Corpus Callosum With Intracerebral Lipoma And Fron...iosrphr_editor
The IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR) is an open access online & offline peer reviewed international journal, which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini-reviews, short communications and notes dealing with Pharmaceutical Sciences( Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Computational Chemistry and Molecular Drug Design, Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmaceutical Analysis, Pharmacy Practice, Clinical and Hospital Pharmacy, Cell Biology, Genomics and Proteomics, Pharmacogenomics, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Interest........more details on Aim & Scope).
“Hemodynamic and recovery profile with Dexmedetomidine and Fentanyl in intrac...iosrphr_editor
The IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR) is an open access online & offline peer reviewed international journal, which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini-reviews, short communications and notes dealing with Pharmaceutical Sciences( Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Computational Chemistry and Molecular Drug Design, Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmaceutical Analysis, Pharmacy Practice, Clinical and Hospital Pharmacy, Cell Biology, Genomics and Proteomics, Pharmacogenomics, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Interest........more details on Aim & Scope).
Correlation of Estrogen and Progesterone Receptor expression in Breast Canceriosrphr_editor
The IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR) is an open access online & offline peer reviewed international journal, which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini-reviews, short communications and notes dealing with Pharmaceutical Sciences( Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Computational Chemistry and Molecular Drug Design, Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmaceutical Analysis, Pharmacy Practice, Clinical and Hospital Pharmacy, Cell Biology, Genomics and Proteomics, Pharmacogenomics, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Interest........more details on Aim & Scope).
Analytical Study of Urine Samples for Epidemiology of Urinary Tract Infection...iosrphr_editor
The current study was carried out in District Abbottabad aimed to determine the common urinary
tract infections in local community to determine the epidemiology of significant diseases in asymptomatic patients
of renal disorder. In this study a total of 1000 urine samples were examined during 3rd February to 1st April 2015
from patients attending Ayub Teaching Hospital Abbottabad by using dipstick and microscopic analysis of urine.
There were 638 females and 362 males patients examined during this period. The range of age groups is between
1.5 years to 80 years. Results of this study was reported as Pyuria 11%, Proteinuria 21.1%, Hematuria 10.4%,
Epithelial Cells 8.2%, pH 7.8 %, Granular casts 7.3%, Triple phosphate 6.6%, Calcium oxalate 6.4%, Glycosuria
6.3%, Bacteria 6.2% and mucous 4.1%. This study concludes that routing urinalysis should be performed for all
individuals to diagnose the asymptomatic diseases that will help in simple therapeutic measurements as urinalysis
is a simple step to determine the root of Urinary tract disorders.
Chest sonography images in neonatal r.d.s. And proposed gradingiosrphr_editor
BACKGROUND : Lung sonography has been used to monitor the patients of R.D.S. in
N.I.C.U. in recent times.
AIMS : To Describe and Grade the changes of R.D.S. by lung sonography.
SETTING & DESIGN : Tertiary care institutional set up in a rural medical college.
STUDY DURATION : September 2014 to May 2015. Follow-up variable, upto 2 weeks.
PROSPECTIVE, ANALYTICAL STUDY.
MATERIALS AND METHODS -This was a single institute study approved by the institutional ethics
committee. Prior informed consent was obtained from the parents. 100 consecutive patients admitted in
N.I.C.U. WITH gestational age < 36 weeks with respiratory complaints were enrolled. Chest x-ray was
obtained within few hours of admission and lung sonography was performed within 24 hours. Follow – up
sonography was performed as and when necessary. Sonography image was graded and correlated with chest
xray and clinical picture
The Comprehensive Review on Fat Soluble Vitaminsiosrphr_editor
This review article deals with brief description of fat soluble vitamins with figures and tables
showing statistical analytical data duly quoting the references wherever necessary. The word “soluble” actually
means “able to be dissolved.” Whether a vitamin is classified as 'fat-soluble' or 'water-soluble' has to do with
how the vitamin is absorbed, stored and removed from the body. Vitamins are tiny organic compounds with a
huge impact on the health and well-being of the body. The body needs a small amount of fat soluble vitamins in
order to stay in optimal health. Fat soluble vitamins play an important role in keeping the body healthy and
functioning from immune system and muscle and heart function, easy flow and clotting of blood as well as eye
health. They are critical to health and wellness–particularly reproductive health and wellness. Low-fat, no-fat
and vegan diets are woefully lacking in fat soluble vitamins. However a diet based on traditional foods can
naturally provide these vitamins. Science is still learning about many of the functions of vitamins. "Too much
vitamin A, D, or K can lead to increased levels that are unhealthy and can cause serious health consequences.
Diseased conditions leading to decreased fat absorption leads to decreased absorption of vitamins. The fatsoluble
vitamins work most safely and effectively when obtained them from natural foods within the context of a
diet rich in all their synergistic partners. If fat soluble vitamins are stored for lengthy time they generate threat
for toxicity than water soluble vitamins and such situation even aggravated, provided they are consumed in
excess. Vitamin products, above the legal limits are not considered food supplements and must be registered as
prescription or non-prescription (over-the-counter drugs) due to their potential side effects. Vitamin A and E
supplements do not provide health benefits for healthy individuals, instead they may enhance mortality, and it is
held proved that beta-carotene supplements can be harmful to smokers
Sulphasalazine Induced Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis A Case Reportiosrphr_editor
The document describes a case study of an 18-year-old female patient who developed toxic epidermal necrolysis as a severe adverse reaction to the drug sulfasalazine, which she had been taking for ankylosing spondylitis. She was admitted to the intensive care unit and treated with high dose corticosteroids, fluid replacement, and supportive care. She improved with treatment and was discharged with only post-inflammatory hypopigmentation.
Evaluation the efficacy of IVIgG in treatment of Hemolytic Disease of Newborniosrphr_editor
Hemolytic disease of newborn (HDN) is an important cause of hyperbilirubinemia in the
neonatal period,and delayed diagnosis and treatment may lead to permanent brain damage. Traditional
neonatal treatment of HDN is intensive phototherapy and exchange transfusion.Intravenous
immunoglobulin(IVIgG) has been introduced as an alternative therapy to exchange transfusion. This study was
conducted to assess the effect of IVIG in HDN .
FIBROLIPOMATOUS HAMARTOMA OF ULNAR NERVE: A RARE CASE REPORT.iosrphr_editor
Nervous fibrolipomatous hamartoma is said to be a rare tumor-like condition involving the peripheral
nerves,in which the epineurium and perineurium are enlarged and distorted by excess of fatty and fibrous tissue
s that infiltrate between and around nerve boundaries. The median nerve is more likely to develop a hamartoma
than other nerves with a predilection for the carpal tunnel.
A fibrolipomatous hamartoma – is a rare, benign, congenital lesion most commonly found in the median nerve,
usually at the level of the wrist or hand.
We report a case of this rare condition in ulnar nerve.
SELF MEDICATION PRACTICES FOR ORAL HEALTH PROBLEMS AMONG DENTAL PATIENTS IN B...iosrphr_editor
This study examined self-medication practices for oral health problems among dental patients in Bangalore, India. The study found that 100% of the 175 dental patients surveyed practiced self-medication. Toothache was the most common triggering factor reported. Analgesics and herbal remedies were commonly used for self-treatment. Most participants consulted pharmacists for advice on self-medication and would see a dentist only if problems persisted after self-medicating. The high prevalence of self-medication indicates a need for education programs to increase awareness of risks.
Clinico-haematological Profile of Falciparum Malaria in a Rural Hospital of T...iosrphr_editor
Aim: To study the clinico-haematological profile malaria in a rural hospital of Tripura.
Material and methods: A cross-sectional hospital-based study was done from at Kulai District
Hospital,Tripura. This hospital based cross sectional study was done on 60 confirmed cases of falciparum
malaria (either by peripheral smear or rapid diagnostic test) admitted in Kulai District Hospital. A case sheet
proforma was prepared and data (demographic profile,clinical feature, investigation, treatment, and
complication) from all indoor patients was collected and analyzed.
Result: Out of 60 patients, 40(66.6%) were males and 20 (33.4%) were females. Most of the patients were
between the age group 21-40 years with the highest prevalence between the age group of 21-30. Fever was the
most common symptom. Anemia was present in 42(70%) patients, out of which 6(10%) patients had severe
anemia. Thrombocytopenia was present in 36(60%) patients.Abnormal liver function tests were observed in
26(43.3%) subjects while abnormal kidney function tests were observed in16(26.6%) patients. All the 60
patients received Artemisinin based antimalarial drugs.
Conclusion: Early detection, prompt management, and adequate supportive therapy may reduce mortality due
to falciparum cerebral malaria.
Indonesian Wild Ginger (Zingiber sp) Extract: Antibacterial Activity against ...iosrphr_editor
The document summarizes a study that tested the antibacterial activity of extracts from three species of wild ginger plants from Indonesia (Zingiber zerumbet, Zingiber amaricans, and Zingiber aromaticum) against Mycoplasma gallisepticum, a pathogen that causes respiratory disease in chickens. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, and terpenoids in the plant extracts. Disc diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentration assays showed that ethanol extracts of dried rhizomes had the strongest inhibitory effects against the pathogen, with minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging from 7.8 to 31.2 mg/ml. The results suggest that extracts from these wild ginger plants
A case of allergy and food sensitivity: the nasunin, natural color of eggplantiosrphr_editor
Abstract: Allergies and food sensitivities can both be considered as "adverse reactions individualistic" to food.
Are pathological and individual forms because they affect a few individuals in way rather serious; immediate
or delayed reactions occur instead with simple effects histamine, or, in severe cases with respiratory and
anaphylactic shock
The eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is known to cause food allergies in some Asian countries, but detailed
studies on allergies caused by eggplant are lacking, however, it was highlighted the presence of allergens in
edible parts of eggplant with preponderance in the peel .
The purpose of this study was to propose an extraction method rapid, efficient and cost of natural dye from
waste products from the food industry, such as the peels of eggplant, from which it was extracted, isolated and
purified the nasunin,a colored molecule in red-fuchsia.
Nasusin was tested on 58 patients to evaluate the potential sensitizing effect on the skin. The results demonstrate
that allergenic effects are negligible and therefore the nasunin can be used as a colorant in various industrial
sectors with a certain safety margin
Complete NMR Assignment of MogrosidesII A2, II E andIII A1Isolated from Luo H...iosrphr_editor
NMR analysis allowed complete assignments of three known mogrol glycosides, Mogroside IIA2 (1),
II E (2)and IIIA1 (3), isolated from the extracts of Luo Han Guo. Herein, complete 1H and 13C NMR
assignmentsof all threemogrosidesare described based on NMR experiments (1H NMR, 13C NMR, COSY,
HSQC-DEPT, HMBC, NOESY and 1DTOCSY) and mass spectral data.
Nanoemulsion and Nanoemulgel as a Topical Formulationiosrphr_editor
: Nanoemulsion is referred type of emulsion with uniform and extremely small droplet size in the range
of 20-200 nm. Nanoemulsion provides numerous advantages over other carrier such as polymeric nanoparticle
and liposomes, including low cost preparation procedure, high hydrophilic and lipophilic drug loading system
to enhance the longer shelf live upon preserving the therapeutic agents. Incorporating the preparation of
nanoemulsion with hydrogel matrix to produce nanoemulgel exhibited by the two separate systems that forming
it. Nanoemulgel possesses the properties of thixotropic, non-greasy, effortlessly spreadable, easily be removed,
emollient, not staining, soluble in water, longer shelf life, bio-friendly, translucent and agreeable appearance.
Pharmacokinetics of High-Dose Methotrexate in Egyptian Children with Acute Ly...iosrphr_editor
Aim:Since several factors have been shown to influence the clearance of methotrexate, the purpose of this study
was to identify potential relationships between patient covariates and the methotrexate clearance estimates and
deduce a pharmacokinetic model for the estimation of methotrexate clearance in Egyptian pediatric ALL
patients that may help dosage adjustment and achieve target steady-state plasma concentrations in a similar
sittings.
Patients and methods: A total of 94 pediatric patients with B-cell ALL, of whom 70 were the studied population
and 24 were the test population, were treated with four courses of HDMTX doses 2.5 gm/m2
(low-risk arm) or 5
gm/m2
(standard-/high-risk arm) given every other week by intermittent intravenous infusions over 24 hours as
a part of their treatment protocol. Patients were monitored for the 24 hour MTX concentration and the systemic
methotrexate clearance was calculated for each methotrexate dose
Epidemiology of Tuberculosis (TB) in Albania 1998-2009iosrphr_editor
Abstract : In Albania, many people erroneously think that tuberculosis (TB) is a disease of the past-an illness
that no longer constitutes a public health threat. Surveillance is an integral part of tuberculosis (TB) control.
Albania has a highTB notification rate and there are doubts about underreporting. The evolution of the
incidence of tuberculosis is presented, together with more detailed figures over the period 1998-2009. These
figures were obtained by the monthly forms (called 14/Sh) compared with the individual notification data.
Objective: To examine the distribution and sources of increased tuberculosis (TB) morbidity and reporting
system deficiencies in the Albania from 1998 through 2009. Metodology: The study is descriptive one conductet
during the period 1998-2009. The statistical analysis is based on data reported from regional level (regional
epidemiological departments) to the central level (Public Health Institute). Results: The main findings were:
discordance between the collected data (individual form) and reported data (monthly form); tuberculosis
incidence rate shows little oscillations which ranges from 6.67 to 9.2 cases/100.000 population; 50% of the
regions show a lack of information on the confirmation of diagnosis and laboratory examination type used for
confirmation. Conclusion: TB disease in high-risk populations where it is difficult to detect, diagnose, and treat;
limitations of current control measures and the need for new tests and treatments, including an effective
vaccine; improving information system, regulation of individual form and personnel training.
Total Phenol and Antioxidant from Seed and Peel of Ripe and Unripe of Indones...iosrphr_editor
Study on total phenol and antioxidantactivity ofsugar apple fruits of various solvent, part of fruits, and level of ripening. Solvent extraction used were 80% (v/v) methanol, 50% (v/v) acetone, boiling water, and 50% (v/v) ethanol. Part of fruits thatbeen used for samples were seed and peel which are normally by products of sugar apple processing, level of ripening were unripe, and ripe sugar apple fruits. Total phenol was determined by Folin-ciocalteau method. Total antioxidant was quantified by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl(DPPH) method.Therewas a difference in type of solvent, part of fruits, and level of ripeningon total phenol and antioxidant concentration of sugar apple fruits. Seeds have higher total phenol concentration than peels of this fruits. Unripe sugar apple fruits have higher total phenol and antioxidant than ripe fruit. The best solvent for phenol extraction was ethanol 50%butthe best solvent for antioxidant extraction was acetone 50%.
A Review on Step-by-Step Analytical Method Validationiosrphr_editor
When analytical method is utilized to generate results about the characteristics of drug related samples it is essential that the results are trustworthy. They may be utilized as the basis for decisions relating to administering the drug to patients. Analytical method validation required during drug development and manufacturing and these analytical methods are fit for their intended purpose. To comply with the requirements of GMP pharmaceutical industries should have an overall validation policy which documents how validation will be performed. The purpose of this validation is to show that processes involved in the development and manufacture of drug, production and analytical testing can be performed in an effective and reproducible manner. This review article provides guidance on how to perform validation characteristics for the analytical method which are utilized in pharmaceutical analysis.
A Cross Sectional Study of Ethnic Differences in Occurrence and Severity of A...iosrphr_editor
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are the most widely used "over the counter" medication all over the world despite their complications in different major organs. Present studies envisaged for knowing the occurrence and severity of adverse drug reactions from NSAIDs in different ethnic communities of Sikkim. A cross sectional study was undertaken in the medicine outpatients department of a secondary and tertiary care hospital. The patients belonging to Nepalese, Bhutias, Lepchas ethnic communities and others community (settlers from other parts of India) were included to analyzed the data based on the age and gender, ethnicity and ADRs, drugs and ADRs. Severity assessment was done using Hartwing and Siegel scale and causality assessment by Naranjo scale. Total 109 cases of ADRs, predominating in female were detected. Nepalese were the most affected and Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) being the most affected organ in them. Diclofenac showed maximum number of ADRs in all the communities. Maximum number of cases occurred on single day use (40.36%) of drugs. All the cases were belonging to the "possible category" and the maximum being the mild (72.48%) in nature. It is advisable to consider the ethnic/racial differences equally with other factors, to improve the safety and efficacy of a drug.
A Cross Sectional Study of Ethnic Differences in Occurrence and Severity of A...
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR), www.iosrphr.org, call for paper, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper, journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call for research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, call fo
1. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy
ISSN: 2250-3013, www.iosrphr.org
‖‖ Volume 2 Issue 4 ‖‖ July-August 2012 ‖‖ PP.04-16
The Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT)
Analysis of HIV Type-1
Babalola, Michael Oluyemi.
Department of Microbiology, Adekunle Ajasin University, P.M.B. 001, Akungba Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria.
Abstract––I hereby bring into perspective, the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT)
analysis of HIV Type -1 and the first proposal for the application of this innovative concept in the field of
HIV research, to holistically devise strategies at undermining the prowess of the Human Immunodeficiency
Virus and overcoming its scourge. The strengths of HIV are the biological attributes that facilitate the
pathogenicity, establishment of infection and spread of the virus. They include , the possession of Reverse
Transcriptase enzyme for reverse transcription of RNA genome to DNA, ability to maintain persistence by
forming a provirus, ability to specifically target and replicate in the immune cells, antigenic mimicry and
adoption of host derived glycan shield for immune evasion, HIV-1 strains harbor enhanced biological fitness
upon recombination, HIV has exceptionally high rate of replication and disrupts the Blood- Brain Barrier.
The weaknesses of HIV are the internal attributes and requirements for survival of the virus that invariably
present as opportunities and targets for elimination. These include: the requirement for CCR5 and CXCR4
chemokine co-receptors for fusion prior to internalization, presence on HIV-1 envelope of conserved
determinants that mediate CD4 binding, the Achilles heel of HIV is a tiny stretch of amino acids numbered
421 to 423 on gp 120, the capsid proteins reveal potential weakness at the inner core of the virus, HIV
proteins retain virus internal carbohydrate, and the virus thrives on human proteins.
The various host factors that were harnessed as opportunities for infection by HIV include, the ability to
establish infection via multiple portals of entry, Sexually Transmitted Infections(STIs) increase the
susceptibility to HIV-1 infection, STIs boost HIV shedding in the genital tract and amplifies infectiousness,
presence of hidden HIV reservoirs that serve as foci of dissemination, the genital anatomical structure of the
female genital tract aids biological susceptibility, the immune status of the host, and underlying illness or
subsequent exposure to a bandwagon of opportunistic pathogens.
The Threats to HIV are the external conditions that are inimical to the virus establishment and which may be
harnessed for elimination of the pathogen. They include: limited host reservoir, the virus is susceptible to a
Lectin isolated from ripened banana fruits as potent inhibitor of HIV replication, the development and
application of Abzymes, development of agents that can selectively target only HIV infected cells, sustenance
of global AIDS funding, and evolution of a potent HIV / AIDS Vaccine.
I. INTRODUCTION
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a specific group of diseases or conditions which are
indicative of severe immunosuppression related to infection with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (CDC,
1997). Globally, 33.3 million people live with the virus, of which 2.7 million children under 15 years are
estimated to be infected with the virus and 2.6 million were newly infected in 2009 (WHO, 2010). Today, HIV
is reputed to be the greatest health crisis the world faces. Since the start of the HIV epidemic 21 million people
have died and 57 million people have become infected.
There are two main types of the virus; HIV-1 and HIV-2. Both types are transmitted by sexual contact, through
blood and from mother to child, and they appear to cause clinically similar AIDS. It is now generally accepted
that cross-species transmission to humans of SIVcpz in central Africa and SIVsm in West Africa gave rise to
HIV-1 and HIV-2, respectively.
HIV-1 is prevalent worldwide. It consists of four subgroups designated M (Major), N (New), O
(Outlier) and P. These four groups may represent four separate introductions of Simian immunodeficiency virus
into humans. Group O and group N- an extremely rare strain that was discovered in Cameroon in 1998 appear
to be restricted to West- central Africa. In 2009, a new strain closely relating to gorilla Simian
Immunodeficiency Virus was discovered in a Cameroonian woman. It was designated HIV-1 group P (Plantier,
2009). However, more than 90% of HIV-1 infections belong to group M.
4
2. The Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities And Threats (Swot) Analysis Of Hiv Type-1
Fig 1: The different levels of HIV classification (Courtesy Avert.org)
The M subgroup has nine (9) genetically distinct subtypes namely A, B,C, D, F, G, H, J, K and CRFs.
Occasionally, two viruses of different subtypes can meet in the cell of an infected person and recombine their
genetic material to create a new hybrid virus ( a process similar to sexual reproduction, and sometimes called
―viral sex‖ ). Many of these new strains do not survive for long, but those that infect more than one person are
known as circulating recombinant forms or CRFs. For example, the CRF A/B is a mixture of subtypes A and B.
The HIV-1 subtypes and CRFs are very unevenly distributed throughout the world, with the most widespread
being subtypes A and C. Subtype A and CRF A/G predominate in West and Central Africa, with subtype A
possibly also causing much of the Russian epidemic ( Bobkov, et al., 2004). Historically, subtype B has been
the most common subtype / CRF in Europe, the Americas, Japan and Australia. Although this remain the case,
other subtypes are becoming more frequent and now account for at least 25% of new HIV infections in Europe.
Subtype C is predominant in Southern and East Africa, India and Nepal. It has caused the world‘s worst HIV
epidemics and is responsible for around half of all infections. Subtype D is generally limited to East and Central
Africa. CRF A/E is prevalent in South-East Asia, but originated in Central Africa. Subtype F has been found in
Central Africa, South America and Eastern Europe. Subtype G and CRF A/G have been observed in West and
East Africa as well as Central Europe. Subtype H has only been found in Central Africa; J only in Central
America; and K only in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon.
HIV-2 is only prevalent in West Africa, it is less easily transmitted, the period between initial infection
and illness is longer, and it consists of six subtypes, namely; A, B, C, D, E and F.
Infections with lentiviruses typically show a chronic course of disease, a long period of clinical latency,
persistent viral replication and involvement of the central nervous system. Using electron microscopy, HIV-1
and HIV-2 resemble each other strikingly. However, they differ with regard to the molecular weight of their
proteins, as well as having differences in their accessory genes. HIV-2 is genetically more closely related to the
SIV found in sootey mangabeys (SIVsm) rather than HIV-1 and it is likely that it was introduced into the human
population by monkeys. Both HIV-1 and HIV-2 replicate in CD4+ T-cells and are regarded as pathogenic in
infected persons, although the actual immune deficiency may be less severe in HIV-2 infected individuals.
HIV is a diploid, positive sense, single stranded RNA Virus belonging to the family Retroviridae. HIV-
1 viral particles have a diameter of 100 nm and are surrounded by a lipoprotein membrane. Each viral particle
contains 72 glycoprotein complexes, which are integrated into this lipid membrane, and are each composed of
trimers of an external glycoprotein gp120 and a transmembrane spanning protein gp41. The bonding between
gp120 and gp41 is only loose and therefore gp120 may be shed spontaneously within the local environment.
Glycoprotein gp120 may also be detected in the serum as well as within the lymphatic tissue of HIV-infected
patients. During the process of budding, the virus may also incorporate different host proteins from the
membrane of the host cell into its lipoprotein layer, such as HLA class I and II proteins, or adhesion proteins
such as Intracellular Adhesion Molecule-1 (ICAM-1) that may facilitate adhesion to other target cells. The
matrix protein p17 is anchored to the inside of the viral lipoprotein membrane. The p24 core antigen contains
two copies of HIV-1 RNA. The HIV-1 RNA is part of a protein-nucleic acid complex, which is composed of the
nucleoprotein p7 and the reverse transcriptase p66 (RT). The viral particle contains all the enzymatic equipment
that is necessary for replication: a Reverse Transcriptase (RT), an Integrase p32 and a Protease p11 enzymes
(Fig. 2).
5
3. The Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities And Threats (Swot) Analysis Of Hiv Type-1
Fig. 2: HIV-1 Particle
The objective of this presentation is to bring into perspective the characteristic Strengths, the
Weaknesses, the Opportunities and Threats to HIV-1 that will enable scientists to consider and devise
multifactorial strategies to holistically overcome the scourge of HIV -1 infections.
II. THE CONCEPT OF SWOT
SWOT is an acronym for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats . It was originally
designed by the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) in Massachusetts, USA, where Strategic Managers devised the
strategy to undermine their competitors and achieved competitive advantage.
SWOT analysis can be adapted to scientific research to helps us as Scientists in formulating strategies that
augment our research and enable us to understand and devise holistic strategies to combat emerging and
recalcitrant infectious pathogens. When the characteristic capacities and the gaps have been identified, we can
then devise means of achieving our goals.
THE STRENGTHS OF HIV -1
The Strengths of HIV are the biological attributes that facilitate the pathogenicity, establishment of
infection and spread of the virus. These include:
The Possession of Reverse Transcriptase enzyme which enhances genetic flexibility and production
of viral variants. The lack of proof reading ability of reverse transcriptase leads to synthesis of error-prone viral
DNA during reverse transcription (3 × 10-5 mutations/nucleotide/replication cycle). This, in addition to the
high recombination frequencies accompanying reverse transcription are responsible in part to the heterogeneity
of the virus.
Ability to maintain persistence by integration of the viral genome in the cellular chromosome of the
host forming a provirus, especially in resting memory CD4 T- lymphocyte cells, and build up a lifelong
infection.
Ability to specifically target and replicate in the immune cells. The human immune system is
composed of specialized cells and organs that work together to find and kill invaders. It is responsible for
distinguishing the foreign proteins of invading pathogens and for protecting against alien substances and
infections. It can reject transplanted organs, but it is also susceptible to pathogen attacks, from HIV in particular.
The main cellular targets for HIV-1 are the CD4+ T-helper subset of lymphocytes, CD4+ cells of the
macrophage lineage, and some populations of dendritic cells (DC). These are sets of immune cells that prompts
the cytotoxic T- cells as well as the B- cells to initiate actions against the pathogen.
Antigenic mimicry: HIV adopts host derived glycan shield for immune evasion. Most of the antigenic
surface of HIV is covered by carbohydrates, It's often called the glycan shield. The virus needs to be continually
evading the immune system and this shield is perhaps its most effective strategy (Dunlop et al., 2010).
Possession of auxiliary genes (e.g. Viral infectivity factor, Vif and Nef) that facilitate intercellular
spread and immunogenicity. NEF is a multifunctional 27-kd myristoylated protein and one of the first HIV
proteins to be produced in infected cells. It is the most immunogenic of the accessory proteins. The nef genes of
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4. The Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities And Threats (Swot) Analysis Of Hiv Type-1
HIV and SIV are dispensable in vitro, but are essential for efficient viral spread and disease progression in vivo.
Nef is necessary for the maintenance of high viral loads and for the development of AIDS in macaques, and
viruses with defective Nef have been detected in some HIV-1 infected long term survivors. Nef downregulates
CD4, the primary viral receptor, and MHC class I molecules, and these functions map to different parts of the
protein. It increases viral infectivity (NIH, 2010).
(i) REV. The second necessary regulatory factor for HIV expression. A 19-kD phosphoprotein, localized
primarily in the nucleolus/nucleus. Rev is considered the most functionally conserved regulatory protein of
Lentiviruses. Rev cycles rapidly between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
(ii) VIF. Viral infectivity factor, a basic protein typically 23 kD. It promotes the infectivity but not the
production of viral particles. In the absence of Vif, the produced viral particles are defective, while the cell-to-
cell transmission of virus is not affected significantly. In 2003, it was discovered that Vif prevents the action of
the cellular APOBEC-3G protein, which deaminates DNA:RNA heteroduplexes in the cytoplasm. , Vif induces
the degradation of APOBEC3G, thereby counteracting its antiviral activity.
(iii) VPU Vpu (viral protein U) is unique to HIV-1, SIVcpz (the closest SIV relative of HIV-1), SIV-GSN, SIV-
MUS, SIV-MON and SIV-DEN. There is no similar gene in HIV-2, SIV-SMM, or other SIVs. Vpu is a 16-kd
(81-amino acid) type I integral membrane protein with at least two different biological functions: (a)
degradation of CD4 in the endoplasmic reticulum, and (b) enhancement of virion release from the plasma
membrane of HIV-1-infected cells. Env and Vpu are expressed from a bicistronic mRNA. Vpu probably
possesses an N-terminal hydrophobic membrane anchor and a hydrophilic moiety. It is phosphorylated by casein
kinase II at positions Ser52 and Ser56. Vpu is involved in Env maturation and is not found in the virion. Vpu
has been found to increase susceptibility of HIV-1 infected cells to Fas killing (NIH, 2010).
HIV -1 strains harbor enhanced biological fitness upon recombination. In Malaysia where
Circulating Recombinant Forms (CRFs) predominate, co-circulation of CRF01-AE and subtype B has resulted
in the emergence of CRF33-01B with accompanied higher apoptotic cell death and syncytial induction
compared to subtype B (Katherine et al., 2009). Biological and molecular comparisons of CRF33_01B against
its parental subtypes clearly show that CRF33_01B replicated better in activated whole peripheral blood
mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and CD4+ T-lymphocytes, but not monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs). Also,
its acquired fitness was greater than CRF01_AE but not subtype B. These adaptive and survival abilities could
have been acquired by CRF33_01B due to the incorporation of subtype B fragments into the gag-RT region of
its full-length genome (Lau et al., 2010).
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus is an RNA virus with inherent capacity to vary, recombine
and diversify. It is a highly variable virus which mutates very readily. This means there are many different
strains of HIV, even within the body of a single infected person. This gives it a clear edge to evade the human
immune system, to continuously replicate and survive in the host and mount resistance against some antiviral
drugs. No two HIV-1 isolates were identical. When subjected to nucleotide sequence analysis, even HIV-1
samples recovered from a single individual exhibited significant heterology. Some of the nucleotide changes
resulted in amino acid substitutions (nonsynonymous) whereas others did not alter the protein sequence
(synonymous). Although nucleotide changes were distributed throughout the HIV-1 genome, the greatest
variability occurred in the gene encoding the envelope (Env) glycoprotein, gp160, when intra- or interpatient
virus specimens were compared. The term quasispecies was subsequently coined to describe the pool of diverse
and changing populations of virus present in an individual infected with HIV-1. The genetic diversity of HIV-1
poses significant challenges for diagnosis and treatment of new HIV infections. Optimal drug treatment requires
ongoing, precise measurement of viral levels. If variant subtypes are present and significantly underquantified or
undetected, therapy could be compromised.
The genetic variability of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus is associated with disease
progression and death. Previous reports stated that Ugandans infected with subtype D or recombinant strains
incorporating subtype D developed AIDS sooner than those infected with subtype A, and also died sooner, if
they did not receive antiretroviral treatment. subtype D was claimed to be more virulent because it is more
effective at binding to immune cells (Laeyendecker et al., 2006). This was corroborated by another study in
2007, which found that Kenyan women infected with subtype D had more than double the risk of death over six
years compared with those infected with subtype A ( Baetan et al., 2007). A study of sex workers in Senegal
found that women infected with subtype C, D or G were more likely to develop AIDS within five years of
infection than those infected with subtype A (Kanki et al., 1999). In addition, several studies conducted in
Thailand suggest that people infected with CRF A/E progress faster to AIDS and death than those infected with
subtype B, if they do not receive antiretroviral treatment( Nelson et al., 2007).
The inherent ability of the virus to continually change in a patient, portrays physicians, as
chasing a moving target. When an antiviral is being developed against a known strain, it has actually changed
within a short time thereby rendering the antiviral ineffective against the viral particle. In addition, neutralizing
antibodies do exist in HIV-1-infected individuals, however, there is a time lag in their appearance. That is,
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5. The Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities And Threats (Swot) Analysis Of Hiv Type-1
individuals will develop neutralizing antibodies to their own viruses with time, however, by the time these
antibodies develop, the new viruses circulating in the individual‘s plasma will become resistant to
neutralization, even though the older ones are now sensitive to the current antibodies in the patient‘s serum.
Thus, the antibody response appears to be hitting a ‗moving‘ target, allowing viruses to escape continuously.
Further knowledge gained on understanding the mechanisms of humoral escape will likely lead to potential new
therapies.
HIV has exceptionally high rate of replication that is potentially capable of overwhelming the
immune response of the host. The high levels of progeny virus production in vivo (10 9 particles/day; 150 to 300
replication cycles/year) is enormous for the immune response of the host. During acute HIV-1 infection, the
virus replicates extensively in the absence of any detectable adaptive immune response, reaching levels of over
100 million copies HIV-1 RNA/ml. It is during this initial cycle of viral replication that important pathogenic
processes are thought to occur. These include the seeding of virus to a range of tissue reservoirs and the
destruction of CD4+ T-lymphocytes, in particular within the lymphoid tissues of the gut. The very high levels of
HIV-1 viremia are normally short-lived, indicating that the host is able to generate an immune response that
controls viral replication. Over the following weeks, viremia declines by several orders of magnitude before
reaching a viral setpoint. This setpoint, following resolution of the acute infection, is a strong predictor of long-
term disease progression rates (Mellors, 1995).
HIV Distrupts the Blood- Brain Barrier. HIV has been found to cause neurological damages by
weakening the blood- brain barrier- a network of blood vessels that keeps potentially harmful chemicals and
toxins out of the brain- by overtaking a small group of supporting brain cells. The findings help explain why
some people living with HIV experience neurological complications, despite the benefits of modern drug
regimens that keep them living longer. Standard antiretroviral treatments successfully suppress the replication of
HIV and slow the progression of the disease. Recent studies show that 40 to 60% of patients on ART continue to
experience mild to moderate neurological deficits – including memory loss and learning challenges. HIV
infection in a small number of supporting brain cells called astrocytes breaks down the blood- brain barrier,
despite low to undetectable viral production. Under normal conditions astrocytes help bolster the blood vessels
comprising the barrier. The presence of HIV in about 5% of astrocytes led to the death of nearby uninfected
cells and made the barrier more permeable. As the neighboring cells died, however, HIV infected astrocytes
survived. This study provides a possible explanation indicating that minute numbers of infected astrocytes can
trigger a cascade of signals that could open the brain to various toxic influences. Astrocytes exchange chemical
signals through specialized molecules called gap junctions. New therapies are needed that not only target the
virus, but also to stop the virus from spreading damage to other uninfected brain cells ( Eugenin et al., 2011) .
HIV-1 induced killing is the predominant cause of CD4+ T-cell death and is caused by a necrotic,
not an apoptotic, mechanism. The principal hallmark of apoptosis, the activation of cysteinyl aspartate-
requiring proteases (known as caspases), is typically not detected during virus infection of cultured human T-
cell lines exhibiting extensive cytopathic effects.
No specifically identified immunogens that elicit broadly neutralizing antibodies . This
phenomenon has hampered the efforts of researchers seeking to develop a truly prophylactic HIV Vaccine.
Many neutralizing antibodies either do not or only poorly show inhibition of primary viral isolates. Amajor
problem lies in the high variability of the gp120 glycoprotein itself. Furthermore, gp120 epitopes may be highly
glycosylated and certain structural domains are hidden, at least temporarily, so that immunodominant epitopes
may not be recognized (Chen, 2005).
THE WEAKNESSES OF HIV -1.
The weaknesses of HIV are the internal attributes and requirements for survival of the virus that
invariably present as opportunities and targets for elimination. These include:
The requirement for chemokine co-receptors CCR5 and CXCR4 for fusion, prior to internalization of the
virus. HIV-1 isolates using the CXCR4 receptor (now designated X4 viruses) are usually TCL-tropic, Syncytial
inducing (SI) strains that exhibit enhanced cytopathicity and more vigorous replicative properties. In contrast,
HIV-1 strains exclusively using the CCR5 receptor (R5 viruses) are predominantly M-tropic and Non syncytial
inducing ( NSI). Dual-tropic R5/X4 strains exhibiting a continuum of tropic phenotypes are frequently SI.
The HIV -1 envelope retains conserved determinants that mediate CD4 binding. The envelope surface is
involved in the meta-stable attachment of CD4 before the external glycoprotein gp120 rearrangement that is
required for stable engagement (Tongqing et al., 2007). Gp120 primarily binds to certain epitopes of CD4.
Binding to CD4 induces conformational changes in gp120 that promote a more efficient interaction of the V3
loop of gp120 with its respective coreceptor. Membrane fusion is dependent on gp120 coreceptor binding.
Gp41, as the transmembrane part of the envelope glycoprotein gp160, is crucial for the fusion of the viral and
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6. The Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities And Threats (Swot) Analysis Of Hiv Type-1
the host cell membrane. Similar to influenza hemagglutinin, it was postulated that consequent to the binding of
gp120 to CD4, a conformational change is induced in gp41 that allows gp41 to insert its hydrophobic NH2
terminal into the target cell membrane. Unlike the changeable regions of its envelope, HIV needs at least one
region that must remain constant to attach to cells. If this region changes, HIV cannot infect cells. Equally
important, HIV does not want this constant region to provoke the body's defence system. So, HIV uses the same
constant cellular attachment site to silence B lymphocytes - the antibody producing cells. The result is that the
body is fooled into making abundant antibodies to the changeable regions of HIV but not to its cellular
attachment site. Immunologists call such regions superantigens. HIV's cleverness is unmatched. No other virus
uses this trick to evade the body's defences.
The Achilles heel of HIV is a tiny stretch of amino acids numbered 421 – 433 on gp120 . This is a constant
region that does not change if the virus must remain infectious. The weak spot is hidden in the HIV envelope
protein gp120. This protein is essential for HIV attachment to host cells, which initiate infection and eventually
lead to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome or AIDS. Non lethal mutations of the region can be effected to
render the virus non infectious.
HIV Capsid proteins reveal potential weakness at the inner core of the virus. This is a novel target to
distrupt capsid assembly which may prevent the formation of infectious particles (Mark and Barbie, 2007).
HIV Proteins retain virus internal carbohydrate that enables the immune system to recognise virus specific
signatures. The exceptionally dense packing of the carbohydrates on HIV's coat turns out to be another possible
Achilles' Heel of the virus. The carbohydrates on HIV's proteins are so densely packed that there is no room for
the trimming and modification that would normally take place as the protein completes its journey out of the
cell. HIV's proteins therefore retain their immature 'internal' carbohydrates – a carbohydrate array made up of
mannose sugar residues. This presents an opportunity for the immune system to 'see' a virus-specific signature
on the cell. And unlike the constantly changing viral proteins, this carbohydrate structure is relatively fixed
"Self-sugars" in the wrong place, internal- type sugars that would never normally be seen on the surface. They
are available to the immune system for recognition (Dunlop et al., 2010)
Fig. 3: One of HIV's sugars showing the tips of the branches (red) which the immune system can recognize and
which happen to be similar to sugar structures found on yeast polysaccharides (Dunlop et al., 2010)
HIV thrives on human host protein. Researchers have identified 273 human proteins that HIV needs to
thrive. This landmark discovery opens new opportunities for scientists to fight the virus using therapeutic
targets. Since HIV makes only 15 of its own proteins, it must commandeer human cell proteins for successful
infection. A key advantage to using these host proteins as therapeutic targets is that the proteins are essential for
functions that HIV cannot manage on its own. These host proteins are active in HIV‘s life cycle, helping it gain
access to the cell, to integrate its genome into the cell‘s genome, replicate and leave the cell to infect other cells.
Of the 273 proteins identified, only 36 were previously known to investigators. The newly pinpointed proteins
could help researchers devise better treatment strategies to get around a major HIV treatment issue: the virus
mutating to develop resistance to antiviral drugs. Many of the host proteins identified are more frequent in
immune cells than other types of human cells. This helps explain why HIV is so difficult to treat—it takes over
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7. The Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities And Threats (Swot) Analysis Of Hiv Type-1
the very immune cells that the body needs to fight infection. The disadvantage of targeting these proteins, of
course, is that blocking human proteins could prevent functions that are important for normal living and could
result in serious side effects. However, there is precedent for this type of approach. Some cancer therapies work
in a similar way by blocking the proteins that feed the fast-growing tumor cells without killing many other fast-
growing cells, such as those in the bone marrow. The techniques could be used to expose vulnerabilities in other
viruses, such as hepatitis, which may rely on some of the same proteins identified (Brass et al., 2008).
Compulsory Integration of the viral genome to the host’ is required for productive infection. A
distinguishing feature of retrovirus replication is the insertion of a DNA copy of the viral genome into the host
cell chromosome after reverse transcription. The integrated viral DNA (the provirus) serves as the template for
the synthesis of viral RNA and is maintained as part of the host cell genome for the lifetime of the infected cell.
Retroviral mutants deficient in the ability to integrate generally fail to establish a productive infection.
OPPORTUNITIES OF HIV -1
The Opportunities of HIV are the various host factors which were harnessed as advantages for
infection. These include:
Ability to establish infection via multiple portals of entry. The inherent ability of the virus to survive in body
fluids such as blood and blood products, semen, vaginal fluids, breastmilk, organ and tissue transplants, present
opportunities for transmission via blood transfusions, scarification marks, sexual intercourse and breastfeeding.
Fig.4: HIV Invasion Sites (Hladik and McElrath, 2008).
Most cases of paediatric HIV results from Mother to Child Transmission which contributes increasingly to
childhood morbidity and mortality. Majority of infected children acquire the infection during pregnancy (in
utero), during delivery (intrapartum) or during breastfeeding ( postpartum)(Fig. 4).
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs ) increase the susceptibility to HIV-1 infections by recruiting HIV
susceptible inflammatory cells to the genital tract as well as distrupting mucosal barriers (Fig.4) to infection.
Infections such as Syphilis, gonorrhea, Chancroid, Chlamydia and condylomata acuminata synergise HIV
infection. STIs boost HIV shedding in the genital tract, amplifies infectiousness and susceptibility. The
predominant mode of transmission of both HIV and other STIs is sexual intercourse. Strong evidence supports
several biological mechanisms through which STIs facilitate HIV transmission by increasing infectiousness and
HIV susceptibility. If the incidence/prevalence of STIs is high in a country, then there is the possibility of high
rates of sexual transmission of HIV (UNAIDS/WHO, 2004).
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8. The Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities And Threats (Swot) Analysis Of Hiv Type-1
Presence of hidden HIV reservoirs. Current antiretroviral regimens are unable to totally eradicate the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus in infected patients and this failure is attributable to HIV reservoirs. Somewhere inside
the body, hidden HIV particles manage to escape drugs, and indefinitely provide new supplies of the virus. A
region of the body was identified where HIV replication remains active, even when viral load in the plasma is
undetectable after 10 years of infection, that is Long Term Non Progressors (Cumont et al., 2007). Higher levels
of virus replication was found in the lymph nodes of the intestine‘s mesentery, compared to other regions.
These levels were 20 to 30 times higher than what they were in other organs, and the immune system CD8+T
cells responsible for killing HIV-infected cells–die prematurely in the mesenteric region.
Findings in molecular genetics suggests other mechanisms are also at play in this reservoir process.
Some virus particles seem to escape medication by hiding inside cells of the immune system itself–in resting
memory CD4+ T cells, also known as T-helper cells, that carry an integrated provirus that is transcriptionally
silent. T-helper cells are present in all compartments of the body. They play a central role in the immune
response by signaling other cells of the system to perform their functions. But during HIV infection, their
cellular machinery is hijacked by the virus which multiplies and releases viral particles in the blood circulation.
However, in a very few CD4 cells, the virus 'decides' not to replicate and remains in a latent state, The quasi-
absence of viral gene expression enables the virus to remain 'invisible' and escape antiretrovirals–which mainly
target replication. Some reactivation process may occur, and replication can start over, thus providing new
supplies of the virus ( Wallace, 2009 ). In addition, HIV-1 replication in monocyte or macrophage lineage
microglia within the CNS may persist in patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)
because of inefficient transfer of drugs across the blood-brain barrier. This viral reservoir could contribute to the
rebound of plasma viremia invariably observed after cessation of drug administration.
Acquisition of multiple sexual partners and all forms of sexual aberrations that humans practice, such as
homosexuality, sodomy, bisexuality, and so on.
Injecting drug use is a leading cause of the spread of HIV. In some parts of the world, heroin use and HIV
have reached epidemic proportions
The genital anatomical receptacle or structure of the female genital tract aids biological susceptibility.
Women are exposed to infectious fluids for longer periods during sexual intercourse than men are; they also face
increased risk of tissue injury during intercourse. The cells lining the surface of the cervix may also be
especially susceptible to HIV infection, and recent data suggest that vaginal cells are more susceptible than
previously thought. Young women may be at particular risk because of ectopy, a condition in which the
columnar epithelium (cells lining the transition zone of the cervical os) extends onto the face of the cervix.
Cervical ectopy has been associated with increased risk of HIV infection, possibly because it facilitates greater
exposure of these target cells to trauma and pathogens in the vagina (Higgins et al., 2010). Women of all ages
are biologically and socially more vulnerable to HIV because of rape and forced sex. Forced sex is strongly
linked with vaginal or anal tears that can expedite disease transmission, and abused women are less able to
negotiate condom use (Randolph et al., 2007).
Immune status of the host. Irrespective of the levels of immune responses that the host is able to mount, HIV
was still able to surmount such responses.
An underlying illness or subsequent exposure to a bandwagon opportunistic pathogens such as bacteria,
viruses, fungi and protozoan that thrive on opportunities provided by the deficient immune status of the host.
HIV / AIDS and Tuberculosis have caused an unprecedented global health crisis, accounting for more than 4
million deaths each year, with the majority of these in developing countries, particularly sub- Saharan Africa.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis affects one third of the world‘s population and represents the main cause of death
in HIV- infected patients. TB represents a dramatic problem in eastern Europe because it is highly drug
resistantThis epidemiological situation is a major problem for all of Europe due to the impact of the spread of
clinically relevant strains ( WHO, 2002).
Viral ability to penetrate some special sites. HIV in the brain and in the cerebro-spinal fluid may be
particularly resistant to chemotherapy because of the failure of anti-retroviral drugs to penetrate the blood-brain
barrier.
Presence of a “diagnostic window period” . On infection, it takes several weeks before antibodies become
detectable. This phenomenon is called "diagnostic window" and is determined by the time period the body
requires to produce detectable levels of antibodies (Busch, 1997). The switch from antibody-negative to
antibody-positive is called "seroconversion". The screening tests currently used are able to recognize an HIV
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9. The Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities And Threats (Swot) Analysis Of Hiv Type-1
infection six weeks after primary infection in about 80 % and after the 12th week in almost 100 % of cases; only
in very rare cases is an infection recognized only after six months.
Treatment interruptions. Many treatment interruptions occur without the clinician‘s knowledge. Almost all
patients who stop treatment experience a ―rebound‖ in viral load within a few weeks, even patients in whom this
has been undetectable for several years (Chun, 2000). Viral load is usually detectable again within 10-20 days,
and its doubling time in the blood is around 1.6 – 2.0 days. The viral load in compartments such as the CNS, as
well as the semen and vaginal fluids, changes in parallel to that in the plasma. The patients should therefore be
informed about the higher risk of transmitting HIV. Frequently, an initial overshooting rebound is observed, and
only after a few weeks does the viral load settle to its original, pre-treatment level (Hatano, 2000). The
rebounding virus evidently does not originate from latent reservoirs; other cell populations must exist, from
which these new viruses can be produced so quickly ( Imamichi, 2001). Treatment interruptions can have
serious immunological consequences. The loss of CD4 cells during an interruption may not be regained as
quickly. Viral resistance always has to be anticipated whenever there is viral replication in the presence of
suboptimal drug levels, and thereby resistant mutants gain a selective advantage over the wild-type virus. As a
result, there are concerns that resistances could develop both during the washout phase of medication
(increasing viral replication with insufficient plasma levels) and on re-initiation of treatment (continued
replication despite sufficient plasma levels).
Side effects of Antiretroviral drugs. Patients on HAART commonly suffer from side effects. As a result,
treatment of HIV infection has become a complicated balancing act between the benefits of durable HIV
suppression and the risks of drug toxicity. About 25 % of patients stop therapy within the first year on HAART
because of side effects. About the same number of patients does not take the recommended dosages of their
medication due to concerns regarding the side effects ( Chesney, 2000). Patients, who report significant side
effects, are more often non-adherent to therapy (Ammassari, 2001). The patient should be counseled in detail
about potential side effects such as gastrointestinal side effects , Nausea and vomiting, Diarrhea, Hepatotoxicity,
Peripheral polyneuropathy, CNS disorders, Increased bleeding episodes, Allergic reactions, Avascular necrosis,
and Osteopenia/osteoporosis (Carr and Cooper, 2001) among others. All of these provide leverage for the virus
to rebound.
Poverty and malnutrition. The recalcitrant level of poverty and inadequate feeding and nutritious meals in
developing countries aggravate susceptibility and risky social behaviours that facilitate contraction of the virus.
THREATS TO HIV-1.
The Threats to HIV are the external conditions that are inimical to the virus establishment and which
may be harnessed for its elimination. These include:
Limited host reservoir. HIV is known to be pathogenic only in human as it has not been described to
cross the species barrier or discovered to be a trans kingdom pathogen unlike some other viruses or fungi.
Improved rapid diagnostic procedures for prompt detection. The basis for effective treatment and
cure of a patient is the rapid diagnosis of the disease and its causative agent, which is founded on the analysis of
the clinical symptoms coupled with laboratory tests. As we approach the 21st century, clinicians are becoming
increasingly able to diagnose and treat diseases at the molecular level. The rapid development of new methods
and techniques in the area of molecular biology has gained new insights into the genetic and structural features
of a considerable number of human pathogens. Serodiagnosis by ELISA, Confirmation by Western blotting and
specific detection by PCR( Udo, 1996) as well as the determination of the cellular and viral markers give clues
to the combat and eradication of the Human immunodeficiency virus.
Scale up of a Lectin isolated from ripened banana fruits as potent inhibitor of HIV replication.
Banlec is a jacalin-related lectin isolated from the fruits of bananas, Musa acuminata. This lectin binds to high
mannose carbohydrate structures , including those found on viruses containing glycosylated envelope proteins
such as the HIV Type -1 (Swanson et al., 2010). Although condoms are quite effective against the spread of
HIV and some other sexually transmitted diseases, they are only effective if they are used consistently and
correctly, which is often not the case (Randolph et al., 2007) This is particularly true in the developing world,
where women have relatively little control over sexual encounters and, thus, have not been able to enforce
condom usage, so the development of a long-lasting, self-applied, microbicide is very attractive. In fact, it is
estimated that 20% coverage with a microbicide that is only 60% effective against HIV may prevent up to 2.5
million HIV infections over three years. Therefore, even modest success with microbicides could save millions
of lives. Some of the most promising compounds for inhibiting vaginal or rectal HIV transmission are agents
that block HIV before integration of the viral genome into the target cell. Thus, the viral entry step is one
potential target for a microbicide. Lectins inhibit HIV-1 entry by binding to carbohydrate structures found on the
viral envelope. Examples of anti-HIV lectins include Cyanovirin-N (CV-N) , Griffithsin (GRFT), and snowdrop
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10. The Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities And Threats (Swot) Analysis Of Hiv Type-1
lectin (GNA). The HIV-1 envelope protein gp120 contains 20–30 possible N-linked glycosylation sites. These
carbohydrate structures makeup 50% of the molecular weight of the protein. Glycosylation affects aspects of the
viral life cycle including protein folding , cellular transport, binding to cellular receptors, trans-infection by
dendritic cells, and shielding from the immune response.
Male circumcision to prevent the spread of HIV . Circumcision of the male foreskin reduces the risk
of infection from diverse sources through unprotected intercourse (Weiss, 2010) This is probably also true for
HIV (Siegfried, 2006). In a large randomized study in Uganda on 4,966 men, the risk of infection with HIV
decreased from 1.33 to 0.66/100 person years (Gray, 2007). This effect is explained by the presence in the male
foreskin (Fig.4) of CD4-positive Langerhans cells, which act as the primary target cell for the HIV infection. It
has been estimated that in Africa alone circumcision could prevent approximately 2 million HIV infections in
the next few years (Williams, 2006).
Development and application of Abzymes. Abzymes are endogenous retrovirus sequences that was
discovered in HIV negative people with the autoimmune disease Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and a small
number of HIV positive people who do not require treatment and do not get AIDS. Abzymes have the capacity
to recognize and degrade all diverse forms of HIV (Yasushiro et al., 2008). "The abzymes recognise essentially
all of the diverse HIV forms found across the world. This solves the problem of HIV changeability. Unlike
regular antibodies, abzymes degrade the virus permanently. A single abzyme molecule inactivates thousands of
virus particles. Regular antibodies inactivate only one virus particle, and their anti-viral HIV effect is weaker.
Prevention of HIV entry into cells. The virus surface glycoprotein gp41 and the cellular co-receptor
CCR5 are drug targets to block entry (Lengauer et al. 2010).
Education, counseling and the use of condoms to disseminate knowledge on the virus and for
prevention of further spread / transmission (WHO, 2010)
Availability and correct use of ART for prevention, treatment, reduction of viral load and
infectiousness. These measures ensure the reduction and combating effectively the scourge.
Development of agents that can selectively target only HIV infected cells e.g Prostratin, an extract
of Homolanthus nutan has been proven effective in flushing HIV reservoirs. The plant is used in traditional
Western Samoan herbal medicine to treat infections, like hepatitis. The U.S. National Cancer Institutes found
that prostratin has powerful anti-HIV activities. (ARA, 2009)
Barrier protection methods, topical microbicides and mucosal immunization . Microbicide is a
substance that can reduce transmission of STDs (e.g., herpes simplex virus, HIV) when applied in the vagina or
rectum. It could come in many forms, including gels, creams, suppositories, films, lubricants. The substance
might protect against HIV in a variety of ways, such as killing HIV on contact, creating a physical barrier
around vulnerable cells, or, strengthening the body‘s normal defenses.
Sustenance of Global AIDS funding, about 8 billion dollars (Tagline, 2009) to vigorously pursue the
treatment and mitigating the impact of HIV-AIDS epidemic.
Evolution of a potent HIV/AIDS Vaccine . This remain the anticipated breakthrough. HIV and TB
enter the human body at mucosal sites. Development of mucosally delivered vaccines against HIV and
Mycobacterium tuberculosis , which will induce local immunity to neutralize the pathogens at their ports of
entry and systemic immunity to prevent the systemic spread of the infection is the best mode. The right vaccine
will be capable of inducing cell mediated and humoral immunity against the virus and virally infected cells in
their different phases of the viral life cycle. Various developmental HIV/ AIDS vaccines are in progress. The
EU Research strategies include, AIDS Vaccine Integrated Project, Recombinant Measles Virus as a Vector for
HIV Vaccines, Development of a novel Therapeutic HIV-1 Vaccine: Horizontal Gene Transfer by Using
Apoptotic HIV-1 DNA Containing Activated T-Cells, A Combined Pox –Virus / Lentiviral Vector System to
Treat HIV infection: Immunization and Direct in vivo Gene Transfer in T- Lymphocytes., A Combined
Microbicidal- Immunising Strategy Against SIV and HIV infection, Very Innovative AIDS Vaccine,
Development of a New Vaccine against HIV: Virosomes Incorporating HIV Proteins, Explaining and Improving
Efficacy of Targeted Immunodeficiency Virus-like Particle Vaccines against AIDS, Identification of Novel
Epitopes as HIV-1 Vaccine candidates (EC, 2008).
Development of a virtual immune system known as the Immnunogrid to model the human
immune system. The simulator presently works at the cellular level. Computer simulation will help understand
the host immune response to attacks by pathogenic bacteria and viruses. The immunoGrid applications will
provide tools for the clinicians and vaccine/ immunotherapy developers for identification of optimal
immunization protocols. The unique component of the project is that it aims to connect molecular level
interactions ( which regulate immune responses ) with system level models ( which study behavior of the
immune system as a whole) – a novel approach to disease prevention and treatment.
Host genetic factors play important roles in both susceptibility and resistance to HIV-1 infection.
The two known natural HIV-1 resistance states are the alloimmunity and homozygous CCR5 mutation. These
is a deletion in the major coreceptor for entry of HIV-1 into CD4+ T-cells, a chemokine receptor called CCR5.
13
11. The Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities And Threats (Swot) Analysis Of Hiv Type-1
Homozygotes for this 32 base pair deletion (CCR5delta32) do not express the receptor at the cell-surface and
can only be infected with HIV strains that are able to use other coreceptors, such as CXCR4. Heterozygotes for
the deletion exhibit significant lower viral setpoints and slower progression to AIDS. There is a striking
resistance to HIV-1 infection in homozygous delta32 CCR5 mutation, found in about 1% of Caucasians. These
individuals lack cell surface expression of CCR5 generate a large amount of CC chemokines ( CCL-3, CCL-4
and CCL-5) and may develop antibodies to CCR5, but they do not suffer from ill health. This can be adapted to
potentiate resistance to the virus. In addition to mutations in the chemokine receptor genes, a number of HLA
class I alleles have been described to be associated with both, lower viral setpoints and slower disease
progression, including HLA-B27 and -B57 (O‘Brien, 2001, ). Recent studies demonstrated that individuals
expressing HLA-B57 presented significantly less frequently with symptomatic acute HIV-1 infection, mount
strong virus-specific T cell responses restricted by these protective alleles, and exhibited a better control of viral
replication following acute infection ( Altfeld, 2006).
Implementation of Highly Active Anti Retroviral Therapy (HAART). Currently, 25 single or
combination preparations from four classes of drugs are licensed: nucleoside and nucleotide analogs (NRTIs)
such as Lamivudine, Zidovudine Didanosine and Abacavir; non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
(NNRTIs) such as Efavirenz and Nevirapine; protease inhibitors (PIs) such as Amprenavir, Indinavir,
Saquinavir and Ritonavir; fusion inhibitors such as Enfuvirtide; and Entry inhibitors such as Selzentry (
Maraviroc) .
III. SWOT ANALYSIS
Draw up a 2 by 2 contingency Table and fix in the identified characteristics . Taken together, for the
Strengths and the Opportunities, all research and efforts should be directed at decreasing them while the focus
should be at increasing all the characteristics that present as weaknesses of the virus and Threats to the virus.
Fig 5: Animation of the Contingency Table of SWOT Analysis.
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12. The Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities And Threats (Swot) Analysis Of Hiv Type-1
Table 1: Contingency Table of the SWOT Analysis of HIV Type- 1.
DECREASE INCREASE
STRENGHTHS OF HIV-1 WEAKNESSES OF HIV-1
-Possession of reverse transcriptase enzyme. -Requirement for chemokine co-receptors, CCR5 and
-Ability to maintain persistency. CXCR4.
-Ability to specifically target and replicate in the for fusion prior to internalization.
immune cells. -HIV-1 envelope retains conserved determinants that
-Antigenic mimicry. mediate CD4 binding.
-Possession of auxiliary genes. - Achilles heel of HIV is a tiny stretch of amino acids
-Enhanced biological fitness upon recombination. numbered 421 to 423 on gp120.
-RNA virus with inherent capacity to vary, -HIV capsid proteins reveal potential weakness at the
recombine and diversify. inner core of the virus.
-Genetic variability is associated with disease -HIV proteins retain virus internal carbohydrate.
progression and death. -HIV thrives on human host protein.
-Exceptionally high rate of replication. -Compulsory integration of the viral genome to the
-HIV distrupts the blood- brain barrier. host‘ genome
-Necrotic induced killing of CD4+ T- cells.
-No specifically identified immunogens that elicit
broadly neutralising antibodies.
OPPORTUNITIES OF HIV-1 THREATS TO HIV-1
-Ability to establish infection via multiple portals of -Limited host reservoir.
entry. -Improved rapid diagnostics for prompt detection.
-Most pediatric HIV cases results from Mother to -Use of isolated Lectins from ripened banana fruits as
Child transmission. potent inhibitor of HIV replication.
-STIs increase the susceptibility to HIV -1 infection. -Male circumcision.
-STIs boost HIV shedding in the genital tract and -Development and application of Abzymes that
amplifies infectiousness. degrade all diverse forms of HIV.
-Presence of hidden HIV reservoirs. -Prevention of HIV entry into cells.
- Acquisition of multiple sexual partners and all -Education, counseling and the use of condoms.
forms of sexual aberrations. -Availability and correct use of ART.
-Injecting drug use. -Development of agents that can selectively target
-Genital anatomical structure of females aid HIV infected cells e.g Prostratin from Homolanthus
biological susceptibility. nutans.
-Immune status of the host. -Sustenance of global HIV /AIDS funding.
-Underlying illness or subsequent exposure to -Evolution of a potent HIV/AIDS Vaccine.
opportunistic pathogens. -Host genetic factors in susceptibility and resistance
-Treatment interruptions. -Implementation of HAART
- Side effects of Antiretrovirals
- Poverty and Malnutrition
IV. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
IMPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES OF SWOT ANALYSIS
All activities should be geared towards and focused on the design and implementation of research
findings to drastically decrease or eliminate the Strengths and Oportunities of the virus e.g the evolution of
drugs such as Efavirenz and Selzentri.
There is the need to conceptualize, design and implement new researches targeted at drastically weakening or
increase the weaknesses of the virus and increasing threats to the virus.
We must understand that HIV explores its biological strengths, conserves its weaknesses and
exploits the host opportunities, making it one of the most outstanding fittest surviving pathogen.
Innovative research is required in the discovery of the seemingly elusive magic bullets to eradicate HIV
Pandemic. Scientists in the dicey field of HIV research must scale up all promising research findings and build
more on the threats.The adoption of the SWOT analysis is an innovative research strategy that was hitherto not
considered but highly promising to the discovery of solutions to combat HIV /AIDS.
By holistically harmonising all the identified factors , putting them into perspective and implementing
our strategies, we are a step closer to winning the Nobel prize for overcoming HIV and its cohorts.
15
13. The Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities And Threats (Swot) Analysis Of Hiv Type-1
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