This study compared autism and internalizing symptoms in girls and boys with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) between ages 8-18, as well as typically developing girls and boys. It found that girls with ASD showed similar levels of autism symptoms as boys with ASD, and higher levels of internalizing symptoms like depression compared to boys with ASD and typically developing girls during adolescence. The study suggests that girls with ASD resemble boys with ASD in terms of autism traits, but may be at increased risk for conditions like depression as teenagers due to both their ASD and female sex.
This study investigated whether the previously observed association between pedophilia and lower IQ scores is influenced by the source of patient referrals. The study analyzed data from 832 male patients referred to a clinic for sexual behavior evaluations. Patients were assigned to groups based on their erotic preferences for children or adults, as assessed by phallometric testing. Results showed lower IQ scores and increased rates of non-right-handedness were associated with pedophilia, regardless of whether patients were referred by lawyers, parole/probation officers, or other sources. This supported the conclusion that the link between pedophilia and cognitive function is real and not due to referral biases. The findings were interpreted as evidence that neurodevelopmental problems may increase
GID Reform in the DSM-5 and ICD-11: a Status Update Kelley Winters
A presentation I prepared for the 2013 Philadelphia Transgender Health Conference, but did not have the opportunity to attend. Summary of recent changes to gender related diagnostic categories in the DSM-5, published last month by the American Psychiatric Association, and proposed changes for the ICD-11, scheduled for publication in 2015 by the World Health Organization.
Mehta, Walls et al_2013_Associations between affect, context, and sexual desi...Clare Mehta
This article investigates associations between sexual desire, affect, context, and time of day in depressed young women. It summarizes previous research showing both reduced and unchanged sexual desire in depressed adult women. The study uses momentary sampling to examine 44 depressed young women aged 18 on average. Results show sexual desire was experienced when with boyfriends and later in the evening. Sexual desire was also positively associated with positive affect but not negative affect or physical context. The findings suggest depressed young women experience sexual desire in normative social contexts and help correct assumptions they lack sexual desire.
Romantic relationships among adults with asperger syndromemiriam odar
Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often experience difficulties in maintain-
ing romantic relationships. This article is based in a study high-functioning adults with ASD were examined concerning
their romantic relationship interest and experience.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder has no single known cause but is influenced by multiple risk factors. Childhood experiences like insecure attachment styles, neglectful or unequal parenting, abuse and loss increase the risk. Genetics and innate personality traits may also contribute to risk. More research is still needed to better understand the roles of genetics and personality as well as develop more effective treatment options for this difficult to treat condition.
This article discusses the diagnosis and treatment of Asperger's syndrome using the case of a 15-year-old male patient, Marc. It reviews the history and diagnostic criteria of Asperger's, compares it to high-functioning autism, examines comorbid conditions, and discusses evidence-based assessment and treatment recommendations. The key recommendations are for early diagnosis and intervention focusing on enhancing social skills through individualized education programs tapping into special interests.
The Relationship Between Sexual Abuse And AddictionAndrea Presnall
This document summarizes 10 studies that examine the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and later substance abuse. Across the studies, several common findings emerged: childhood sexual abuse was associated with earlier initiation and more frequent substance use, particularly of alcohol and drugs; substance use partially mediated the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and later health issues like HIV risk behaviors; and experiences of childhood sexual abuse along with other childhood trauma were correlated with higher rates of substance abuse disorders. The studies highlighted the need for larger and more diverse sample sizes in future research.
An Exploration of the Literature Concerning the Correlation
Between Child Abuse and the Subsequent Abuse of Alcohol
and Illicit Drugs by the Surviving Adult
This study investigated whether the previously observed association between pedophilia and lower IQ scores is influenced by the source of patient referrals. The study analyzed data from 832 male patients referred to a clinic for sexual behavior evaluations. Patients were assigned to groups based on their erotic preferences for children or adults, as assessed by phallometric testing. Results showed lower IQ scores and increased rates of non-right-handedness were associated with pedophilia, regardless of whether patients were referred by lawyers, parole/probation officers, or other sources. This supported the conclusion that the link between pedophilia and cognitive function is real and not due to referral biases. The findings were interpreted as evidence that neurodevelopmental problems may increase
GID Reform in the DSM-5 and ICD-11: a Status Update Kelley Winters
A presentation I prepared for the 2013 Philadelphia Transgender Health Conference, but did not have the opportunity to attend. Summary of recent changes to gender related diagnostic categories in the DSM-5, published last month by the American Psychiatric Association, and proposed changes for the ICD-11, scheduled for publication in 2015 by the World Health Organization.
Mehta, Walls et al_2013_Associations between affect, context, and sexual desi...Clare Mehta
This article investigates associations between sexual desire, affect, context, and time of day in depressed young women. It summarizes previous research showing both reduced and unchanged sexual desire in depressed adult women. The study uses momentary sampling to examine 44 depressed young women aged 18 on average. Results show sexual desire was experienced when with boyfriends and later in the evening. Sexual desire was also positively associated with positive affect but not negative affect or physical context. The findings suggest depressed young women experience sexual desire in normative social contexts and help correct assumptions they lack sexual desire.
Romantic relationships among adults with asperger syndromemiriam odar
Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often experience difficulties in maintain-
ing romantic relationships. This article is based in a study high-functioning adults with ASD were examined concerning
their romantic relationship interest and experience.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder has no single known cause but is influenced by multiple risk factors. Childhood experiences like insecure attachment styles, neglectful or unequal parenting, abuse and loss increase the risk. Genetics and innate personality traits may also contribute to risk. More research is still needed to better understand the roles of genetics and personality as well as develop more effective treatment options for this difficult to treat condition.
This article discusses the diagnosis and treatment of Asperger's syndrome using the case of a 15-year-old male patient, Marc. It reviews the history and diagnostic criteria of Asperger's, compares it to high-functioning autism, examines comorbid conditions, and discusses evidence-based assessment and treatment recommendations. The key recommendations are for early diagnosis and intervention focusing on enhancing social skills through individualized education programs tapping into special interests.
The Relationship Between Sexual Abuse And AddictionAndrea Presnall
This document summarizes 10 studies that examine the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and later substance abuse. Across the studies, several common findings emerged: childhood sexual abuse was associated with earlier initiation and more frequent substance use, particularly of alcohol and drugs; substance use partially mediated the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and later health issues like HIV risk behaviors; and experiences of childhood sexual abuse along with other childhood trauma were correlated with higher rates of substance abuse disorders. The studies highlighted the need for larger and more diverse sample sizes in future research.
An Exploration of the Literature Concerning the Correlation
Between Child Abuse and the Subsequent Abuse of Alcohol
and Illicit Drugs by the Surviving Adult
This study examined predictors of suicide attempts among adolescents attending Seventh-day Adventist schools in the US. It found depression to be the strongest predictor of suicide attempts. Having a negative family climate and less caring parenting also predicted higher rates of suicide attempts, while intrinsic religious orientation predicted lower rates. A survey of over 10,000 students found that depression, family relationships, parenting styles, and religious commitment were significant factors influencing suicidal ideation among this conservative religious group.
This study was a test of the hypothesis that demographic variables (e.g. gender, education) would predict who would be closed minded about the idea of asexuality as a sexual orientation. The participants received the link to the survey on the researcher’s Facebook page. The survey asked the participants’ awareness of asexuality, educational background, feelings towards the topic of sex, religious background, gender, race, age, sexual orientation, and where they were raised. The survey also asked three questions regarding the participants’ beliefs about asexuality as a sexual orientation. The results did show a significant affect on attitudes of gender, and previous education about asexuality. The study also found a strong but not significant relationship between attitudes and religiosity.
• Presented at the Third Annual Conference of the International Network for Sexual Ethics and Politics in Ghent, Belgium 2013
• Presented at the Tenth Annual Conference of The Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality in San Diego, CA 2013
Women Accused of Sex Offenses: A Gender-Based ComparisonVirginia Lemus
This document summarizes a study that compares women and men accused of sexual offenses who were referred for psychiatric evaluation. Some key findings include:
- Women accused of sexual offenses were similar in age to male counterparts, ranging from 19-62 years old. Many had prior arrests and histories of victimization.
- Both female and male sex offenders were most often referred for sexual predator classification evaluations. However, women were more likely to have victims of both genders.
- While there are some similarities between female and male sex offenders, research shows women are more likely to have histories of abuse, mental illness, and relationship issues. They also tend to know their victims and have victims of the same gender.
Kathleen Jones wrote a literature review on the effects of parental alcoholism on children. The review examined research showing that children with antisocial or depressed alcoholic parents are at greater risk for externalizing symptoms. Parental alcoholism was also linked to increased risk of psychopathology in children, including conduct disorder and depression. However, one study found that only a minority of children of alcoholics develop alcohol problems themselves. Factors like family support and positive influences can help mitigate risks to children in alcoholic families. The review identified areas for further research on identifying the most impactful risk factors and how supportive influences may help children raised in negative environments.
This document describes a study that aims to measure implicit and explicit attitudes about sociosexuality using both a self-report questionnaire and an Implicit Association Test (IAT). The study administered the Big-Five Inventory personality questionnaire, the Revised Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI-R) to measure explicit sociosexuality, and a new IAT designed to measure implicit attitudes about casual versus monogamous relationships. The study aims to validate the new IAT by seeing if it predicts the same relationships as the explicit SOI-R. Results from the personality questionnaire will also be used to predict scores on both the implicit and explicit sociosexuality measures. This will provide evidence about whether certain personality traits can predict both implicit
This document discusses various types of quasi-experimental research designs used to study genetic and health-related topics when random assignment is not possible. It describes retrospective and prospective studies, case studies, twin studies, and adoption studies as ways to examine relationships between variables. Key factors like heredity, environment, age, and epigenetics are discussed in relation to traits, diseases, and health outcomes. Combining experimental and non-experimental methods is recommended to strengthen research conclusions.
Lit review guide to nwriting literature reviewroxcine
The document summarizes five studies that examine the relationship between attachment and adolescent depression. The studies generally find that insecurely attached adolescents (ambivalent or avoidant) have higher levels of depression and lower self-esteem compared to securely attached adolescents. Limitations across the studies include their reliance on self-report measures, focus only on maternal relationships, and lack of longitudinal design. Overall, the literature review supports the hypothesis that attachment plays an important role in adolescent depression.
This document summarizes research on the effects of childhood sexual abuse on mental health and behaviors in adulthood. It discusses how childhood sexual abuse can lead to mental health issues like depression, anxiety, and PTSD. It also explores how abuse survivors are more likely to engage in risky behaviors like substance abuse, unprotected sex, and prostitution. The document examines several studies that found links between childhood abuse and poor physical health and obesity in adulthood. It suggests that early intervention and counseling for abuse survivors could help alleviate medical issues stemming from their trauma.
Domestic violence psychologically affects victims and families in several ways. It can cause health issues for victims like depression, substance abuse, and chronic illness. Witnessing domestic violence can negatively impact children's development and behavior, lowering IQs and increasing aggression and emotional problems. Exposure to domestic violence has also been linked to intergenerational cycles of abuse, with children of abuse being more likely to become future victims or abusers themselves. Treatment for abusers and support for victims is important to help break these harmful cycles.
The document summarizes research on the implications of child abuse. It describes 10 studies that find child abuse victims often experience mental health issues like PTSD, depression, anxiety and substance abuse. They also face social and behavioral problems including aggression, low self-esteem and feelings of helplessness. The conclusion states that child abuse dramatically affects victims' development and mental well-being for life.
Wechsler, A., Kaur, H., Patterson, C., Kearney, C. (2009, November). The additive traumatic effects of neglect on maltreated adolescents. Poster presented at the 2009 U.S. Psychiatric and Mental Health Congress, Las Vegas, Nevada.
This document discusses female child sexual offenders (FCSOs) from an Adlerian perspective. It begins by outlining cultural opposition to recognizing females as sexual offenders and how this leads to underreporting of abuse. It then describes three typologies of FCSOs: teacher/lover offenders who abuse authority; intergenerationally predisposed offenders who were severely abused themselves; and male-coerced offenders who are dominated by abusive partners. The document applies Adlerian concepts like social interest, masculine protest, and family constellation to understand FCSO motivations. It concludes by suggesting Adlerian treatment techniques could help address underlying issues driving sexually abusive behaviors.
Letter autismo e down jaacap s-06-00468[1]Italo Santana
This study examined the prevalence of pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) in 205 individuals with Down's syndrome in Curitiba, Brazil. The frequency of PDD was found to be 15.6%, with 5.58% having autism and 10.05% having non-autism PDD. This is higher than the 7% frequency found in a previous smaller study. The results suggest that Down's syndrome may be a risk factor for developing PDD. No significant gender differences were found between those with Down's syndrome and PDD. Higher frequencies of social disabilities were found in family members of those with both Down's syndrome and PDD.
Sheriff, l kathleen charge syndrome and autism nfsej v26 n1 2015William Kritsonis
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; counseling and addiction, international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
1. Researchers study genetic factors related to aggressive behavior using twin and adoption studies to separate genetic and environmental influences. Twin studies compare rates of aggression in monozygotic (identical) twins who share all genes versus dizygotic (fraternal) twins who share about 50% of genes.
2. Meta-analyses of twin and adoption studies suggest genetics can account for around 50% of the variability in aggressive behavior, though the environment also plays a role.
3. While early research linked traits like the XYY genotype to increased aggression, later studies found no single genetic characteristic was associated with aggression, suggesting the initial genetic views of aggression were overemphasized.
Women’s vs. men’s leadership abilities (Ruseanu Georgiana; Necula Alexandra)Remus Teodorescu
The document discusses research on potential differences in leadership abilities between women and men. The data is inconclusive as the two main lines of research contradict each other, with one finding small but significant sex differences and the other finding that gender does not affect leadership. Additionally, studies have found that men and women are perceived as more effective leaders when they conform to traditional gender roles. A leading researcher concluded that any differences between male and female leadership styles are small, with considerable overlap.
The document discusses autism spectrum disorder (ASD), including that it is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication as well as restrictive and repetitive behaviors. ASD can range from mild to severe and includes conditions like autism, Asperger's syndrome, and pervasive developmental disorder. While the exact causes are unknown, ASD is known to have both genetic and environmental risk factors.
Autism Spectrum Disorder A case study of Mikey.pdfKathryn Patel
This case study describes an 8-year-old boy, Mikey, who was diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder at age 4. Mikey is having behavioral issues during his morning routine that disrupt his entire day. An occupational therapy evaluation found that Mikey has sensory processing difficulties, engages in repetitive behaviors, and plays at the social developmental level of a 12-month old. The evaluation suggests occupational therapy to address Mikey's sensory needs and develop his social skills morning routine.
The document discusses several studies that investigated genetic factors and parental age as risks for autism. One study found higher risks of autism with older paternal age. Another study found higher risks associated with paternal age rather than maternal age. Additional studies identified specific genetic mutations on chromosomes like DDX53-PTCHD1 that were linked to autism. A large study by the Autism Genome Project identified new genes associated with autism risks like SHANK1, SYNGAP1, and DLGAP2. Together the results suggest that both genes and parental age, particularly paternal age, are significant factors that impact the risks of having a child with autism.
Methodological Questions in Childhood Gender Identity ‘Desistence’ ResearchKelley Winters
A presentation to the 23rd World Professional Association for Transgender Health Biennial Symposium, Feb. 16, 2014, Bangkok, Thailand, by Kelley Winters, Ph.D., of GID Reform Advocates.
It is frequently repeated in mental health literature and popular media that the vast majority of children whose gender identity differs from their assigned birth-sex, or who are severely distressed by their birth-sex, will "desist" in their gender identities and gender dysphoria by adolescence. As a consequence, gender dysphoric children are pressed to remain in their birth-assigned roles throughout the world. But are gender dysphoria and diverse gender identities just a phase?
This presentation reexamines research in Canada and The Netherlands that underlies the "desistence" axiom, with respect to methodological rigor and validity of claims.
Conclusions:
(1) Evidence from these studies suggests that the majority of gender nonconforming children are not gender dysphoric adolescents or adults.
(2) It does not support the stereotype that most children who are actually gender dysphoric will "desist" in their gender identities before adolescence.
(3) These studies do acknowledge that intense anatomic dysphoria in childhood may be associated with persistent gender dysphoria and persistent gender identity through adolescence.
(4) Speculation that allowing childhood social transition traps cisgender youth in roles that are incongruent with their identities is not supported by evidence.
(5) These studies fail to examine the diagnostic value of Real Life Experience in congruent gender roles for gender dysphoric children.
E M P I R I C A L R E S E A R C HYouth Pathways to Placeme.docxbrownliecarmella
E M P I R I C A L R E S E A R C H
Youth Pathways to Placement: The Influence of Gender, Mental
Health Need and Trauma on Confinement in the Juvenile
Justice System
Erin M. Espinosa • Jon R. Sorensen •
Molly A. Lopez
Received: 9 April 2013 / Accepted: 27 June 2013 / Published online: 4 July 2013
� Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
Abstract Although the juvenile crime rate has generally
declined, the involvement of girls in the juvenile justice
system has been increasing. Possible explanations for this
gender difference include the impact of exposure to trauma
and mental health needs on developmental pathways and
the resulting influence of youth’s involvement in the justice
system. This study examined the influence of gender,
mental health needs and trauma on the risk of out-of-home
placement for juvenile offenders. The sample included
youth referred to three urban juvenile probation depart-
ments in Texas between January 1, 2007 and December 31,
2008 and who received state-mandated mental health
screening (N = 34,222; 30.1 % female). The analysis
revealed that, for both genders, elevated scores on the
seven factor-analytically derived subscales of a mental
health screening instrument (Alcohol and Drug Use,
Depressed-Anxious, Somatic Complaints, Suicidal Idea-
tion, Thought Disturbance, and Traumatic Experiences),
especially related to past traumatic experiences, influenced
how deeply juveniles penetrated the system. The findings
suggest that additional research is needed to determine the
effectiveness of trauma interventions and the implemen-
tation of trauma informed systems for youth involved with
the juvenile justice system.
Keywords Detention � Incarceration, disposition �
Gender disparity � Trauma � Mental health
Introduction
Adolescence is a period of developmental transition char-
acterized by changes in family, school, peers, self-concept,
and general physical development (Bergman and Scott
2001). Although most youth navigate this developmental
period successfully, incidents of rule breaking and behav-
ioral problems are common and can result in involvement
with law enforcement. Some research suggests that inter-
vention by the criminal justice system during the critical
period of adolescence may negatively impact youth out-
comes, including decreasing opportunities for meeting
educational goals and increasing the risk for later
involvement in delinquency and deviance (Sampson and
Laub 2005; pipeline articles). Recent trends have shown a
steady decline in juvenile offending overall, particularly
among violent crimes. However, statistics have also shown
a trend toward increased delinquency in females. For
example, Snyder (2008) reported that between 1994 and
2006, arrests for simple assault declined by 4 % for boys
while the rate increased by 19 % for girls. Given the
gender differences in adolescent development, it seems
critical to examine the pathways that lead to youth
.
This study examined predictors of suicide attempts among adolescents attending Seventh-day Adventist schools in the US. It found depression to be the strongest predictor of suicide attempts. Having a negative family climate and less caring parenting also predicted higher rates of suicide attempts, while intrinsic religious orientation predicted lower rates. A survey of over 10,000 students found that depression, family relationships, parenting styles, and religious commitment were significant factors influencing suicidal ideation among this conservative religious group.
This study was a test of the hypothesis that demographic variables (e.g. gender, education) would predict who would be closed minded about the idea of asexuality as a sexual orientation. The participants received the link to the survey on the researcher’s Facebook page. The survey asked the participants’ awareness of asexuality, educational background, feelings towards the topic of sex, religious background, gender, race, age, sexual orientation, and where they were raised. The survey also asked three questions regarding the participants’ beliefs about asexuality as a sexual orientation. The results did show a significant affect on attitudes of gender, and previous education about asexuality. The study also found a strong but not significant relationship between attitudes and religiosity.
• Presented at the Third Annual Conference of the International Network for Sexual Ethics and Politics in Ghent, Belgium 2013
• Presented at the Tenth Annual Conference of The Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality in San Diego, CA 2013
Women Accused of Sex Offenses: A Gender-Based ComparisonVirginia Lemus
This document summarizes a study that compares women and men accused of sexual offenses who were referred for psychiatric evaluation. Some key findings include:
- Women accused of sexual offenses were similar in age to male counterparts, ranging from 19-62 years old. Many had prior arrests and histories of victimization.
- Both female and male sex offenders were most often referred for sexual predator classification evaluations. However, women were more likely to have victims of both genders.
- While there are some similarities between female and male sex offenders, research shows women are more likely to have histories of abuse, mental illness, and relationship issues. They also tend to know their victims and have victims of the same gender.
Kathleen Jones wrote a literature review on the effects of parental alcoholism on children. The review examined research showing that children with antisocial or depressed alcoholic parents are at greater risk for externalizing symptoms. Parental alcoholism was also linked to increased risk of psychopathology in children, including conduct disorder and depression. However, one study found that only a minority of children of alcoholics develop alcohol problems themselves. Factors like family support and positive influences can help mitigate risks to children in alcoholic families. The review identified areas for further research on identifying the most impactful risk factors and how supportive influences may help children raised in negative environments.
This document describes a study that aims to measure implicit and explicit attitudes about sociosexuality using both a self-report questionnaire and an Implicit Association Test (IAT). The study administered the Big-Five Inventory personality questionnaire, the Revised Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI-R) to measure explicit sociosexuality, and a new IAT designed to measure implicit attitudes about casual versus monogamous relationships. The study aims to validate the new IAT by seeing if it predicts the same relationships as the explicit SOI-R. Results from the personality questionnaire will also be used to predict scores on both the implicit and explicit sociosexuality measures. This will provide evidence about whether certain personality traits can predict both implicit
This document discusses various types of quasi-experimental research designs used to study genetic and health-related topics when random assignment is not possible. It describes retrospective and prospective studies, case studies, twin studies, and adoption studies as ways to examine relationships between variables. Key factors like heredity, environment, age, and epigenetics are discussed in relation to traits, diseases, and health outcomes. Combining experimental and non-experimental methods is recommended to strengthen research conclusions.
Lit review guide to nwriting literature reviewroxcine
The document summarizes five studies that examine the relationship between attachment and adolescent depression. The studies generally find that insecurely attached adolescents (ambivalent or avoidant) have higher levels of depression and lower self-esteem compared to securely attached adolescents. Limitations across the studies include their reliance on self-report measures, focus only on maternal relationships, and lack of longitudinal design. Overall, the literature review supports the hypothesis that attachment plays an important role in adolescent depression.
This document summarizes research on the effects of childhood sexual abuse on mental health and behaviors in adulthood. It discusses how childhood sexual abuse can lead to mental health issues like depression, anxiety, and PTSD. It also explores how abuse survivors are more likely to engage in risky behaviors like substance abuse, unprotected sex, and prostitution. The document examines several studies that found links between childhood abuse and poor physical health and obesity in adulthood. It suggests that early intervention and counseling for abuse survivors could help alleviate medical issues stemming from their trauma.
Domestic violence psychologically affects victims and families in several ways. It can cause health issues for victims like depression, substance abuse, and chronic illness. Witnessing domestic violence can negatively impact children's development and behavior, lowering IQs and increasing aggression and emotional problems. Exposure to domestic violence has also been linked to intergenerational cycles of abuse, with children of abuse being more likely to become future victims or abusers themselves. Treatment for abusers and support for victims is important to help break these harmful cycles.
The document summarizes research on the implications of child abuse. It describes 10 studies that find child abuse victims often experience mental health issues like PTSD, depression, anxiety and substance abuse. They also face social and behavioral problems including aggression, low self-esteem and feelings of helplessness. The conclusion states that child abuse dramatically affects victims' development and mental well-being for life.
Wechsler, A., Kaur, H., Patterson, C., Kearney, C. (2009, November). The additive traumatic effects of neglect on maltreated adolescents. Poster presented at the 2009 U.S. Psychiatric and Mental Health Congress, Las Vegas, Nevada.
This document discusses female child sexual offenders (FCSOs) from an Adlerian perspective. It begins by outlining cultural opposition to recognizing females as sexual offenders and how this leads to underreporting of abuse. It then describes three typologies of FCSOs: teacher/lover offenders who abuse authority; intergenerationally predisposed offenders who were severely abused themselves; and male-coerced offenders who are dominated by abusive partners. The document applies Adlerian concepts like social interest, masculine protest, and family constellation to understand FCSO motivations. It concludes by suggesting Adlerian treatment techniques could help address underlying issues driving sexually abusive behaviors.
Letter autismo e down jaacap s-06-00468[1]Italo Santana
This study examined the prevalence of pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) in 205 individuals with Down's syndrome in Curitiba, Brazil. The frequency of PDD was found to be 15.6%, with 5.58% having autism and 10.05% having non-autism PDD. This is higher than the 7% frequency found in a previous smaller study. The results suggest that Down's syndrome may be a risk factor for developing PDD. No significant gender differences were found between those with Down's syndrome and PDD. Higher frequencies of social disabilities were found in family members of those with both Down's syndrome and PDD.
Sheriff, l kathleen charge syndrome and autism nfsej v26 n1 2015William Kritsonis
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; counseling and addiction, international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
1. Researchers study genetic factors related to aggressive behavior using twin and adoption studies to separate genetic and environmental influences. Twin studies compare rates of aggression in monozygotic (identical) twins who share all genes versus dizygotic (fraternal) twins who share about 50% of genes.
2. Meta-analyses of twin and adoption studies suggest genetics can account for around 50% of the variability in aggressive behavior, though the environment also plays a role.
3. While early research linked traits like the XYY genotype to increased aggression, later studies found no single genetic characteristic was associated with aggression, suggesting the initial genetic views of aggression were overemphasized.
Women’s vs. men’s leadership abilities (Ruseanu Georgiana; Necula Alexandra)Remus Teodorescu
The document discusses research on potential differences in leadership abilities between women and men. The data is inconclusive as the two main lines of research contradict each other, with one finding small but significant sex differences and the other finding that gender does not affect leadership. Additionally, studies have found that men and women are perceived as more effective leaders when they conform to traditional gender roles. A leading researcher concluded that any differences between male and female leadership styles are small, with considerable overlap.
The document discusses autism spectrum disorder (ASD), including that it is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication as well as restrictive and repetitive behaviors. ASD can range from mild to severe and includes conditions like autism, Asperger's syndrome, and pervasive developmental disorder. While the exact causes are unknown, ASD is known to have both genetic and environmental risk factors.
Autism Spectrum Disorder A case study of Mikey.pdfKathryn Patel
This case study describes an 8-year-old boy, Mikey, who was diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder at age 4. Mikey is having behavioral issues during his morning routine that disrupt his entire day. An occupational therapy evaluation found that Mikey has sensory processing difficulties, engages in repetitive behaviors, and plays at the social developmental level of a 12-month old. The evaluation suggests occupational therapy to address Mikey's sensory needs and develop his social skills morning routine.
The document discusses several studies that investigated genetic factors and parental age as risks for autism. One study found higher risks of autism with older paternal age. Another study found higher risks associated with paternal age rather than maternal age. Additional studies identified specific genetic mutations on chromosomes like DDX53-PTCHD1 that were linked to autism. A large study by the Autism Genome Project identified new genes associated with autism risks like SHANK1, SYNGAP1, and DLGAP2. Together the results suggest that both genes and parental age, particularly paternal age, are significant factors that impact the risks of having a child with autism.
Methodological Questions in Childhood Gender Identity ‘Desistence’ ResearchKelley Winters
A presentation to the 23rd World Professional Association for Transgender Health Biennial Symposium, Feb. 16, 2014, Bangkok, Thailand, by Kelley Winters, Ph.D., of GID Reform Advocates.
It is frequently repeated in mental health literature and popular media that the vast majority of children whose gender identity differs from their assigned birth-sex, or who are severely distressed by their birth-sex, will "desist" in their gender identities and gender dysphoria by adolescence. As a consequence, gender dysphoric children are pressed to remain in their birth-assigned roles throughout the world. But are gender dysphoria and diverse gender identities just a phase?
This presentation reexamines research in Canada and The Netherlands that underlies the "desistence" axiom, with respect to methodological rigor and validity of claims.
Conclusions:
(1) Evidence from these studies suggests that the majority of gender nonconforming children are not gender dysphoric adolescents or adults.
(2) It does not support the stereotype that most children who are actually gender dysphoric will "desist" in their gender identities before adolescence.
(3) These studies do acknowledge that intense anatomic dysphoria in childhood may be associated with persistent gender dysphoria and persistent gender identity through adolescence.
(4) Speculation that allowing childhood social transition traps cisgender youth in roles that are incongruent with their identities is not supported by evidence.
(5) These studies fail to examine the diagnostic value of Real Life Experience in congruent gender roles for gender dysphoric children.
E M P I R I C A L R E S E A R C HYouth Pathways to Placeme.docxbrownliecarmella
E M P I R I C A L R E S E A R C H
Youth Pathways to Placement: The Influence of Gender, Mental
Health Need and Trauma on Confinement in the Juvenile
Justice System
Erin M. Espinosa • Jon R. Sorensen •
Molly A. Lopez
Received: 9 April 2013 / Accepted: 27 June 2013 / Published online: 4 July 2013
� Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
Abstract Although the juvenile crime rate has generally
declined, the involvement of girls in the juvenile justice
system has been increasing. Possible explanations for this
gender difference include the impact of exposure to trauma
and mental health needs on developmental pathways and
the resulting influence of youth’s involvement in the justice
system. This study examined the influence of gender,
mental health needs and trauma on the risk of out-of-home
placement for juvenile offenders. The sample included
youth referred to three urban juvenile probation depart-
ments in Texas between January 1, 2007 and December 31,
2008 and who received state-mandated mental health
screening (N = 34,222; 30.1 % female). The analysis
revealed that, for both genders, elevated scores on the
seven factor-analytically derived subscales of a mental
health screening instrument (Alcohol and Drug Use,
Depressed-Anxious, Somatic Complaints, Suicidal Idea-
tion, Thought Disturbance, and Traumatic Experiences),
especially related to past traumatic experiences, influenced
how deeply juveniles penetrated the system. The findings
suggest that additional research is needed to determine the
effectiveness of trauma interventions and the implemen-
tation of trauma informed systems for youth involved with
the juvenile justice system.
Keywords Detention � Incarceration, disposition �
Gender disparity � Trauma � Mental health
Introduction
Adolescence is a period of developmental transition char-
acterized by changes in family, school, peers, self-concept,
and general physical development (Bergman and Scott
2001). Although most youth navigate this developmental
period successfully, incidents of rule breaking and behav-
ioral problems are common and can result in involvement
with law enforcement. Some research suggests that inter-
vention by the criminal justice system during the critical
period of adolescence may negatively impact youth out-
comes, including decreasing opportunities for meeting
educational goals and increasing the risk for later
involvement in delinquency and deviance (Sampson and
Laub 2005; pipeline articles). Recent trends have shown a
steady decline in juvenile offending overall, particularly
among violent crimes. However, statistics have also shown
a trend toward increased delinquency in females. For
example, Snyder (2008) reported that between 1994 and
2006, arrests for simple assault declined by 4 % for boys
while the rate increased by 19 % for girls. Given the
gender differences in adolescent development, it seems
critical to examine the pathways that lead to youth
.
Family Risk Factors and Conduct Disorder among Committed Male and .docxmydrynan
Family Risk Factors and Conduct Disorder among Committed Male and Female Juveniles in Barbados
Joana Matthews
University of the West Indies, Cave-Hill
Abstract
The differences between juveniles with and without a Conduct Disorder (CD) diagnosis on family risk factors was investigated in a sample of 71 male and female youth, aged 11-16, from a juvenile facility in Barbados. Psychological reports and case notes were coded for presence and absence of a diagnosis of CD and family risk factors. Gender differences were also investigated among those with a CD diagnosis. Results of the Mann-Whitney and Pearson Chi-square analyses revealed that significantly more juveniles with CD compared to those without CD were from low income homes and families characterized by parental conflict and psychopathology. Implications for treatment and rehabilitation are discussed.
Key words: Conduct Disorder; Barbados; Family risk factors; committed youth
Family Risk Factors and Conduct Disorder among Committed Male and Female Juveniles in Barbados
Caribbean reports suggest that high crime rates, including juvenile crime rates, are undermining social growth and threatening human welfare in the region (Rodriguez, 2007; Charles, 2007). Incarceration or custodial punishment of youth inadvertently leads to disruption in family, community ties and education (Singh, 1997) which further leads to increased probability of re-offending. The economic cost of juvenile crime is also high. In 1996 in Barbados, it cost BD$77.42 per day to maintain a juvenile at the Government Industrial School (GIS) (Singh, 1997).
Traditionally in the Caribbean, law enforcement agencies and courts were expected to manage juvenile crime and the problems of at-risk youth. According to a past Regional Director of the Caribbean Youth Programme, Mr. Henry Charles (2007), the regional justice and penal systems were not having the desired impact. Today, young offenders’ cases are still managed through mainly punitive responses in the region (Charles, 2007). Due to the increase in juvenile crime, more countries also lean towards harsher punishment as a deterrent (Charles, 2007). Yet, research clearly indicates that large-scale imprisonment hinders development and uses resources inappropriately (Song & Lieb, 1993; Mash & Wolfe, 2007; Office of the Surgeon General, 2001).
There is a growing sentiment in the Caribbean that alternative methods/services to incarceration are not luxuries, but investments in the security and stability of our region. The current study examines family risk factors related to conduct problems in a sample of committed youth in Barbados. Such a study may increase the focus on alternative methods, prevention and intervention, through scientific analysis of the nature and extent of problem behaviours within this group. More Caribbean helping professionals are becoming aware of the impact of these factors on the prevalence of conduct problems. It should also be useful in determining ...
Children and antisocial personality disorderalbrandon
Children who exhibit antisocial behavior and conduct problems are more likely to develop antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) as adults. ASPD is characterized by behaviors such as breaking laws, lying, aggression, and lack of remorse. Several studies examined links between childhood abuse, homelessness, ADHD, conduct disorder, and adult criminal behavior or ASPD. While the literature cannot say definitively that childhood conduct problems cause ASPD, it raises the possibility. Interventions in childhood may help reduce antisocial behavior and the potential development of ASPD, but more research is needed to identify the most effective intervention approaches for different disorders.
This thesis explores the experiences of young adults aged 18-27 who have a sibling diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 14 participants to understand their childhood experiences growing up with an autistic sibling, the impact on family relationships, their current relationship with their sibling, and future concerns. Quantitative measures were also used to assess autism symptoms, sibling relationship quality, and coping strategies. Thematic analysis of the interviews identified themes relating to the challenges of childhood, impacts on personal development and family, aspects of the current relationship, and concerns about future care needs. The findings provide insight into both the difficulties and strengths experienced by those with an autistic sibling across the lifespan.
This study examined the relationship between autism symptoms, victimization by peers, and aggression in youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). One hundred and twenty youth with ASD and their caregivers completed questionnaires assessing these variables. Results showed that greater autism symptoms predicted higher rates of victimization by peers and proactive aggression. Victimization by peers also predicted higher proactive aggression. Mediation analyses found that victimization by peers partially mediated the relationship between autism symptoms and proactive aggression. However, autism symptoms and victimization did not predict reactive aggression. This suggests that social factors like peer victimization may influence proactive but not reactive aggression in youth with ASD.
14Gender and SexualitySeverin SchweigerCulturaGetty Imag.docxaulasnilda
14Gender and Sexuality
Severin Schweiger/Cultura/Getty Images
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
ሁ Outline the biological, social, and cognitive explanations for the emergence of gender identity.
ሁ Form evidence-based arguments on gender differences in development.
ሁ Summarize the developmental imperative of physical activity for boys and girls during childhood.
ሁ Compare and contrast school achievement and learning between boys and girls.
ሁ Describe differences and similarities among heterosexual girls, heterosexual boys, and LGBT
adolescents with regard to romantic relationships and identity formation.
ሁ Discuss the psychological effects of puberty.
ሁ Evaluate ethnic and national differences in sexual activity among adolescents; explain the
consequences of teenage pregnancy.
ሁ Identify different health outcomes of sex during adolescence, including categorizing STIs and the
effects of HIV among infected children worldwide.
Section 14.1The Development of Gender
Prologue
Recent stories have led to renewed discussion about sex and gender in society. Sasha Lax-
ton from Great Britain; Storm Stocker from Toronto, Canada; and Pop from Sweden have all
made headlines as their parents were determined to raise them without regard to gender. The
children’s rooms were painted in neutral colors; hairstyles, Halloween costumes, and cloth-
ing were chosen without perceived regard for gender standards; exposure to toys and other
activities were not limited by what was considered “normal” for a boy or a girl.
As a result, there has been considerable debate among parents, academics, and the media
about the potential detriment—and benefit—if children are not aware of how they are “sup-
posed” to behave. However, these families are also quite outside the mainstream. It takes
tremendous effort to rid a child of messages related to gender, including limiting exposure
to media, avoiding certain store shelves, and restricting access to preschool and other social
activities.
For most children, though, sex and gender are inescapably connected. It is extremely rare for
a child to be born with undifferentiated sex organs. Even so, those children still generally have
either XX or XY genes. Biological sex is therefore not particularly variable. By contrast, regard-
less of biological sex, gender is much more continuous. Some children are drawn quite strongly
to the behaviors and activities of one gender over another, whereas other children engage
freely in more varied activities. This module explores these issues, as well as concerns related
to adolescent sex and romantic relationships and their developmental consequences.
14.1 The Development of Gender
Recall the many different factors involved in the development of the self and the formation
of gender identity (see Module 12). Gender is a key component in the development of the
self. In psychology, gender refers to the meanings societies and ...
This study examined the mediating role of delinquent peer association and the moderating role of parenting practices on the relationship between callous-unemotional (CU) traits and self-reported offending in a sample of 1,216 male juvenile offenders. The findings suggested that the effect of CU traits on offending was partially mediated by delinquent peer association. Additionally, it was found that when both parental warmth and supervision were high, the indirect effect of CU traits on offending through delinquent peers was no longer significant. The results highlight the importance of parenting, particularly both warmth and monitoring, in reducing the influence of delinquent peers on offending for youth with high CU traits.
Letter autismo e down jaacap s-06-00468[1]Italo Santana
This study examined the prevalence of pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) in 205 individuals with Down's syndrome in Curitiba, Brazil. The frequency of PDD was found to be 15.6%, with 5.58% having autism and 10.05% having non-autism PDD. This is higher than the 7% frequency found in a previous smaller study. The results suggest that Down's syndrome may be a risk factor for developing PDD. No significant gender differences were found between those with Down's syndrome and PDD. Higher frequencies of social disabilities were found in family members of those with both Down's syndrome and PDD.
The document provides an in-depth look at Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). It discusses that ASD is a complex developmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors. The prevalence of ASD has increased dramatically in recent decades. While the exact causes are unknown, research suggests genetics play a strong role, though environmental factors may also contribute. The goal of continued research is to better understand the underlying biological mechanisms of ASD.
Sensory and Motor Behaviors of Infant Siblings of Children With and Without A...haniiszah
This study compared the sensory and motor behaviors of 12-month-old typically developing infants to those of 12-month-old infants at high risk for autism due to having an older sibling with autism. Researchers videotaped 10-minute play sessions and 5-minute spoon-feeding sessions between each infant and their mother and then coded the videos for 16 play behaviors and 14 feeding behaviors related to sensation and motor skills. The results showed that the high-risk infants demonstrated fewer movement transitions and less object manipulation during play than the typically developing infants. This suggests sensory and motor differences should be examined during early autism screenings.
This document provides an overview of Asperger Syndrome, including its diagnostic criteria, prevalence, challenges faced by individuals, and treatment approaches. Some key points:
- Asperger Syndrome is characterized by difficulties with social skills and restricted, repetitive behaviors without cognitive or language delays.
- Diagnostic criteria include poor social skills, restricted interests, repetitive behaviors, difficulties with language and motor coordination.
- Rates are higher in males than females. About 58% of children and 10% of adults in the US are estimated to have Asperger Syndrome.
- Individuals face challenges with social skills, relationships, anxiety, depression, attention issues, and adapting to changes in routines.
- Treatment involves family support, social
Handbook of child and adolescent anxiety disordersSpringer
This chapter discusses issues in differentially diagnosing specific phobias, social phobia, panic disorder, and separation anxiety disorder in children. It summarizes research on the clinical features, course, and prognosis of each disorder. Specific phobias are the most common anxiety disorder in children and involve an excessive, irrational fear of a specific object or situation. Research shows specific phobias have a prevalence rate of around 5% in children and often co-occur with other anxiety disorders or depression. Genetic factors play a role in the development of specific phobias, though environmental influences are also important. Differential diagnosis of specific phobias from typical childhood fears requires the fear to cause significant impairment.
Adult (Final) Psychiatric Outcomes of Bullying and Being BulliedAce Battiste
A longitudinal study found that individuals who were bullied and those who bullied others as children are at an elevated risk of psychiatric disorders as adults. Specifically, victims were more likely to develop anxiety disorders like agoraphobia and panic disorder. Those who were both bullies and victims, called "bully/victims", faced the highest risks, including depression, panic disorder, agoraphobia, and suicidal thoughts. Bully/victims were over 4 times more likely to experience depression and over 14 times more likely to develop panic disorder compared to those not involved in bullying. The study suggests bullying has long-term negative mental health effects and interventions are needed to reduce victimization and promote healthier development for children.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
1. ORIGINAL PAPER
Autism Symptoms and Internalizing Psychopathology in Girls
and Boys with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Marjorie Solomon • Meghan Miller •
Sandra L. Taylor • Stephen P. Hinshaw •
Cameron S. Carter
Published online: 26 March 2011
Ó The Author(s) 2011. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com
Abstract Findings regarding phenotypic differences
between boys and girls with ASD are mixed. We compared
autism and internalizing symptoms in a sample of
8-18 year-old girls (n = 20) and boys (n = 20) with ASD
and typically developing (TYP) girls (n = 19) and boys
(n = 17). Girls with ASD were more impaired than TYP
girls but did not differ from boys with ASD in autism
symptoms. In adolescence, girls with ASD had higher
internalizing symptoms than boys with ASD and TYP girls,
and higher symptoms of depression than TYP girls. Girls
ages 8-18 with ASD resemble boys with ASD and not TYP
girls, and appear to be at increased risk for affective
symptoms in the teen years.
Keywords Sex differences Á Autism Á Girls Á Internalizing
psychopathology Á Gender paradox
Introduction
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD), including autism, high-
functioning autism (HFA), Asperger’s Syndrome (AS), and
Pervasive Developmental Disorder–Not Otherwise Speci-
fied (PDD-NOS), occur with a prevalence of 1 in 110
(Centers for Disease Control 2009). Male predominance is
estimated at 4–1 (Fombonne 2003). Consequently, there
has been relatively little research on girls with ASD. Extant
findings are complex and difficult to interpret.
There are two schools of thought regarding sex differ-
ences in ASD. Some have theorized that being female con-
fers protection against autism traits because of sex
differences in neuroendocrine function. One such argument
suggests that higher levels of oxytocin, which encourage
nurturance and affiliation, provide protection in girls against
the development of autistic traits (Carter 2007). Alterna-
tively, it has been proposed that high levels of fetal testos-
terone may predispose boys to have ‘‘extreme male brains,’’
characterized by phenotypes involving elevated ‘‘system-
atizing’’ (focus on inanimate systems and details) versus
‘‘empathizing’’ (focus on interpersonal orientation) (Baron-
Cohen et al. 2005). Both lead to the same conclusion that,
despite skill deficits relative to typically developing (TYP)
females, girls with ASD symptoms may not be diagnosed
because of milder symptom presentation (Constantino and
Todd 2003) and referral biases (Posserud et al. 2006), and
given that they are still more socially adept than boys with
and without ASD based on their relative strengths in social
skills and caretaking (Holliday-Willey 1999; Maccoby
1998). It is thus important to directly compare girls with
ASD to TYP girls to more fully understand implications of
being a girl with ASD (Koenig and Tsatsanis 2005).
The second school of thought is that girls with ASD are
more severely impaired than boys with ASD. According to
M. Solomon Á C. S. Carter
Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences,
University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
M. Solomon Á M. Miller
MIND Institute, University of California, Davis,
Davis, CA, USA
M. Miller Á S. P. Hinshaw
Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley,
Berkeley, CA, USA
S. L. Taylor
Clinical and Translational Science Center, Davis
School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
M. Solomon (&)
2825 50th Street, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
e-mail: marjorie.solomon@ucdmc.ucdavis.edu
123
J Autism Dev Disord (2012) 42:48–59
DOI 10.1007/s10803-011-1215-z
2. the ‘gender paradox’ hypothesis (Eme 1992), the least
frequently affected sex is more severely impaired. This
gender paradox has been explained using two types of
models: (1) polygenetic multiple-threshold models, which
suggest that females require a higher genetic/environmen-
tal load to be affected; and (2) constitutional variability
models, which propose that greater genetic variability in
males produces higher rates of less severe manifestations
of disorders, while females are more likely to be affected in
cases where there is a pathological event (e.g., brain
damage) (Eme 1992). Both of these models suggest that
there will be more impairment in affected females.
Indeed, some work suggests that girls with ASD are
more severely impaired than boys with the disorders. In
samples including children with higher cognitive abilities,
a recent study found that, relative to age, ASD symptom,
and cognitively-matched males, female toddlers exhibited
greater deficits in aspects of communication and social
competence (Carter et al. 2007). Consistent with this pat-
tern, investigators have reported that, across a wide age
range, girls with ASD have fewer friendships in a higher-
functioning sample (McLennan et al. 1993), and more
communication deficits and greater adaptive behavior
impairments in a lower functioning sample (Banach et al.
2009) than boys with ASD. Although children with autism
are more commonly male, studies have shown that the sex
ratio approaches equality in lower-functioning samples and
that boys are over-represented in higher-functioning pop-
ulations (Fombonne 2003; Lord et al. 1982; Tsai et al.
1981; Volkmar et al. 1993; Wing 1981; Yeargin-Allsopp
et al. 2003), consistent with the gender paradox hypothesis.
However, not all studies have documented sex differ-
ences. Some have found comparable levels of impairment
in girls and boys with autism across high functioning
samples (Holtmann et al. 2007), low functioning samples
(Pilowsky et al. 1998; Tsai and Beisler 1983), and samples
including a range of functioning levels (Lord et al. 2000).
Other studies have shown that boys with ASD exhibit
higher levels of repetitive behaviors in both lower-func-
tioning (Hartley and Sikora 2009) and higher-functioning
samples (McLennan et al. 1993), and higher levels of
stereotypic play in a lower-functioning sample (Lord et al.
1982). Inconsistent matching strategies, diagnostic criteria,
and participant ages make interpretation of these findings
difficult. Furthermore, in clinic-referred samples versus
community/non-referred samples, girls may have to reach a
higher overall level of symptoms in order to present for
treatment (see Gaub and Carlson 1997 for a parallel finding
in ADHD).
In addition to understanding sex differences in ASD
symptoms, an important and clinically significant issue in
the ASD population is whether girls with ASD are at ele-
vated risk for affective disorders. Boys and girls show
similar levels of depression in childhood, but levels in girls
become dramatically greater in adolescence (Nolen-
Hoeksema and Girgus 1994). Additionally, individuals
with ASD demonstrate increased internalizing psychopa-
thology relative to TYP individuals (Kim et al. 2000;
Lainhart and Folstein 1994; Mazefsky et al. 2010; Sukh-
odolsky et al. 2008). Therefore, girls with ASD may be at
especially high risk for internalizing psychopathology
because of the ‘‘double hit’’ conferred by sex and diag-
nostic influences.
In sum, sex differences in the ASD phenotype remain
poorly understood. To our knowledge, no studies have
focused on sex differences in high-functioning preadoles-
cents and adolescents, directly compared TYP girls and
girls with ASD, or examined sex differences in the pre-
sentation of affective disorders in ASD. The goal of the
current study was to address these important gaps in the
literature. The first aim was to investigate whether our
clinically-referred high-functioning sample of boys and
girls differed in ASD symptoms using independent
assessments of language, social, and repetitive behavior
symptoms that were not used to make the ASD diagnosis.
Although there are mixed findings in the literature, evi-
dence for the gender paradox hypothesis has been found in
very low functioning ASD samples, and our sample was
higher functioning. Thus, consistent with theories that
neuroendocrine factors are protective against ASD traits,
we hypothesized that girls with ASD would show fewer
symptoms of social behavior impairments than boys with
ASD, and comparable symptom levels to TYP girls on
parent-reported measures not used to make the ASD
diagnosis. Based on the literature, we also predicted that
boys with ASD would show higher levels of restricted and
repetitive behaviors than all other groups. Last, we aimed
to investigate whether girls with ASD were at greater risk
for internalizing problems than TYP girls and boys with
ASD, as would be predicted by a ‘‘double hit’’ perspective.
Hypotheses were tested using clinician-, parent-, and child-
report measures.
Method
Participants
A total of 76 children (ages 8–11) and adolescents (ages
12–18) participated in this study. Four age-matched groups
were formed: 20 girls with ASD (including HFA, AS, and
PDD-NOS), 20 boys with ASD, 19 TYP girls, and 17 TYP
boys. The ASD groups were matched on IQ. These groups
were further divided such that approximately half of each
were children and half were adolescents (adolescent
ns = 10 for girls with ASD, 10 for boys with ASD, 9 for
J Autism Dev Disord (2012) 42:48–59 49
123
3. TYP girls, 8 for TYP boys). The decision to include indi-
viduals with HFA, AS, and PDD-NOS was made based on
studies showing that it is difficult to reliably distinguish
between them (Macintosh and Dissanayake 2004; Ozonoff
and Griffith 2000). Participant characteristics are displayed
in Table 1.
Participants were recruited from local physicians, psy-
chologists, speech-language pathologists, occupational
therapists, advocacy groups, regional centers (state centers
for the developmentally disabled), ASD support groups,
and the MIND Institute’s Subject Tracking System, which
includes children with developmental disorders as well as
TYP children. Participants with ASD were required to meet
criteria for Autistic Disorder, AS, or PDD-NOS according
to DSM-IV-TR criteria (American Psychiatric Association
2000). Based on parent report, participants could not have a
diagnosis of depression, anxiety disorders, Attention-Def-
icit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Fragile X, Tourette’s,
or seizure disorders. Diagnosed learning disabilities were
not exclusionary. Participants completed all measures
during a single visit. All procedures were approved by the
UC Davis Medical Center Institutional Review Board.
Qualification Measures
Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI;
Wechsler 1999). The four-subtest (Vocabulary, Block
Design, Similarities, Matrix Reasoning) version of the
WASI was used to provide a short and reliable assessment
of intelligence. It produces Verbal (VIQ), Performance
(PIQ), and Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) Standard Scores with
means of 100 and SDs of 15. The WASI is nationally
standardized and has strong psychometric properties. Test–
retest reliability for IQ scales ranges from .88 to .93. Par-
ticipants were required to have FSIQ scores above 75.
Scores ranged from 76 to 145 in the ASD groups and
98–139 in the TYP groups.
Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Generic
(ADOS-G; Lord et al. 2000). To confirm diagnosis, par-
ticipants with ASD were administered module 3 or 4 of the
ADOS-G by a clinical psychologist. The ADOS-G is a
semi-structured protocol that offers standardized observa-
tion of social-communication behavior. Each module has
approximately 10 standardized interactional ‘‘presses.’’
Participants are rated based on their responses and scored
for communication, reciprocal social behavior, and repet-
itive behaviors and stereotyped interest patterns. An algo-
rithm score that combines the communication and
reciprocal social interaction domains is the basis for diag-
nostic classification. Algorithm scores ranged from 7 to 18
in girls with ASD and 7–22 in boys with ASD.
Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ; Rutter
et al. 2003). Participants’ parents completed the SCQ, a
40-item questionnaire to evaluate communication and
social skills. It contains parallel questions to those on the
Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (Lord et al. 1994),
the gold standard parent-report diagnostic measure, in a
briefer format. Berument et al. (1999) reported that a cutoff
of 15 gave sensitivity of .96 and specificity of .80 for
autism versus other diagnoses. Children with ASD were
required to score C15 while TYP groups were required to
score 11. Scores ranged from 15 to 37 in the ASD
groups and 0–8 in the TYP groups.
Autism Symptom Measures
The measures used to assess autism symptoms included the
Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS; Constantino 2002),
Children’s Communication Checklist-2nd Edition (CCC-2;
Bishop 2003), and the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised
Table 1 Participant characteristics
Variable A. Girls with ASD
(n = 20)
B. Boys with ASD
(n = 20)
C. TYP girls
(n = 19)
D. TYP boys (n = 17) Group differencesa
M SD M SD M SD M SD p
Age (years) 12.00 3.42 12.45 3.72 12.53 3.32 11.47 2.37 ns –
FSIQ 104.20 15.29 103.95 16.87 113.26 10.23 121.65 11.01 .001 C, D [ A, B
VIQ 108.75 15.12 103.05 16.00 113.68 12.64 122.12 12.12 .001 C [ B; D [ A, B
PIQ 99.00 17.10 107.10 16.93 109.89 11.48 116.65 11.98 .006 C, D [ A
ADOS total 10.75 2.73 10.50 3.95 – – – – ns –
ADOS communication 2.95 .94 3.75 2.07 – – – – ns –
ADOS social 7.80 2.35 7.30 2.49 – – – – ns –
SCQ total 21.95 6.19 23.05 6.64 1.58 1.92 2.00 2.12 .001 A, B [ C, D
ASD autism spectrum disorder, TYP typically developing, FSIQ full scale IQ, VIQ verbal IQ, PIQ performance IQ, ADOS autism diagnostic
observation schedule, SCQ Social Communication Questionnaire
a
A = Girls with ASD, B = boys with ASD, C = TYP girls, D = TYP boys
50 J Autism Dev Disord (2012) 42:48–59
123
4. (RBS-R; Bodfish et al. 1999). Subscale and total scores
were used as dependent variables in analyses; however, we
emphasize the relative importance of total versus subscale
scores given that subscale scores consist of fewer items and
thus are less reliable than total scores.
SRS (Constantino 2002) The SRS is a 65-item scale used
to assess autism symptom severity. Subscales include:
Social awareness (ability to pick up on social cues), social
cognition (interpretation of social cues), social communi-
cation (expressive social communication), social motiva-
tion (how motivated the child is to engage in social
behavior), and autistic mannerisms (stereotyped behav-
iors). The SRS has acceptable levels of internal consistency
(.93–.97) and test–retest reliability (.77–.85). We obtained
parent-reported SRS scores. A T-score of 60 constitutes a
clinical cutoff.
CCC-2 (Bishop 2003) The CCC-2 is a 70-item parent-
reported measure of communication. We examined the
General Communication Composite (GCC), Social Inter-
action Deviance Index (SIDI), and subscale scores. The
GCC measures structural language skills and is used to
identify children who have communication problems. The
SIDI assesses pragmatic abilities (e.g., nonverbal commu-
nication, scripted language, use of humor and irony) and is
used to identify children who may have ASD (scores B
-11). Subscale reliability estimates range from .66 to .80
in TYP children.
RBS-R (Bodfish et al. 1999) The RBS-R is a 43-item
parent-reported measure assessing restricted and repetitive
behavior. Subscales include the following: Stereotyped
behavior, self-injurious behavior, compulsive behavior,
ritualistic behavior, sameness behavior, and restricted
behavior, and an overall score. The RBS-R has acceptable
levels of inter-rater reliability (.88), test–retest reliability
(.71), and internal consistency (.78 to .91).
Internalizing Psychopathology Measures
The following measures were used to assess internalizing
psychopathology, and constitute relevant dependent vari-
ables: Behavior Assessment System for Children-2nd
Edition (BASC2 subscales: Reynolds and Kamphaus 2004)
and Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs 1992).
BASC2 (Reynolds and Kamphaus 2004) The BASC2 is
used to evaluate adaptive and problem behaviors of children
ages 2–25, and has exhibited acceptable levels of test–retest
reliability (.76 to .84) and internal consistency (.80 to .87).
We utilized raw parent-reported scores from the depression,
anxiety, and internalizing problems (a composite of anxiety,
depression, and somatization items) scales. T-scores above
60 fall within the clinical range.
CDI (Kovacs 1992) The CDI was used to assess
depression levels in children 7–17. It is a self-report
inventory with 27 items, each scored on a 3-point metric.
Items describe different aspects of child mood, interper-
sonal problems, feelings of effectiveness, physical symp-
toms, and self-esteem. It has acceptable levels of internal
consistency (.86), test–retest reliability (.54 to .56), and
discriminant validity, with sensitivity of 80% and speci-
ficity of 84% in distinguishing children with depression
from those without. A raw score of 19 constitutes a clinical
cutoff. Seven participants (two girls with ASD, three boys
with ASD, two TYP girls) were older than the age-norms
cutoff. However, we utilized raw scores, and results did not
differ when excluding these participants.
Data Analytic Plan
The two ASD groups were well matched on IQ and age.
However, as shown in Table 1, there were significant dif-
ferences between ASD and TYP groups on some IQ
measures (ps .05). Girls and boys with ASD did not
differ on the ADOS-G algorithm score and its subscales,
although in terms of comparing autism symptom levels, the
focus is on the examination of measures of autism symp-
toms that were not used as the basis for diagnosis (i.e.,
SRS, CCC-2, RBS-R).
Because variable scores for a particular measure are
likely correlated, a multivariate analysis of variance
(MANOVA) would have been a preferable analytical
approach. However, because the distributions of variable
scores strongly deviated from a multivariate normal dis-
tribution, significance determinations based on a MANO-
VA would not have been reliable. Therefore, we used
univariate methods to identify variables that differed sig-
nificantly among the four groups and adjusted p-values to
account for multiple hypothesis testing within a measure.
IQ scores differed significantly among some groups
(Table 1). To account for the potential confounding effect
of IQ, we regressed variable scores on IQ and used the
residuals for analysis. We examined differences among the
four groups in autism symptom and internalizing psycho-
pathology variables using Kruskal–Wallis tests. We then
used Mann–Whitney U tests to examine four planned
contrasts: (1) girls and boys with ASD, (2) girls with ASD
and TYP girls, (3) boys with ASD and TYP boys, and (4)
TYP girls and boys. Next, we applied this procedure to
internalizing psychopathology variables in adolescents
only. Within each measure, a Bonferroni correction was
used to control the Type I error rate at .05 across the
analyses of several scores within the measure. A second
Bonferroni adjustment was applied to the planned con-
trasts; thus maintaining the Type I error rate for a measure
at .05 across all tests and contrasts. Significance thresholds
are noted for each variable and follow-up comparisons.
J Autism Dev Disord (2012) 42:48–59 51
123
5. Sex-norms were available for some measures (SRS,
BASC-2, CDI). We reasoned that normed scores could
mask potential sex differences, given that norms may be
quite different for males and females. Raw scores provide,
by definition, a clearer view of sex effects on a given scale.
Thus, if a measure included sex-specific norms, analyses
examined both normed and raw scores. Results remained
essentially the same with normed versus raw scores; results
from raw scores are presented.
Results
Autism Symptoms
We first examined raw SRS scores. Means, SDs, and effect
sizes (Cohen’s d) are listed in Table 2. With six SRS
variables, the Bonferroni-adjusted alpha was .0083 for
determining significance. There was a main effect of group
on SRS total scores, v2
= 33.36; social awareness,
v2
= 36.25; social cognition, F(3, 76) = 31.81; social
communication, v2
= 35.11; social motivation, v2
= 25.96;
and autistic mannerisms, v2
= 34.77, df = 3, N = 76 for all.
Follow-up comparisons using an adjusted alpha level of
.0021 (.0083/4) revealed that there were no differences
between boys and girls with ASD on any SRS variables. TYP
girls had lower scores than girls with ASD on all SRS sub-
scales (ps = .001). There were no differences between TYP
boys and boys with ASD that withstood the Bonferroni
correction. Finally, TYP girls did not differ from TYP boys.
Next, we examined age-normed CCC-2 scores
(Table 2). With 12 CCC-2 variables, a Bonferroni-adjusted
alpha level of .0042 was employed. There was a main
effect of group on both composite scales: GCC,
v2
= 39.26; and SIDI, v2
= 25.28, df = 3, N = 76,
p .001 for both. There was also a main effect of group on
all subscales: Speech, v2
= 21.15; syntax, v2
= 21.37;
semantics, v2
= 32.23; coherence, v2
= 38.03; initiation,
v2
= 47.90; scripted language, v2
= 46.21; context,
v2
= 41.68; nonverbal communication, v2
= 48.17; social
relations, v2
= 49.26; and interests, v2
= 49.88, df = 3,
N = 76 for all. Follow-up comparisons using an adjusted
alpha level of .0011 (.0042/4) revealed that boys and girls
with ASD did not differ on any variable. TYP girls had
higher (less impaired) scores than girls with ASD on all
variables (ps = .001). TYP boys also had higher scores
than boys with ASD on all variables (ps = .001). TYP girls
and TYP boys did not differ.
Finally, we examined seven RBS-R scores (Table 3)
using a Bonferroni-adjusted alpha level of .0071. Because
of a data collection problem, scores were missing for five
girls with ASD and five TYP girls. There was a main effect
of group on all RBS-R scores: Stereotyped behavior,
v2
= 38.48; self-injurious behavior, v2
= 25.80; compul-
sive behavior, v2
= 32.25; ritualistic behavior, v2
= 39.65;
sameness behavior, v2
= 45.93; restricted interests,
v2
= 43.34; and overall scores, v2
= 43.40, df = 3,
N = 66 for all. Follow-up comparisons using an adjusted
alpha level of .0018 (.0071/4) revealed that boys and girls
with ASD did not differ on any subscale, although the
results are suggestive of higher scores in boys with ASD on
the restricted interests subscale, U = 77.50, z = -2.43,
p = .015 without such stringent corrections for multiple
comparisons. Girls with ASD had higher scores than TYP
girls on all subscales (ps .001) with the exception of the
compulsive behavior subscale. Boys with ASD had higher
scores than TYP boys (ps = .001), but TYP girls and TYP
boys did not differ.
Internalizing Psychopathology
Raw scores from the internalizing problems, depression, and
anxiety scales of BASC-2 were examined first across the
entire sample (Table 4). There was a main effect of group on
all BASC2 subscales, using a Bonferroni-adjusted alpha
level of .0167 for the three BASC2 variables: Anxiety,
v2
= 18.07; depression, v2
= 38.80 and internalizing
scores, v2
= 32.52, df = 3, N = 75 for all. Follow-up
comparisons using an adjusted alpha level of .0042 (.0167/4)
revealed that boys and girls with ASD did not differ on these
variables. Girls with ASD had higher scores than TYP girls
on all variables (ps .001). Boys with ASD had higher
depression scores than TYP boys (p .001) but did not
differ on anxiety or internalizing scores. TYP boys and
TYP girls did not differ from each other on any BASC2
variables.
We next examined raw scores from child-reported CDI
across the entire sample using an alpha level of .05. There
was a main effect of group on the CDI, v2
(3,
N = 76) = 20.35. Follow-up comparisons using an alpha
level of .0125 (.05/4) revealed that girls and boys with
ASD did not differ, whereas girls with ASD had higher
scores than TYP girls (p .001). Boys with ASD and TYP
boys did not differ, nor did TYP girls and TYP boys. It is
noteworthy that five of the seven scores that fell in the ‘‘at
risk’’ or ‘‘significant’’ range for depression on the CDI
belonged to girls with ASD, totaling 26% of this group.
The other two scores belonged to TYP boys, equating to
12% of this group. A chi square test indicated that the
percentage of participants who fell in the ‘‘at risk’’ or
‘‘significant’’ range for depression significantly differed by
group, v2
(3, N = 76) = 10.05, p .02.
We also examined raw scores from internalizing psy-
chopathology variables in adolescents alone (ages 12–18,
Table 5). There was a main effect of group on the three
52 J Autism Dev Disord (2012) 42:48–59
123
7. parent-reported BASC2 subscales: anxiety, v2
= 12.28;
depression, v2
= 20.86; and internalizing, v2
= 17.98,
df = 3, N = 37 for all, using a Bonferroni-adjusted alpha
level of .0167. There was also a main effect of group on self-
reported CDI scores using an alpha level of .05, v2
(3,
N = 37) = 12.73. Follow-up comparisons with BASC2
scores using an alpha level of .0042 (.0167/4) revealed
marginally significantly higher anxiety scores in adolescent
females with ASD than males with ASD, U = 15.50, z =
-2.62, p = .009. These two groups did not differ in
depression scores, but females with ASD had significantly
higher internalizing scores than males with ASD (p .001).
Females with ASD also had higher scores than TYP females
on anxiety, depression, and internalizing (ps .001). Males
with ASD and TYP males did not differ on anxiety or
internalizing scores, but males with ASD had marginally
significantly higher depression scores than TYP males
(p = .011). TYP females and males did not differ on any
scale. For CDI scores, there was a main effect of group using
an alpha level of .05, v2
(3, N = 37) = 12.73. Using an alpha
level of .0125 (.05/4) for follow-up comparisons, there was
no difference between adolescent males and females with
ASD. Females with ASD had higher scores than TYP
females (p = .01). Males with ASD did not differ from TYP
males nor did TYP males differ from TYP females.
Discussion
Our primary aims were (1) to determine whether girls with
ASD show fewer social and language ASD-related symp-
toms than boys with ASD, and whether boys with ASD
exhibit higher levels of restricted and repetitive behaviors
than all other groups; (2) to assess whether girls with ASD
are more impaired than TYP girls in terms of social and
language abilities; and (3) to examine whether girls with
ASD show elevated levels of internalizing symptoms
compared to all other groups. We found that ASD symp-
tom profiles were very similar in boys and girls with ASD,
and that girls with ASD differed markedly from TYP girls
on symptom measures that were not used as a basis for
diagnosis, indicating that girls with ASD did not resemble
TYP girls in terms of language and social abilities. Dif-
ferences also emerged with respect to internalizing psy-
chopathology as adolescent girls with ASD evidenced
significant internalizing symptoms compared to boys with
ASD and TYP girls.
There were marginally significant differences in the area
of restricted interests, which was consistent with some
previous research that has found that these interests (an
aspect of repetitive behaviors) are more pronounced in
boys with ASD than girls with ASD (e.g., Hartley and
Table2continued
VariableA.GirlswithASD
(n=20)
B.BoyswithASD
(n=20)
C.TYPgirls
(n=19)
D.TYPboys
(n=17)
pGroupdifferencesa
Cohen’sda
M
(range)
SDM
(range)
SDM
(range)
SDM
(range)
SDA–BA–CB–DC–D
Interests4.55
(1–7)
2.014.90
(1–15)
3.4213.11
(6–16)
3.1111.94
(8–16)
2.36.001AC;BD.123.272.40.42
SIDC-10.85
(-25to12)
10.33-9.40
(-27to16)
11.182.84
(-16to9)
6.18-.06
(-8to9)
5.18.001AC;BD.131.611.07.51
ASDautismspectrumdisorder,TYPtypicallydeveloping,SRSSocialResponsivenessScale,CCC-2children’scommunicationchecklist,2ndedition,GCCgeneralcommunicationcomposite,
SIDCsocialinteractiondeviancecomposite,RBS-RRepetitiveBehaviorScale-Revised
a
A=GirlswithASD,B=boyswithASD,C=TYPgirls,D=TYPboys
54 J Autism Dev Disord (2012) 42:48–59
123
8. Sikora 2009; McLennan et al. 1993). Differences in
repetitive behaviors may be linked to variations in neuro-
peptides such as oxytocin and vasopressin (Carter 2007;
Hollander et al. 2003; Insel et al. 1999), and small studies
have shown that infusions of oxytocin reduce these
behaviors in adult males with ASD (Hollander et al. 2003).
However, it remains possible that a gender bias exists on
the RBS-R restricted interests subscale in particular, which
refers to objects such as trains, dinosaurs, and toy cars—
traditionally male interests. Clinical lore suggests that
restricted interests of girls with ASD may be different and
it remains possible that parents of girls with ASD might
report higher levels of restricted interests if examples on
this parent-report measure included a wider range of
Table 3 Means, SDs, and significance for RBS-R variables
Variable A. Girls with ASD
(n = 15)
B. Boys with ASD
(n = 20)
C. TYP girls
(n = 14)
D. TYP boys
(n = 17)
Group
differencesa
Cohen’s da
M
(range)
SD M
(range)
SD M
(range)
SD M
(range)
SD p A–B A–C B–D C–D
RBS-R overall 2.47
(6–72)
1.77 5.00
(0–91)
3.16 .00
(0–18)
.00 .41
(0–11)
1.23 .001 A [ C; B [ D .51 1.97 1.91 .47
Stereotyped 4.27
(0–13)
3.63 5.20
(0–15)
3.83 .00
(0)
.00 .71
(0–6)
1.83 .001 A [ C; B [ D .25 1.66 1.50 .55
Self–injurious 2.53
(0–6)
2.07 3.75
(0–12)
4.14 .00
(0)
.00 .41
(0–4)
1.06 .001 A [ C; B [ D .37 1.73 1.11 .55
Compulsive 4.40
(0–18)
5.03 6.80
(0–18)
4.99 .93
(0–5)
1.73 .29
(0–3)
.77 .001 B [ D .48 .92 1.82 .48
Ritualistic 4.93
(0–14)
4.03 7.00
(0–17)
5.42 .36
(0–5)
1.34 .29
(0–2)
.69 .001 A [ C; B [ D .43 1.52 1.74 .07
Sameness 9.13
(2–23)
6.15 11.20
(0–31)
8.31 .71
(0–8)
2.13 .24
(0–2)
.56 .001 A [ C; B [ D .28 1.83 1.86 .30
Restricted interests 2.47
(0–6)
1.77 5.00
(0–11)
3.16 .00
(0)
.00 .41
(0–5)
1.23 .001 A [ C; B [ D .99 1.97 1.91 .47
ASD autism spectrum disorder, TYP typically developing, RBS-R Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised
a
A = Girls with ASD, B = boys with ASD, C = TYP girls, D = TYP boys
Table 4 Means, SDs, and significance for internalizing psychopathology variables
Variable A. Girls with ASD
(n = 20)
B. Boys with ASD
(n = 20)
C. TYP girls
(n = 19)
D. TYP boys
(n = 17)
Group
differencesa
Cohen’s da
M
(range)
SD M
(range)
SD M
(range)
SD M
(range)
SD p A–B A–C B–D C–D
BASC2b
Anxiety 17.45
(6–26)
6.15 15.74
(3–39)
9.49 9.58
(0–24)
5.81 9.47
(0–25)
6.08 .001 A [ C; B [ D .21 1.32 .79 .02
Depression 17.15
(6–26)
6.93 13.00
(2–31)
8.99 3.79
(0–10)
2.78 4.29
(1–16)
4.21 .001 A [ C; B [ D .52 2.53 1.24 .14
Internalizing 189.85
(126–226)
28.91 174.32
(120–269)
40.00 136.95
(101–179)
20.15 142.53
(109–184)
17.84 .001 A [ C; B [ D .45 2.12 1.03 .29
CDI 11.95
(0–33)
7.83 9.80
(1–17)
5.27 3.47
(0–17)
4.01 5.65
(0–17)
5.41 .001 A [ C .32 1.36 .78 .46
ASD autism spectrum disorder; TYP typically developing, BASC2 behavior assessment system for children, 2nd edition, CDI children’s
depression inventory
a
A = Girls with ASD, B = boys with ASD, C = TYP girls, D = TYP boys
b
For all BASC2 variables, n = 19 for boys with ASD
J Autism Dev Disord (2012) 42:48–59 55
123
9. choices. This is consistent with the assertion that sex-spe-
cific diagnostic criteria for neuropsychiatric disorders
would be more precise and useful (see Hartung and
Widiger 1998).
As predicted, girls with ASD appeared to be at greater
risk for internalizing psychopathology than boys with ASD
and TYP girls. None of the boys with ASD or TYP girls
fell within the clinical range on the self-report CDI, com-
pared with 26% of the girls with ASD. In adolescence, girls
with ASD had significantly higher parent-reported inter-
nalizing scores than boys with ASD and TYP girls. This
contention is consistent with work indicating there are
more internalizing problems in girls with ADHD than in
boys with the disorder (Gershon 2002; Rucklidge and
Tannock 2001) and comparison girls (Rucklidge and
Tannock 2001), and is also consistent with the suggestion
that being female and having a neurodevelopmental dis-
order may confer particularly high risk with regard to
internalizing psychopathology.
Prior research indicates that TYP girls tend to express
concern about others’ feelings and interact in smaller, more
intimate social groups (Maccoby 1998). Additionally, it
has been shown that affiliative orientation intensifies in
girls in adolescence (Larson and Richards 1989), and
conversations become more interpersonally-focused
(Raffaelli and Duckett 1989). These differences in basic
social processes, along with dramatic social changes in
adolescence, could reveal relative social skill deficits in
girls with ASD and lead to greater isolation during this
developmental period. It is also possible that emotion
socialization plays a role given that girls are more likely to
be encouraged to express their emotions—particularly fear
and sadness—than boys (for a review, see Brody 2000),
leading parents of girls with ASD to have more knowledge
of their daughters’ internal states than their sons’. Still,
girls with ASD might be expected to do this less than TYP
girls, yet they still exhibited more internalizing symptoms
than TYP girls. Such hypotheses should be investigated
further, due to their potential clinical significance.
Indeed, the clinical relevance of understanding elevated
levels of internalizing symptoms in girls with ASD is high.
Determining ways to best treat such symptoms in girls
with ASD will be critical. Studies using cognitive-behav-
ioral strategies to address anxiety in higher-functioning
children with ASD have shown promise (Reaven et al.
2009; Wood et al. 2008). Little research has focused on
using cognitive-behavioral methods to address depression
in this population although such pursuits may be fruitful.
Additionally, group-based social skills interventions that
include components targeting emotion recognition, emo-
tion regulation, and additional problem solving/coping
strategies along with skills for developing more successful
social relationships have been shown to have an effect on
depression scores in boys with ASD and their parents
(Solomon et al. 2004). Developing and implementing
interventions—cognitive, behavioral, and psychotropic—
to address internalizing symptoms in this high risk popu-
lation of girls with ASD could prove to have dramatic
effects on adult outcomes that have been associated with
adolescent depression, including risk for affective disor-
ders, psychiatric hospitalization, and suicidal ideation
(Colman et al. 2007).
Table 5 Means, SDs, and significance for adolescent age and internalizing psychopathology variables
Variable A. Girls with ASD
(n = 10)
B. Boys with ASD
(n = 10)
C. TYP girls
(n = 9)
D. TYP boys
(n = 8)
Group
differencesa
Cohen’s da
M
(range)
SD M
(range)
SD M
(range)
SD M
(range)
SD p A–B A–C B–D C–D
Age 14.90
(12–18)
2.13 15.70
(12–18)
2.06 15.56
(12–18)
2.07 13.38
(12–17)
1.85 ns .38 .31 .07 1.11
BASC2
Anxiety 18.00
(8–26)
5.85 10.40
(3–20)
6.06 8.78
(1–14)
4.24 8.75
(1–16)
4.83 .006 A [ C 1.28 1.08 .30 .01
Depression 16.80
(7–25)
7.45 9.50
(2–21)
6.79 3.22
(0–7)
2.28 3.25
(1–12)
3.73 .001 A [ C 1.02 2.47 1.14 .01
Internalizing 200.80
(151–226)
25.64 155.90
(120–209)
28.60 137.33
(113–170)
19.47 141.75
(109–184)
21.82 .001 A [ B, C 1.65 2.79 .56 .21
CDI 11.50
(0–33)
9.18 8.90
(2–15)
4.86 2.33
(0–6)
2.24 4.25
(1–10)
3.11 .005 A [ C .35 1.37 1.14 .71
ASD autism spectrum disorder; TYP typically developing, BASC2 behavior assessment system for children, 2nd edition, CDI children’s
depression inventory
a
A = Girls with ASD, B = boys with ASD, C = TYP girls, D = TYP boys
56 J Autism Dev Disord (2012) 42:48–59
123
10. While the purpose of this investigation was not to
address whether girls with ASD are under-diagnosed, we
note the importance of this issue to the field. Furthermore,
consistent with ADHD findings, boys and girls were simi-
larly impaired as evidenced by comparable diagnostic and
non-diagnostic ASD symptom scores. Research about sex
differences in ADHD may be instructive. Although the
belief that girls with ADHD are less symptomatic than boys
was prevalent, large longitudinal studies of girls with
ADHD have found this population to be significantly
impaired (e.g., Hinshaw 2002; Hinshaw et al. 2006). As in
our study, a meta-analysis by Gaub and Carlson (1997)
found similar ADHD symptom profiles between boys with
ADHD and clinic-referred girls with ADHD. However, they
also found that non-referred girls displayed lower rates of
ADHD behaviors. Similarly, it may be that only girls with
substantial impairments in core ASD symptoms are refer-
red, so that clinic samples mask sex differences in symp-
toms existing in the community. Population-based studies
are needed to address these important questions. Given that
our sample was clinic-referred, it is likely to have consisted
of a more severely impaired group of girls and boys than
would be found in the community, resulting in groups that
were very similar in terms of ASD symptoms.
Limitations of the study include its small size and lack
of perfect IQ matching. Additionally, we did not include an
observer-report standardized assessment of comorbid psy-
chopathology in either ASD or TYP participants, and the
measures we did use were validated for TYP youth. Thus,
it is not clear that the measures used in this study are
accurately assessing internalizing symptoms in individuals
with ASD. Unfortunately, no other assessment measures
exist to specifically measure internalizing symptoms in
ASD populations, and there may be high overlap between
ASD-like traits and internalizing traits (Hallet et al. 2010).
However, we still found that higher levels of internalizing
symptoms were specific to adolescent girls with ASD and
not boys with ASD, suggesting that these assessments of
internalizing symptoms were not merely reflecting mani-
festations of ASD symptoms. Finally, although results of
analyses were corrected for multiple comparisons, many
variables were examined given our sample size, increasing
the potential for Type II error. Thus, this study serves as an
initial platform for future empirical investigations of the
female ASD phenotype using multivariate strategies.
In conclusion, the study of girls with ASD represents an
important area for future research. This group appears to be
at enhanced risk for developing affective symptoms in
adolescence, suggesting the potential need for screening
and intervention. Also, the question of whether girls with
ASD in the community are less impaired and/or under-
detected relative to boys remains unanswered. Finally,
while we addressed questions related to our specific
hypotheses, we did not address the underlying neurobio-
logical questions from which they were derived. Future
studies should examine neuropeptide levels in TYP boys
and girls and boys and girls with ASD, as well as the
genetics of sex differences in the prevalence and expres-
sion of the male and female phenotypes of the disorders,
and relate this information to observed behavioral differ-
ences. Both lines of research hold the potential to advance
the study of the pathophysiology of ASD and to provide
information relevant to treatment development.
Acknowledgments This work was supported by a K-08 Award
from the National Institute of Mental Health (1-K-08 MH074967-01)
and a Building Interdisciplinary Research Careers in Women’s Health
Award (K12 HD051958) funded by the National Institute of Child
Health and Human Development (NICHD), Office of Research on
Women’s Health (ORWH), Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS),
and the National Institute of Aging (NIA) to Marjorie Solomon.
Statistical support was made possible by Grant Number UL1
RR024246 from the National Center for Research Resources (NCRR),
a component of NIH and NIH Roadmap for Medical Research. Its
contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not nec-
essarily represent the official view of NCRR or NIH. Information on
Re-engineering the Clinical Research Enterprise can be obtained from
http://nihroadmap.nih.gov/clinicalresearch/overview-translational.asp.
Conflicts of interest The authors report no conflicts of interest
related to this manuscript.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which per-
mits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.
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