Due Monday August 22, 2016 8am $40.00 please be 100 original OP.docxhasselldelisa
Due Monday August 22, 2016 8am
$40.00 please be 100% original
OPPOSITIONAL DISORDER DISEASE
The research paper will be any disease or condition of the body. The paper must include a thorough description of the disease/condition; current statistics of those affected - epidemiology; financial costs both terms of treatment and loss of productivity; explanations on how the various body systems (anatomically and/or physiologically) are affected; etiology; medications/treatments that are available; prognosis of those affected, and future outlook in general.
Research paper must have 1200 words no more then 1500 not to include abstract,cover paper,annotate.
* cover/title page (page 1)
* corrected abstract (page 2) ( abstract paper turn in I am missing a lot of work )
Must be in the abstract
Statistic/ Epidemiology
Financial cost
Anatomy & Physiology
Etiology (cause)
Diagnosis/ treatment/ prognosis
Abstract
In recent a post, oppositional disorder diseases has been on the rise, raising questions about the manner in which diseases is spreading especially among children. The high prevalence levels of the oppositional disorder have raised more concerns especially form the health, sectors thus developing the need to understand the disorder better. This research paper will, therefore, encompass a broad perspective of oppositional disorder disease to effectively understand how it is manifested, various ways in which it manifests itself to develop preventive strategy much earlier before the situation reaches full-blown.
Unlike the common conduct disorder where the patient is more aggressive towards people and animals, the oppositional disorder is more silent, and it takes time for it to be detected. The lifetime prevalence of the disease is estimated to be 10.2%. The disease is mostly observed in children and adolescents across the globe.
Some of the common symptoms of the disease involve a certain behavior where children’s behavior is much different compared to their peers. A patient suffering from oppositional disorder tends to have a turn in their behavior including regular loose of temper, being angry and resentful, argues with authorities without any significant reason. It is importance to note that the persistence and frequency of these behaviors should be used to differentiate between normal behavior and symptoms of the oppositional disorder. The disease causes a massive effect on patient’s mental and physical wellbeing.
The most common cause of the oppositional disorder is the genetic influence. Research has shown that parents tend to pass on expressing disorder to their children, and it may be displayed in multiple ways. The disease can be easily diagnosed basing on the extent at which the change of behavior causes distress to the family members or drastic changes in academic and social functioning. These behaviors must persist.
1Running Head FINAL PROPOSAL CHILD ABUSE AND ADULT MENTAL HEAL.docxdrennanmicah
1
Running Head: FINAL PROPOSAL: CHILD ABUSE AND ADULT MENTAL HEALTH
2
FINAL PROPOSAL: CHILD ABUSE AND ADULT MENTAL HEALTH
Diamond Newton
Southern New Hampshire University
March 3, 2019
Problem Statement
Several adults struggle from a variety of mental health issues (suicidal thoughts and tendencies, alcoholism, depression, and drug abusers.) A lot of those issues may stem from what took place during an adult’s childhood that stem from a variety of reasons. Some adults seek help and some refuse to seek help. The adults who do seek help come to realize that their current issues stem from when they were a child and still developing as a human. Child abuse can come in many forms, physical, mental, and sexual. Adults who have been exposed or experienced this are likely to suffer from some form of mental health issue. It is important to figure out the root of mental health issues in adults so the root can be addressed. Children need to be in a healthy environment with nothing short of love and care. Exposing children to a harsh reality is only breeding them into an adult who suffers from mental health issues.
Literature Review
The study of psychology helps researchers to understand better what is going on with a person. Researchers studied what happened in a person's life that causes them to make the decisions they do and behave in a certain way. Adults have this stigmatism that they can do whatever they want because they are "grown." Many adults suffer from something that can cause to lead towards suicidal thoughts and tendencies, alcoholism, depression, and drug abusers. A lot of those issues may stem from what took place during an adult’s childhood. There could be some reasons adults tend to display certain mental health traits that have been studied in many different forms by researchers. What we will be reviewed is the abuse, physical or mental, that an adult endured as a child and how it affects them in their adulthood.
Blanco, C., Grant, B. F., Hasin, D. S., Lin, K. H., Olfson, M. Sugaya, L. (2012) recognized that child physical abuse had been associated with an increased risk of suicide attempts. The study conducted included Blacks, Hispanics and young adults between the ages of 18-24 in 2001-2002 and 2004-2005. In person, interviews were conducted in Wave 1. In Wave 2 used similar methods as Wave 1 but it excluded the individuals who were not eligible. Wave 2 also interviews went into depth about the questions asked for the participants first 17 years of life. There are many other variables that have been added to the data that relate to childhood physical abuse and mental health distress in adult years. Those other adversatives included the history of child sexual abuse and neglect, parental psychopathology, and perceived parental support, described as emotional neglect.
The advantages to this design would be the inclusion of other childhood adversities that could contribute to adult psychiatri.
This study examined the relationship between autism symptoms, victimization by peers, and aggression in youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). One hundred and twenty youth with ASD and their caregivers completed questionnaires assessing these variables. Results showed that greater autism symptoms predicted higher rates of victimization by peers and proactive aggression. Victimization by peers also predicted higher proactive aggression. Mediation analyses found that victimization by peers partially mediated the relationship between autism symptoms and proactive aggression. However, autism symptoms and victimization did not predict reactive aggression. This suggests that social factors like peer victimization may influence proactive but not reactive aggression in youth with ASD.
Children and antisocial personality disorderalbrandon
Children who exhibit antisocial behavior and conduct problems are more likely to develop antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) as adults. ASPD is characterized by behaviors such as breaking laws, lying, aggression, and lack of remorse. Several studies examined links between childhood abuse, homelessness, ADHD, conduct disorder, and adult criminal behavior or ASPD. While the literature cannot say definitively that childhood conduct problems cause ASPD, it raises the possibility. Interventions in childhood may help reduce antisocial behavior and the potential development of ASPD, but more research is needed to identify the most effective intervention approaches for different disorders.
1. The study examined the relationship between social stressors (low parental warmth, peer victimization) experienced in early adolescence and later neural response to rewards and depressive symptoms.
2. Low parental warmth was associated with increased neural response to potential rewards in the medial prefrontal cortex, striatum, and amygdala. Peer victimization was associated with decreased response in the medial prefrontal cortex.
3. Concurrent depressive symptoms at age 16 were associated with increased reward anticipation response in medial prefrontal cortex and striatal regions. Response in these regions mediated the association between early social stressors and later depressive symptoms.
This document discusses research on childhood anxiety disorders and their effects over the lifespan. It describes a longitudinal study called the Great Smoky Mountains Study that explored anxiety symptoms from childhood to adolescence. The study found that over 16% of participants met criteria for an anxiety disorder. Specific phobias and oppositional defiant disorder tended to remain stable over time, while rates of social anxiety disorder and ADHD decreased from childhood to adolescence. Girls had higher rates of anxiety disorders and depression compared to boys. The study provided insight into the progression and prevalence of various childhood anxiety disorders.
This thesis explores the experiences of young adults aged 18-27 who have a sibling diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 14 participants to understand their childhood experiences growing up with an autistic sibling, the impact on family relationships, their current relationship with their sibling, and future concerns. Quantitative measures were also used to assess autism symptoms, sibling relationship quality, and coping strategies. Thematic analysis of the interviews identified themes relating to the challenges of childhood, impacts on personal development and family, aspects of the current relationship, and concerns about future care needs. The findings provide insight into both the difficulties and strengths experienced by those with an autistic sibling across the lifespan.
Child-, adolescent- and young adult-onsetdepressions differ.docxchristinemaritza
Child-, adolescent- and young adult-onset
depressions: differential risk factors in development?
L. Shanahan1*, W. E. Copeland2, E. J. Costello2 and A. Angold2
1 Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, NC, USA
2 Developmental Epidemiology Program, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
Background. Previous research reported that childhood adversity predicts juvenile- onset but not adult-onset
depression, but studies confounded potentially genuine differences in adversity with differences in the recency with
which adversity was experienced. The current study paper took into account the recency of risk when testing for
differences among child-, adolescent- and young adult-onset depressions.
Method. Up to nine waves of data were used per subject from two cohorts of the Great Smoky Mountains Study
(GSMS; n=1004), covering children in the community aged 9–16, 19 and 21 years. Youth and one of their parents
were interviewed using the Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (CAPA) between ages 9 and 16 ; these same
youth were interviewed using the Young Adult Psychiatric Assessment (YAPA) at ages 19 and 21. The most common
psychosocial risk factors for depression were assessed : poverty, life events, parental psychopathology, maltreatment,
and family dysfunction.
Results. Consistent with previous research, most childhood psychosocial risk factors were more strongly associated
with child-onset than with adolescent-/adult-onset depression. When potentially genuine risk differences among the
depression-onset groups were disentangled from differences due to the recency of risk, child- and young adult-onset
depression were no longer different from one another. Adolescent-onset depression was associated with few
psychosocial risk factors.
Conclusions. There were no differences in putative risk factors between child- and young adult-onset depression
when the recency of risk was taken into account. Adolescent-onset depression was associated with few psychosocial
risk factors. It is possible that some adolescent-onset depression cases differ in terms of risk from child- and young
adult-onset depression.
Received 23 September 2010 ; Revised 4 April 2011 ; Accepted 9 April 2011 ; First published online 6 May 2011
Key words : Depression, development, epidemiology, onset, psychosocial risk factors.
Introduction
Do child-, adolescent- and adult-onset depression
have the same risk correlates and precursors
(Kaufman et al. 2001)? The answer to this question is
unclear. Neurobiological and treatment research has
found that usually two, but not all three, of these
depression-onset groups share common correlates
(Kaufman et al. 2001), suggesting a complex picture of
both shared and non-shared pathways to the onset
of depression at different points in development.
If developmental subtypes of depression differed in
terms of risk, examining them separately for purposes
of biosocial research, p ...
Due Monday August 22, 2016 8am $40.00 please be 100 original OP.docxhasselldelisa
Due Monday August 22, 2016 8am
$40.00 please be 100% original
OPPOSITIONAL DISORDER DISEASE
The research paper will be any disease or condition of the body. The paper must include a thorough description of the disease/condition; current statistics of those affected - epidemiology; financial costs both terms of treatment and loss of productivity; explanations on how the various body systems (anatomically and/or physiologically) are affected; etiology; medications/treatments that are available; prognosis of those affected, and future outlook in general.
Research paper must have 1200 words no more then 1500 not to include abstract,cover paper,annotate.
* cover/title page (page 1)
* corrected abstract (page 2) ( abstract paper turn in I am missing a lot of work )
Must be in the abstract
Statistic/ Epidemiology
Financial cost
Anatomy & Physiology
Etiology (cause)
Diagnosis/ treatment/ prognosis
Abstract
In recent a post, oppositional disorder diseases has been on the rise, raising questions about the manner in which diseases is spreading especially among children. The high prevalence levels of the oppositional disorder have raised more concerns especially form the health, sectors thus developing the need to understand the disorder better. This research paper will, therefore, encompass a broad perspective of oppositional disorder disease to effectively understand how it is manifested, various ways in which it manifests itself to develop preventive strategy much earlier before the situation reaches full-blown.
Unlike the common conduct disorder where the patient is more aggressive towards people and animals, the oppositional disorder is more silent, and it takes time for it to be detected. The lifetime prevalence of the disease is estimated to be 10.2%. The disease is mostly observed in children and adolescents across the globe.
Some of the common symptoms of the disease involve a certain behavior where children’s behavior is much different compared to their peers. A patient suffering from oppositional disorder tends to have a turn in their behavior including regular loose of temper, being angry and resentful, argues with authorities without any significant reason. It is importance to note that the persistence and frequency of these behaviors should be used to differentiate between normal behavior and symptoms of the oppositional disorder. The disease causes a massive effect on patient’s mental and physical wellbeing.
The most common cause of the oppositional disorder is the genetic influence. Research has shown that parents tend to pass on expressing disorder to their children, and it may be displayed in multiple ways. The disease can be easily diagnosed basing on the extent at which the change of behavior causes distress to the family members or drastic changes in academic and social functioning. These behaviors must persist.
1Running Head FINAL PROPOSAL CHILD ABUSE AND ADULT MENTAL HEAL.docxdrennanmicah
1
Running Head: FINAL PROPOSAL: CHILD ABUSE AND ADULT MENTAL HEALTH
2
FINAL PROPOSAL: CHILD ABUSE AND ADULT MENTAL HEALTH
Diamond Newton
Southern New Hampshire University
March 3, 2019
Problem Statement
Several adults struggle from a variety of mental health issues (suicidal thoughts and tendencies, alcoholism, depression, and drug abusers.) A lot of those issues may stem from what took place during an adult’s childhood that stem from a variety of reasons. Some adults seek help and some refuse to seek help. The adults who do seek help come to realize that their current issues stem from when they were a child and still developing as a human. Child abuse can come in many forms, physical, mental, and sexual. Adults who have been exposed or experienced this are likely to suffer from some form of mental health issue. It is important to figure out the root of mental health issues in adults so the root can be addressed. Children need to be in a healthy environment with nothing short of love and care. Exposing children to a harsh reality is only breeding them into an adult who suffers from mental health issues.
Literature Review
The study of psychology helps researchers to understand better what is going on with a person. Researchers studied what happened in a person's life that causes them to make the decisions they do and behave in a certain way. Adults have this stigmatism that they can do whatever they want because they are "grown." Many adults suffer from something that can cause to lead towards suicidal thoughts and tendencies, alcoholism, depression, and drug abusers. A lot of those issues may stem from what took place during an adult’s childhood. There could be some reasons adults tend to display certain mental health traits that have been studied in many different forms by researchers. What we will be reviewed is the abuse, physical or mental, that an adult endured as a child and how it affects them in their adulthood.
Blanco, C., Grant, B. F., Hasin, D. S., Lin, K. H., Olfson, M. Sugaya, L. (2012) recognized that child physical abuse had been associated with an increased risk of suicide attempts. The study conducted included Blacks, Hispanics and young adults between the ages of 18-24 in 2001-2002 and 2004-2005. In person, interviews were conducted in Wave 1. In Wave 2 used similar methods as Wave 1 but it excluded the individuals who were not eligible. Wave 2 also interviews went into depth about the questions asked for the participants first 17 years of life. There are many other variables that have been added to the data that relate to childhood physical abuse and mental health distress in adult years. Those other adversatives included the history of child sexual abuse and neglect, parental psychopathology, and perceived parental support, described as emotional neglect.
The advantages to this design would be the inclusion of other childhood adversities that could contribute to adult psychiatri.
This study examined the relationship between autism symptoms, victimization by peers, and aggression in youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). One hundred and twenty youth with ASD and their caregivers completed questionnaires assessing these variables. Results showed that greater autism symptoms predicted higher rates of victimization by peers and proactive aggression. Victimization by peers also predicted higher proactive aggression. Mediation analyses found that victimization by peers partially mediated the relationship between autism symptoms and proactive aggression. However, autism symptoms and victimization did not predict reactive aggression. This suggests that social factors like peer victimization may influence proactive but not reactive aggression in youth with ASD.
Children and antisocial personality disorderalbrandon
Children who exhibit antisocial behavior and conduct problems are more likely to develop antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) as adults. ASPD is characterized by behaviors such as breaking laws, lying, aggression, and lack of remorse. Several studies examined links between childhood abuse, homelessness, ADHD, conduct disorder, and adult criminal behavior or ASPD. While the literature cannot say definitively that childhood conduct problems cause ASPD, it raises the possibility. Interventions in childhood may help reduce antisocial behavior and the potential development of ASPD, but more research is needed to identify the most effective intervention approaches for different disorders.
1. The study examined the relationship between social stressors (low parental warmth, peer victimization) experienced in early adolescence and later neural response to rewards and depressive symptoms.
2. Low parental warmth was associated with increased neural response to potential rewards in the medial prefrontal cortex, striatum, and amygdala. Peer victimization was associated with decreased response in the medial prefrontal cortex.
3. Concurrent depressive symptoms at age 16 were associated with increased reward anticipation response in medial prefrontal cortex and striatal regions. Response in these regions mediated the association between early social stressors and later depressive symptoms.
This document discusses research on childhood anxiety disorders and their effects over the lifespan. It describes a longitudinal study called the Great Smoky Mountains Study that explored anxiety symptoms from childhood to adolescence. The study found that over 16% of participants met criteria for an anxiety disorder. Specific phobias and oppositional defiant disorder tended to remain stable over time, while rates of social anxiety disorder and ADHD decreased from childhood to adolescence. Girls had higher rates of anxiety disorders and depression compared to boys. The study provided insight into the progression and prevalence of various childhood anxiety disorders.
This thesis explores the experiences of young adults aged 18-27 who have a sibling diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 14 participants to understand their childhood experiences growing up with an autistic sibling, the impact on family relationships, their current relationship with their sibling, and future concerns. Quantitative measures were also used to assess autism symptoms, sibling relationship quality, and coping strategies. Thematic analysis of the interviews identified themes relating to the challenges of childhood, impacts on personal development and family, aspects of the current relationship, and concerns about future care needs. The findings provide insight into both the difficulties and strengths experienced by those with an autistic sibling across the lifespan.
Child-, adolescent- and young adult-onsetdepressions differ.docxchristinemaritza
Child-, adolescent- and young adult-onset
depressions: differential risk factors in development?
L. Shanahan1*, W. E. Copeland2, E. J. Costello2 and A. Angold2
1 Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, NC, USA
2 Developmental Epidemiology Program, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
Background. Previous research reported that childhood adversity predicts juvenile- onset but not adult-onset
depression, but studies confounded potentially genuine differences in adversity with differences in the recency with
which adversity was experienced. The current study paper took into account the recency of risk when testing for
differences among child-, adolescent- and young adult-onset depressions.
Method. Up to nine waves of data were used per subject from two cohorts of the Great Smoky Mountains Study
(GSMS; n=1004), covering children in the community aged 9–16, 19 and 21 years. Youth and one of their parents
were interviewed using the Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (CAPA) between ages 9 and 16 ; these same
youth were interviewed using the Young Adult Psychiatric Assessment (YAPA) at ages 19 and 21. The most common
psychosocial risk factors for depression were assessed : poverty, life events, parental psychopathology, maltreatment,
and family dysfunction.
Results. Consistent with previous research, most childhood psychosocial risk factors were more strongly associated
with child-onset than with adolescent-/adult-onset depression. When potentially genuine risk differences among the
depression-onset groups were disentangled from differences due to the recency of risk, child- and young adult-onset
depression were no longer different from one another. Adolescent-onset depression was associated with few
psychosocial risk factors.
Conclusions. There were no differences in putative risk factors between child- and young adult-onset depression
when the recency of risk was taken into account. Adolescent-onset depression was associated with few psychosocial
risk factors. It is possible that some adolescent-onset depression cases differ in terms of risk from child- and young
adult-onset depression.
Received 23 September 2010 ; Revised 4 April 2011 ; Accepted 9 April 2011 ; First published online 6 May 2011
Key words : Depression, development, epidemiology, onset, psychosocial risk factors.
Introduction
Do child-, adolescent- and adult-onset depression
have the same risk correlates and precursors
(Kaufman et al. 2001)? The answer to this question is
unclear. Neurobiological and treatment research has
found that usually two, but not all three, of these
depression-onset groups share common correlates
(Kaufman et al. 2001), suggesting a complex picture of
both shared and non-shared pathways to the onset
of depression at different points in development.
If developmental subtypes of depression differed in
terms of risk, examining them separately for purposes
of biosocial research, p ...
The Experiences of Adults Exposed toIntimate Partner Violenc.docxcherry686017
The document summarizes a qualitative study that explored protective factors and resilience in adults exposed to intimate partner violence as children. Ten participants were interviewed about internal, family, and external factors that contributed to their resilience. The study found 10 major and 5 minor themes around protective factors. The themes were organized into internal factors/individual characteristics, family factors, and external factors. The study provides insight into understanding resilience for children exposed to intimate partner violence.
Peer Response Unit 5 LifespanResponse Guidelines for both peer r.docxrandyburney60861
Peer Response Unit 5 Lifespan
Response Guidelines for both peer responses (#1 and #2)
Your responses to other learners are expected to be substantive in nature and to reference the assigned readings, as well as other theoretical, empirical, or professional literature to support your views and writings. Use the following critique guidelines:
The clarity and completeness of your peer's post.
The demonstrated ability to apply theory to practice.
The credibility of the references.
The structure and style of the written post.
Peer Response #1
A.Flogel
Adolescence is a time of high emotional reactivity and development of social identity. Adolescents learn who they are in relation to others while at the same time experiencing more mood disruption than any other stage of life. At this stage, development from early experiences has already impacted them and how they feel about and interact with peers. This along with the fact that the frontal lobe of the brain, responsible for higher order fuctioning such as self-regulation and judgment, is not fully developed, can explain why this stage gives way to risky behaviors (Broderick & Blewitt, 2014). One particularly troubling behavior in adolescents is drug use. Not only is this harmful to the individual at the time, but it often leads to lifelong difficulty with addiction. There are several risk factors that can increase the likelihood of drug use in adolescence.
One very relevant factor to drug use is self-concept, which starts developing in early childhood, but especially develops in adolescence. This can include one's physical, social, family, and academic self-concept. A study that analyzed the relationship between self-concept and drug use found that negative self-concept in categories of family, academics, and physical appearance was significantly correlated with drug use (Maria et al., 2011).
Another factor highly correlated with drug use is exposure to "potentially traumatic events" prior to age 11. These events include threats to physical or emotional harm. The Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry published a study using a national survey examining the link between these PTEs and drug use in adolescence, and found a positive relationship between PTEs and use of marijuana, cocaine, and prescription drugs (Carliner et al., 2016).
Although much evidence has been found regarding environmental influences, heritability also plays a role. A longitudinal study found that heritability of externalizing behavior in adolescents was 56%, and 27% for drug use (Korhonen et al., 2012).
These factors often interact with each other. For example, when a parent is genetically inclined to externalize, often the parent will abuse drugs, creating an unstable environment for their child. They may be less responsive in early childhood, creating an insecure attachment and a poor self-concept. Parental drug use and general externalizing behavior may also expose a child to potenti.
Research-Based Interventions: Dissociative Identity Disorder 1
THIS IS AN EXAMPLE PLEASE DO NO COPY DO NOT PLAGiarism
Research-Based Interventions: Dissociative Identity Disorder
“Dissociative identity disorder is characterized by the presence of two or more identities or personality states, each with its relatively enduring pattern of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and the self” (Vermetten, Schmahl, Lindner, Loewenstein, & Bremner, 2006). There are many characteristics used that accompany Dissociative Disorder (DID). One method to understanding would be to know how the disorders are classified and defined. DID may be conceptualized effectively using the diathesis-stress model. There are many different intervention strategies for this disorder as well. Over time researchers have discovered the most effective treatments and interventions that can be used regarding DID. When one dissociates, the person may not have conscious awareness of what is happening (Vermetten, Schmahl, Lindner, Loewenstein, & Bremner, 2006).
Peer-reviewed Articles
One limitless, longitudinal, naturalistic, and prospective study investigated childhood maltreatment (CM) in adult intimate partner violence (IPV) victims among Dissociative Disorder (DD) patients with Dissociative Identity Disorder with CM rates of 80-95% and severe dissociative symptoms (Webermann, Brand, & Chasson, 2014). The methods of this study include 275 DD outpatient therapy patients who completed a self-reported measure of dissociation (Webermann, Brand, & Chasson, 2014). Analyses assessed associations between CM typologies, trait dissociation, and IPV (Webermann, Brand, & Chasson, 2014). The results of this study include emotional and physical child abuse associated with childhood witnessing of domestic violence, physical, and emotional IPV (Webermann, Brand, & Chasson, 2014) Two-tailed independent samples t -tests and z-tests were used in this study to represent data as well. “As an effect size, odds ratios (ORs) were calculated to predict the likelihood of a participant being in an abusive adult relationship if they experienced a particular type of CM” (Webermann, Brand, & Chasson, 2014, p. 5).
A double-blind study was conducted including 15 females with DID compared to 23 without psychopathology., chosen by self-disclosure results of a questionnaire along with a structured clinical interview by psychiatrists The objective was to examine the volumetric differences between amygdala and hippocampal volumes in patients with dissociative identity disorder, a disorder that has been associated with a history of severe childhood trauma (Vermetten, Schmahl, Lindner, Loewenstein, & Bremner, 2006). These researchers used MRI to measure volumes of the amygdala and hippocampus. The results included the volume of the hippocampus being 19.2 % smaller and the amygdala being 31.6% smaller in patients with DID when compared to the other subjects without psychopath ...
This study investigated whether the previously observed association between pedophilia and lower IQ scores is influenced by the source of patient referrals. The study analyzed data from 832 male patients referred to a clinic for sexual behavior evaluations. Patients were assigned to groups based on their erotic preferences for children or adults, as assessed by phallometric testing. Results showed lower IQ scores and increased rates of non-right-handedness were associated with pedophilia, regardless of whether patients were referred by lawyers, parole/probation officers, or other sources. This supported the conclusion that the link between pedophilia and cognitive function is real and not due to referral biases. The findings were interpreted as evidence that neurodevelopmental problems may increase
Contents lists available at ScienceDirectResearch in AutisAlleneMcclendon878
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rasd
Self-reported emotion regulation in children with autism spectrum
disorder, without intellectual disability
Talia Burtona,*, Belinda Ratcliffea,b, James Collisona, David Dossetorb,
Michelle Wongb
a School of Social Sciences and Psychology, Western Sydney University, Bankstown Campus, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
b Department of Psychological Medicine, The Children’s Hospital at Westmead, Locked Bag 4001, Westmead, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
A R T I C L E I N F O
Number of reviews completed is 2
Keywords:
Autism spectrum disorder
Emotion regulation
Social skills
Mental health
Autism severity
A B S T R A C T
Background: Emotion regulation (ER) may be a critical underlying factor contributing to mental
health disorders in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Scant literature has utilised
self-reported ER in children with ASD and explored the association between mental health and
social skills. This study explored the association between self-reported ER skills, and parent/
teacher proxy reports of ER, social skills, autism severity and mental health.
Method: The pre-existing data set included a community sample of 217 students aged seven to
13-years (Mage = 9.51, SD = 1.26; 195 Male, 22 Female) with ASD. The study employed a
correlational design, whereby existing variables were explored as they occurred naturally (Hills,
2011). Children self-rated ER, while parents and teachers rated ER, social skills, and mental
health difficulties via standardised questionnaires.
Results: Multiple regression analyses were conducted separately for parent and teacher reports.
The linear combination of parent-reported emotion regulation, social skills, autism severity, and
child-reported ER accounted for 46.5 % of the variance, compared to 58.7 % for the teacher-
report analysis. Social skills appeared to be a stronger predictor of mental difficulties than
emotional regulation irrespective of source.
Conclusions: The current study suggests self-reported ER to be a significant contributor to mental
health when in isolation. However, in the context of social skills and autism severity, ER is no
longer a significant contributor in a child and adolescent community sample, in determining
mental health. This suggests, that for children aged seven to 13-years with ASD, without ID, to
reduce mental health difficulties, social skills may be the focus of intervention, with some focus
on ER ability.
1. Introduction
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by difficulties in two core domains; social-
communication and restricted/ repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests or activities (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Compared to their typically developing (TD) peers, children with ASD have difficulties in social-emotional reciprocity, non-verbal
social-communicativ ...
The document discusses research on the relationship between childhood trauma and the development of borderline personality disorder (BPD). It summarizes that research has found childhood trauma, such as abuse, neglect, parental loss or divorce, is very common in those diagnosed with BPD. Events like 9/11 that caused trauma through parental loss could potentially increase BPD diagnoses later in life. The document concludes that childhood trauma interrupts healthy attachment and increases the likelihood of a BPD diagnosis, though more research is still needed.
ORIGINAL ARTICLE Curretit health c&e delivery sites’ Ii,’.docxjacksnathalie
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Curretit health c&e delivery sites’: Ii,’
are examined, and recommenda- ’
tions are given for improvement
of both practitioner skills and
health care programs targeting
these youth. J Pediatr Health
Care. (1997). 11, 266-274.
Psychosocial Issues in
Primary Care of
Lesbian, Gay,
Bisexual, and
Pansgender Youth
Jennifer L. Kreiss, MN, RN, and
Diana L. Patterson, DSN
T he passage through puberty, peer group acceptance, and
the establishment of a personal identity are all developmental
tasks of the adolescent years. For the youth who is lesbian, gay,
bisexual, or transgender, self-acceptance and identity forma-
tion in the face of a heterosexist society are difficult tasks asso-
ciated with many risks to physical, emotional, and social
health. Gay and bisexual males are at particularly high risk for
acquiring sexually transmitted diseases, including human
Jennifer L. Kreiss is a Pediatric Nurse Practitioner at Children’s Hospital & Medical Center in Seattle,
Washington.
Diana L. Patterson is an Assistant Professor in Family and Child Nursing at the University of Washington and is
Nursing Discipline Head at Adolescent Clinic at the University of Washington in Seattle, Washington.
Reprint requests: Jennifer Kreiss, MN, RN, Children’s Hospital Medical Center, 4800 Sand Point Way NE, P.O.
Box 5371, Seattle, WA 98105-0371.
Copyright 0 1997 by the National Association of Pediatric Nurse Associates & Practitioners.
0891.5245/97/$5.00 + 0 25/l/79212
266 November/December 1997
Kreiss & Patterson
immunodeficiency virus and ac-
quired immunodeficiency syn-
drome (Zenilman, 1988). Lesbian,
gay, bisexual, and transgender
youth are also at increased risk for
low self-esteem, depression, sui-
cide (Remafedi, Farrow, & De&her,
1991), substance abuse, school
problems, family rejection and dis-
cord, running away, homelessness,
and prostitution (Kruks, 1991;
Remafedi, 1990; Savin-Williams,
1994). The psychosocial health con-
cerns faced by sexual minority
youth are primarily the result of
societal stigma, hatred, hostility,
isolation, and alienation (American
Academy of Pediatrics Committee
on Adolescence, 1993). One of the
roles of the primary health care
provider is to recognize adoles-
cents who are struggling with sex-
ual orientation issues and support
a healthy passage through the spe-
cial challenges of the teen years.
In recent years homosexuality
has become increasingly main-
stream. Images of lesbians and gay
men are visible in every venue of
popular culture, from television
shows and films to famous sports
stars and musicians. Presidential
speeches and national debates
occur on questions of gays in the
military, gay marriage and parent-
ing, domestic partnerships, and the
acquired immunodeficiency syn-
drome epidemic. The heightened
public awareness makes it easier
for adolescents to recognize the
meaning of same-sex attractions
and to self-.
This study examines the relationship between experiences of repeated bullying victimization before age 12 and levels of depression in late adolescence and adulthood, while controlling for prior mental health and stressful life events. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, the study finds that repeated bullying victimization before age 12 is associated with higher levels of depression from late adolescence into adulthood. Subgroup analyses show these relationships are specific to females, with whites primarily affected in late adolescence and non-whites in adulthood. The study concludes that experiences of bullying during childhood can serve as a marker for subsequent mental health problems later in life.
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) and Sexually Inappropriate Behaviors: ...BARRY STANLEY 2 fasd
This document provides a guide for criminal justice and forensic mental health professionals on Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) and its relationship to sexually inappropriate behaviors. It discusses how FASD causes impairments in cognitive, social, and adaptive functioning that can increase the risk of inappropriate sexual behaviors. Screening and assessment of FASD is difficult due to variability in symptoms. Standard sex offender treatment is often ineffective for those with FASD. The document calls for more training of professionals, specialized treatment, and further research on this topic.
Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd)Joy Maria Mitchell
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder. ADHD is the commonly studied and
diagnosed as psychiatric disorder. Here we shall see the relation between extraversion and ADHD, neuroticism,
biological relation, Environmental factors and with diagnosis of ADHD. It is known that Genetics is one of the factors
that may contribute to, or exacerbate ADHD. Recent research probing towards the environmental and Genetic factors
causing ADHD differences is the main source for investigation
Asperger syndrome in childhood personality dimensions in adult lifemiriam odar
Study about to examine temperament and character in males that were diagnosed with ASD in childhood and followed prospectively over almost two decades.
This document summarizes research on the neurological basis and treatment of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). Studies have found deficits in brain areas like the prefrontal cortex, limbic system, and hippocampus in individuals with ASPD. Lower levels of serotonin have also been linked to ASPD. Treatments for ASPD are limited due to the manipulative nature of those with the disorder and low treatment seeking. More research is needed to better understand the causes of ASPD and develop effective treatments.
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by a persistent lack of attention and/or heightened activity level compared to peers. It is diagnosed when these behaviors are present in multiple settings and interfere with functioning. However, the diagnostic criteria and assessment procedures for ADHD have been criticized for being subjective and not scientifically validated. There is ongoing debate around ADHD's classification as a disorder and appropriate treatment approaches.
PSY 211 Example Research Design WorksheetComplete each section o.docxpotmanandrea
PSY 211 Example Research Design Worksheet
Complete each section of this worksheet. You will use this worksheet to inform the Research Design section of your final project submission.
Citation of Literature
Bechtold, J., Simpson, T., White, H. R., & Pardini, D. (2015). Chronic adolescent marijuana use as a risk factor for physical and mental health problems in young adult men. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 29(3), 552–563.
Gap Identification
Many studies look at the effects of marijuana use on prenatal development and possible physical and psychological effects throughout the life span, particularly in teenagers and young adults. Researchers have also studied the factors that influence marijuana use across different age groups and in various environments. Some states are legalizing recreational marijuana use, but there has not been much time to study how that influences marijuana use among people in different age groups from varying environmental and racial, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds (gap).
Research Question
Are adults who smoked marijuana recreationally during their teenage years more likely to continue recreational marijuana use in states where that use is legal?
Research Design
I would use a qualitative design for this study because I am looking at hard data (chosen design type and reason for choosing it. Note that this is an experimental design; however, your design may lend itself to descriptive or correlational). My independent variable is the legal status of marijuana. Marijuana use in adulthood is the dependent variable (independent and dependent variables). I would recruit participants from four states—two where recreational marijuana use is legal and two where it is not legal at all for recreational or medicinal use. I would use Colorado and Washington as the two legal states and Idaho and Wyoming as the two illegal states. The studies in my chosen track focused on certain cities, so I chose the latter two states to ensure that all four choices are within roughly the same geographical region. I chose Idaho and Wyoming specifically because personal use possession is not decriminalized in those states and is a misdemeanor rather than a felony (choosing study population).
Previous and current marijuana use would be self-reported via questionnaires. I would use both male and female participants for this study, as the studies in my research track focused on males, which I see as a potential bias (identification and addressing of potential bias). I would like to see if there are gender-related differences. I would administer an initial screening assessment asking about frequency of marijuana use prior to age 20 and the way in which participants viewed their use (sporadically/experimentally vs. regularly/recreationally). I would select those who use marijuana recreationally on a regular basis for the actual study. (Additional study details, which can be added as necessary. Your study may span a longer time period, for e ...
This study examined predictors of suicide attempts among adolescents attending Seventh-day Adventist schools in the US. It found depression to be the strongest predictor of suicide attempts. Having a negative family climate and less caring parenting also predicted higher rates of suicide attempts, while intrinsic religious orientation predicted lower rates. A survey of over 10,000 students found that depression, family relationships, parenting styles, and religious commitment were significant factors influencing suicidal ideation among this conservative religious group.
This study examined factors related to posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) in pediatric cancer patients and their caregivers. The researchers analyzed surveys from 31 patient-caregiver dyads. They found that patient-reported PTSS was predicted by self-reported worry, while caregiver-reported patient PTSS was predicted by the caregiver's perception of the patient's physical appearance. Additionally, caregiver-reported caregiver PTSS was predicted by the caregiver's report of the patient's psychosocial functioning. The results suggest discrepancies between how patients and caregivers view factors related to PTSS.
This study aims to track the development of children diagnosed with ADHD, bipolar disorder, or disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD) from ages 4 to 17 to better understand how these disorders manifest and change over time. Children in each diagnostic group will be interviewed using standardized assessments every two years. The researcher hypothesizes that as the study progresses, more children originally diagnosed with ADHD or bipolar disorder will meet criteria for DMDD instead. Identifying any misdiagnoses could help provide more appropriate treatment tailored to each child's needs.
S23S P E C I A L R E P O R T L G B T B i o e t h i c .docxhallettfaustina
S23S P E C I A L R E P O R T: L G B T B i o e t h i c s : V i s i b i l i t y, D i s p a r i t i e s , a n d D i a l o g u e
Hormone Treatment of Children and
Adolescents with Gender Dysphoria:
An Ethical Analysis
by Brendan S. Abel
C
hildren are generally unable to provide au-
tonomous, independent informed consent for
medical treatments. This long-standing tenet of
pediatric care protects children who often do not pos-
sess fully developed cognitive decision-making capacity
by preventing rash, permanent, and potentially regret-
table medical decisions. As pediatric patients become
adolescents and approach adulthood, their involvement
in medical decision-making often increases to take into
account their values and preferences.1 But until a youth
reaches the age of majority, the medical decision-making
process generally includes permission from parents or
guardians and informed assent from the patient to the
degree appropriate.
In the context of transgender health, most people are
not comfortable with allowing a twelve-year-old child
with gender dysphoria to elect to undergo gender reas-
signment surgery. The likelihood is too high that the
child would be unable to fully comprehend the scope
of a decision that carries significant, permanent conse-
quences, particularly because the decision to surgically
change gender is based upon a conception of gender that
can fluctuate during adolescent years. Conversely, how-
ever, most people would not contend that this fluidity is
reason to wholly deny certain medical care such as hor-
monal treatments to transgender youth, a demographic
with extremely high rates of violent behavior, self-harm,
and suicide. This paper will explore ethical consider-
ations relevant to this emerging debate of what therapeu-
tic options should be offered to transgender children and
adolescents.
Pediatric endocrinologists have been treating gender
dysphoric adolescents with puberty-suppressing drugs
and, to a lesser extent, with cross-sex hormone therapies
for more than twenty years. Clinicians and thought lead-
ers have mentioned ethical components of this emerg-
ing practice in the few cohort studies and clinical review
articles about the subject. However, ethics have generally
been a secondary consideration in the medical academic
literature. In this paper, I will provide a brief overview of
the practice, summarize the current research on hormone
treatment for transgender minors, and provide an ethical
analysis of the practice.
Clinical Overview
Gender dysphoria, termed “gender identity disorder” in prior iterations of the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders, is marked by an incongru-
ence between one’s experienced or expressed gender and
the gender to which the person has been assigned (usu-
ally at birth, referred to as the natal gender).2 The new
DSM-5 defines an individual with gender dysphoria as
a person who fulfills six of eight enumerated charac ...
The document discusses planning for material and resource requirements in operations management. It describes the relationships between forecasting, aggregate planning, master scheduling, MRP, and capacity planning. A case study is provided on how a toy company develops its aggregate production plan and master production schedule to meet demand forecasts while maintaining consistent production levels and workforce. The master schedule is adjusted as actual customer orders are received to ensure demand can be met from current inventory and production levels.
a 12 page paper on how individuals of color would be a more dominant.docxpriestmanmable
a 12 page paper on how individuals of color would be a more dominant number if they had more resources and discrimination of color was ceased. Must include those who discriminate against skin color and must include facts from sources that help individuals gain insight on the possibility of colored individuals thriving in society if same resourcesAnd equal opportunity was provided.
.
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The document summarizes a qualitative study that explored protective factors and resilience in adults exposed to intimate partner violence as children. Ten participants were interviewed about internal, family, and external factors that contributed to their resilience. The study found 10 major and 5 minor themes around protective factors. The themes were organized into internal factors/individual characteristics, family factors, and external factors. The study provides insight into understanding resilience for children exposed to intimate partner violence.
Peer Response Unit 5 LifespanResponse Guidelines for both peer r.docxrandyburney60861
Peer Response Unit 5 Lifespan
Response Guidelines for both peer responses (#1 and #2)
Your responses to other learners are expected to be substantive in nature and to reference the assigned readings, as well as other theoretical, empirical, or professional literature to support your views and writings. Use the following critique guidelines:
The clarity and completeness of your peer's post.
The demonstrated ability to apply theory to practice.
The credibility of the references.
The structure and style of the written post.
Peer Response #1
A.Flogel
Adolescence is a time of high emotional reactivity and development of social identity. Adolescents learn who they are in relation to others while at the same time experiencing more mood disruption than any other stage of life. At this stage, development from early experiences has already impacted them and how they feel about and interact with peers. This along with the fact that the frontal lobe of the brain, responsible for higher order fuctioning such as self-regulation and judgment, is not fully developed, can explain why this stage gives way to risky behaviors (Broderick & Blewitt, 2014). One particularly troubling behavior in adolescents is drug use. Not only is this harmful to the individual at the time, but it often leads to lifelong difficulty with addiction. There are several risk factors that can increase the likelihood of drug use in adolescence.
One very relevant factor to drug use is self-concept, which starts developing in early childhood, but especially develops in adolescence. This can include one's physical, social, family, and academic self-concept. A study that analyzed the relationship between self-concept and drug use found that negative self-concept in categories of family, academics, and physical appearance was significantly correlated with drug use (Maria et al., 2011).
Another factor highly correlated with drug use is exposure to "potentially traumatic events" prior to age 11. These events include threats to physical or emotional harm. The Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry published a study using a national survey examining the link between these PTEs and drug use in adolescence, and found a positive relationship between PTEs and use of marijuana, cocaine, and prescription drugs (Carliner et al., 2016).
Although much evidence has been found regarding environmental influences, heritability also plays a role. A longitudinal study found that heritability of externalizing behavior in adolescents was 56%, and 27% for drug use (Korhonen et al., 2012).
These factors often interact with each other. For example, when a parent is genetically inclined to externalize, often the parent will abuse drugs, creating an unstable environment for their child. They may be less responsive in early childhood, creating an insecure attachment and a poor self-concept. Parental drug use and general externalizing behavior may also expose a child to potenti.
Research-Based Interventions: Dissociative Identity Disorder 1
THIS IS AN EXAMPLE PLEASE DO NO COPY DO NOT PLAGiarism
Research-Based Interventions: Dissociative Identity Disorder
“Dissociative identity disorder is characterized by the presence of two or more identities or personality states, each with its relatively enduring pattern of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and the self” (Vermetten, Schmahl, Lindner, Loewenstein, & Bremner, 2006). There are many characteristics used that accompany Dissociative Disorder (DID). One method to understanding would be to know how the disorders are classified and defined. DID may be conceptualized effectively using the diathesis-stress model. There are many different intervention strategies for this disorder as well. Over time researchers have discovered the most effective treatments and interventions that can be used regarding DID. When one dissociates, the person may not have conscious awareness of what is happening (Vermetten, Schmahl, Lindner, Loewenstein, & Bremner, 2006).
Peer-reviewed Articles
One limitless, longitudinal, naturalistic, and prospective study investigated childhood maltreatment (CM) in adult intimate partner violence (IPV) victims among Dissociative Disorder (DD) patients with Dissociative Identity Disorder with CM rates of 80-95% and severe dissociative symptoms (Webermann, Brand, & Chasson, 2014). The methods of this study include 275 DD outpatient therapy patients who completed a self-reported measure of dissociation (Webermann, Brand, & Chasson, 2014). Analyses assessed associations between CM typologies, trait dissociation, and IPV (Webermann, Brand, & Chasson, 2014). The results of this study include emotional and physical child abuse associated with childhood witnessing of domestic violence, physical, and emotional IPV (Webermann, Brand, & Chasson, 2014) Two-tailed independent samples t -tests and z-tests were used in this study to represent data as well. “As an effect size, odds ratios (ORs) were calculated to predict the likelihood of a participant being in an abusive adult relationship if they experienced a particular type of CM” (Webermann, Brand, & Chasson, 2014, p. 5).
A double-blind study was conducted including 15 females with DID compared to 23 without psychopathology., chosen by self-disclosure results of a questionnaire along with a structured clinical interview by psychiatrists The objective was to examine the volumetric differences between amygdala and hippocampal volumes in patients with dissociative identity disorder, a disorder that has been associated with a history of severe childhood trauma (Vermetten, Schmahl, Lindner, Loewenstein, & Bremner, 2006). These researchers used MRI to measure volumes of the amygdala and hippocampus. The results included the volume of the hippocampus being 19.2 % smaller and the amygdala being 31.6% smaller in patients with DID when compared to the other subjects without psychopath ...
This study investigated whether the previously observed association between pedophilia and lower IQ scores is influenced by the source of patient referrals. The study analyzed data from 832 male patients referred to a clinic for sexual behavior evaluations. Patients were assigned to groups based on their erotic preferences for children or adults, as assessed by phallometric testing. Results showed lower IQ scores and increased rates of non-right-handedness were associated with pedophilia, regardless of whether patients were referred by lawyers, parole/probation officers, or other sources. This supported the conclusion that the link between pedophilia and cognitive function is real and not due to referral biases. The findings were interpreted as evidence that neurodevelopmental problems may increase
Contents lists available at ScienceDirectResearch in AutisAlleneMcclendon878
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rasd
Self-reported emotion regulation in children with autism spectrum
disorder, without intellectual disability
Talia Burtona,*, Belinda Ratcliffea,b, James Collisona, David Dossetorb,
Michelle Wongb
a School of Social Sciences and Psychology, Western Sydney University, Bankstown Campus, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
b Department of Psychological Medicine, The Children’s Hospital at Westmead, Locked Bag 4001, Westmead, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
A R T I C L E I N F O
Number of reviews completed is 2
Keywords:
Autism spectrum disorder
Emotion regulation
Social skills
Mental health
Autism severity
A B S T R A C T
Background: Emotion regulation (ER) may be a critical underlying factor contributing to mental
health disorders in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Scant literature has utilised
self-reported ER in children with ASD and explored the association between mental health and
social skills. This study explored the association between self-reported ER skills, and parent/
teacher proxy reports of ER, social skills, autism severity and mental health.
Method: The pre-existing data set included a community sample of 217 students aged seven to
13-years (Mage = 9.51, SD = 1.26; 195 Male, 22 Female) with ASD. The study employed a
correlational design, whereby existing variables were explored as they occurred naturally (Hills,
2011). Children self-rated ER, while parents and teachers rated ER, social skills, and mental
health difficulties via standardised questionnaires.
Results: Multiple regression analyses were conducted separately for parent and teacher reports.
The linear combination of parent-reported emotion regulation, social skills, autism severity, and
child-reported ER accounted for 46.5 % of the variance, compared to 58.7 % for the teacher-
report analysis. Social skills appeared to be a stronger predictor of mental difficulties than
emotional regulation irrespective of source.
Conclusions: The current study suggests self-reported ER to be a significant contributor to mental
health when in isolation. However, in the context of social skills and autism severity, ER is no
longer a significant contributor in a child and adolescent community sample, in determining
mental health. This suggests, that for children aged seven to 13-years with ASD, without ID, to
reduce mental health difficulties, social skills may be the focus of intervention, with some focus
on ER ability.
1. Introduction
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by difficulties in two core domains; social-
communication and restricted/ repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests or activities (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Compared to their typically developing (TD) peers, children with ASD have difficulties in social-emotional reciprocity, non-verbal
social-communicativ ...
The document discusses research on the relationship between childhood trauma and the development of borderline personality disorder (BPD). It summarizes that research has found childhood trauma, such as abuse, neglect, parental loss or divorce, is very common in those diagnosed with BPD. Events like 9/11 that caused trauma through parental loss could potentially increase BPD diagnoses later in life. The document concludes that childhood trauma interrupts healthy attachment and increases the likelihood of a BPD diagnosis, though more research is still needed.
ORIGINAL ARTICLE Curretit health c&e delivery sites’ Ii,’.docxjacksnathalie
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Curretit health c&e delivery sites’: Ii,’
are examined, and recommenda- ’
tions are given for improvement
of both practitioner skills and
health care programs targeting
these youth. J Pediatr Health
Care. (1997). 11, 266-274.
Psychosocial Issues in
Primary Care of
Lesbian, Gay,
Bisexual, and
Pansgender Youth
Jennifer L. Kreiss, MN, RN, and
Diana L. Patterson, DSN
T he passage through puberty, peer group acceptance, and
the establishment of a personal identity are all developmental
tasks of the adolescent years. For the youth who is lesbian, gay,
bisexual, or transgender, self-acceptance and identity forma-
tion in the face of a heterosexist society are difficult tasks asso-
ciated with many risks to physical, emotional, and social
health. Gay and bisexual males are at particularly high risk for
acquiring sexually transmitted diseases, including human
Jennifer L. Kreiss is a Pediatric Nurse Practitioner at Children’s Hospital & Medical Center in Seattle,
Washington.
Diana L. Patterson is an Assistant Professor in Family and Child Nursing at the University of Washington and is
Nursing Discipline Head at Adolescent Clinic at the University of Washington in Seattle, Washington.
Reprint requests: Jennifer Kreiss, MN, RN, Children’s Hospital Medical Center, 4800 Sand Point Way NE, P.O.
Box 5371, Seattle, WA 98105-0371.
Copyright 0 1997 by the National Association of Pediatric Nurse Associates & Practitioners.
0891.5245/97/$5.00 + 0 25/l/79212
266 November/December 1997
Kreiss & Patterson
immunodeficiency virus and ac-
quired immunodeficiency syn-
drome (Zenilman, 1988). Lesbian,
gay, bisexual, and transgender
youth are also at increased risk for
low self-esteem, depression, sui-
cide (Remafedi, Farrow, & De&her,
1991), substance abuse, school
problems, family rejection and dis-
cord, running away, homelessness,
and prostitution (Kruks, 1991;
Remafedi, 1990; Savin-Williams,
1994). The psychosocial health con-
cerns faced by sexual minority
youth are primarily the result of
societal stigma, hatred, hostility,
isolation, and alienation (American
Academy of Pediatrics Committee
on Adolescence, 1993). One of the
roles of the primary health care
provider is to recognize adoles-
cents who are struggling with sex-
ual orientation issues and support
a healthy passage through the spe-
cial challenges of the teen years.
In recent years homosexuality
has become increasingly main-
stream. Images of lesbians and gay
men are visible in every venue of
popular culture, from television
shows and films to famous sports
stars and musicians. Presidential
speeches and national debates
occur on questions of gays in the
military, gay marriage and parent-
ing, domestic partnerships, and the
acquired immunodeficiency syn-
drome epidemic. The heightened
public awareness makes it easier
for adolescents to recognize the
meaning of same-sex attractions
and to self-.
This study examines the relationship between experiences of repeated bullying victimization before age 12 and levels of depression in late adolescence and adulthood, while controlling for prior mental health and stressful life events. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997, the study finds that repeated bullying victimization before age 12 is associated with higher levels of depression from late adolescence into adulthood. Subgroup analyses show these relationships are specific to females, with whites primarily affected in late adolescence and non-whites in adulthood. The study concludes that experiences of bullying during childhood can serve as a marker for subsequent mental health problems later in life.
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) and Sexually Inappropriate Behaviors: ...BARRY STANLEY 2 fasd
This document provides a guide for criminal justice and forensic mental health professionals on Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) and its relationship to sexually inappropriate behaviors. It discusses how FASD causes impairments in cognitive, social, and adaptive functioning that can increase the risk of inappropriate sexual behaviors. Screening and assessment of FASD is difficult due to variability in symptoms. Standard sex offender treatment is often ineffective for those with FASD. The document calls for more training of professionals, specialized treatment, and further research on this topic.
Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd)Joy Maria Mitchell
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder. ADHD is the commonly studied and
diagnosed as psychiatric disorder. Here we shall see the relation between extraversion and ADHD, neuroticism,
biological relation, Environmental factors and with diagnosis of ADHD. It is known that Genetics is one of the factors
that may contribute to, or exacerbate ADHD. Recent research probing towards the environmental and Genetic factors
causing ADHD differences is the main source for investigation
Asperger syndrome in childhood personality dimensions in adult lifemiriam odar
Study about to examine temperament and character in males that were diagnosed with ASD in childhood and followed prospectively over almost two decades.
This document summarizes research on the neurological basis and treatment of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). Studies have found deficits in brain areas like the prefrontal cortex, limbic system, and hippocampus in individuals with ASPD. Lower levels of serotonin have also been linked to ASPD. Treatments for ASPD are limited due to the manipulative nature of those with the disorder and low treatment seeking. More research is needed to better understand the causes of ASPD and develop effective treatments.
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by a persistent lack of attention and/or heightened activity level compared to peers. It is diagnosed when these behaviors are present in multiple settings and interfere with functioning. However, the diagnostic criteria and assessment procedures for ADHD have been criticized for being subjective and not scientifically validated. There is ongoing debate around ADHD's classification as a disorder and appropriate treatment approaches.
PSY 211 Example Research Design WorksheetComplete each section o.docxpotmanandrea
PSY 211 Example Research Design Worksheet
Complete each section of this worksheet. You will use this worksheet to inform the Research Design section of your final project submission.
Citation of Literature
Bechtold, J., Simpson, T., White, H. R., & Pardini, D. (2015). Chronic adolescent marijuana use as a risk factor for physical and mental health problems in young adult men. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 29(3), 552–563.
Gap Identification
Many studies look at the effects of marijuana use on prenatal development and possible physical and psychological effects throughout the life span, particularly in teenagers and young adults. Researchers have also studied the factors that influence marijuana use across different age groups and in various environments. Some states are legalizing recreational marijuana use, but there has not been much time to study how that influences marijuana use among people in different age groups from varying environmental and racial, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds (gap).
Research Question
Are adults who smoked marijuana recreationally during their teenage years more likely to continue recreational marijuana use in states where that use is legal?
Research Design
I would use a qualitative design for this study because I am looking at hard data (chosen design type and reason for choosing it. Note that this is an experimental design; however, your design may lend itself to descriptive or correlational). My independent variable is the legal status of marijuana. Marijuana use in adulthood is the dependent variable (independent and dependent variables). I would recruit participants from four states—two where recreational marijuana use is legal and two where it is not legal at all for recreational or medicinal use. I would use Colorado and Washington as the two legal states and Idaho and Wyoming as the two illegal states. The studies in my chosen track focused on certain cities, so I chose the latter two states to ensure that all four choices are within roughly the same geographical region. I chose Idaho and Wyoming specifically because personal use possession is not decriminalized in those states and is a misdemeanor rather than a felony (choosing study population).
Previous and current marijuana use would be self-reported via questionnaires. I would use both male and female participants for this study, as the studies in my research track focused on males, which I see as a potential bias (identification and addressing of potential bias). I would like to see if there are gender-related differences. I would administer an initial screening assessment asking about frequency of marijuana use prior to age 20 and the way in which participants viewed their use (sporadically/experimentally vs. regularly/recreationally). I would select those who use marijuana recreationally on a regular basis for the actual study. (Additional study details, which can be added as necessary. Your study may span a longer time period, for e ...
This study examined predictors of suicide attempts among adolescents attending Seventh-day Adventist schools in the US. It found depression to be the strongest predictor of suicide attempts. Having a negative family climate and less caring parenting also predicted higher rates of suicide attempts, while intrinsic religious orientation predicted lower rates. A survey of over 10,000 students found that depression, family relationships, parenting styles, and religious commitment were significant factors influencing suicidal ideation among this conservative religious group.
This study examined factors related to posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) in pediatric cancer patients and their caregivers. The researchers analyzed surveys from 31 patient-caregiver dyads. They found that patient-reported PTSS was predicted by self-reported worry, while caregiver-reported patient PTSS was predicted by the caregiver's perception of the patient's physical appearance. Additionally, caregiver-reported caregiver PTSS was predicted by the caregiver's report of the patient's psychosocial functioning. The results suggest discrepancies between how patients and caregivers view factors related to PTSS.
This study aims to track the development of children diagnosed with ADHD, bipolar disorder, or disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (DMDD) from ages 4 to 17 to better understand how these disorders manifest and change over time. Children in each diagnostic group will be interviewed using standardized assessments every two years. The researcher hypothesizes that as the study progresses, more children originally diagnosed with ADHD or bipolar disorder will meet criteria for DMDD instead. Identifying any misdiagnoses could help provide more appropriate treatment tailored to each child's needs.
S23S P E C I A L R E P O R T L G B T B i o e t h i c .docxhallettfaustina
S23S P E C I A L R E P O R T: L G B T B i o e t h i c s : V i s i b i l i t y, D i s p a r i t i e s , a n d D i a l o g u e
Hormone Treatment of Children and
Adolescents with Gender Dysphoria:
An Ethical Analysis
by Brendan S. Abel
C
hildren are generally unable to provide au-
tonomous, independent informed consent for
medical treatments. This long-standing tenet of
pediatric care protects children who often do not pos-
sess fully developed cognitive decision-making capacity
by preventing rash, permanent, and potentially regret-
table medical decisions. As pediatric patients become
adolescents and approach adulthood, their involvement
in medical decision-making often increases to take into
account their values and preferences.1 But until a youth
reaches the age of majority, the medical decision-making
process generally includes permission from parents or
guardians and informed assent from the patient to the
degree appropriate.
In the context of transgender health, most people are
not comfortable with allowing a twelve-year-old child
with gender dysphoria to elect to undergo gender reas-
signment surgery. The likelihood is too high that the
child would be unable to fully comprehend the scope
of a decision that carries significant, permanent conse-
quences, particularly because the decision to surgically
change gender is based upon a conception of gender that
can fluctuate during adolescent years. Conversely, how-
ever, most people would not contend that this fluidity is
reason to wholly deny certain medical care such as hor-
monal treatments to transgender youth, a demographic
with extremely high rates of violent behavior, self-harm,
and suicide. This paper will explore ethical consider-
ations relevant to this emerging debate of what therapeu-
tic options should be offered to transgender children and
adolescents.
Pediatric endocrinologists have been treating gender
dysphoric adolescents with puberty-suppressing drugs
and, to a lesser extent, with cross-sex hormone therapies
for more than twenty years. Clinicians and thought lead-
ers have mentioned ethical components of this emerg-
ing practice in the few cohort studies and clinical review
articles about the subject. However, ethics have generally
been a secondary consideration in the medical academic
literature. In this paper, I will provide a brief overview of
the practice, summarize the current research on hormone
treatment for transgender minors, and provide an ethical
analysis of the practice.
Clinical Overview
Gender dysphoria, termed “gender identity disorder” in prior iterations of the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders, is marked by an incongru-
ence between one’s experienced or expressed gender and
the gender to which the person has been assigned (usu-
ally at birth, referred to as the natal gender).2 The new
DSM-5 defines an individual with gender dysphoria as
a person who fulfills six of eight enumerated charac ...
Similar to J Youth Adolescence (2007) 361048–1057DOI 10.1007s10964-00.docx (20)
The document discusses planning for material and resource requirements in operations management. It describes the relationships between forecasting, aggregate planning, master scheduling, MRP, and capacity planning. A case study is provided on how a toy company develops its aggregate production plan and master production schedule to meet demand forecasts while maintaining consistent production levels and workforce. The master schedule is adjusted as actual customer orders are received to ensure demand can be met from current inventory and production levels.
a 12 page paper on how individuals of color would be a more dominant.docxpriestmanmable
a 12 page paper on how individuals of color would be a more dominant number if they had more resources and discrimination of color was ceased. Must include those who discriminate against skin color and must include facts from sources that help individuals gain insight on the possibility of colored individuals thriving in society if same resourcesAnd equal opportunity was provided.
.
92 Academic Journal Article Critique Help with Journal Ar.docxpriestmanmable
92 Academic Journal Article Critique
Help with Journal Article Critique Assignment
Ensure the structure of the assignment will include the following:
Title Page
Introduction
Description of the Problem or Issue
Analysis
Discussion
Critique
Conclusion
References
.
A ) Society perspective90 year old female, Mrs. Ruth, from h.docxpriestmanmable
A ) Society perspective
90 year old female, Mrs. Ruth, from home with her daughter, is admitted to hospital after sustaining a hip fracture. She has a history of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on home oxygen and moderate to severe aortic stenosis. (Obstruction of blood flow through part of the heart) She undergoes urgent hemiarthroplasty (hip surgery) with an uneventful operative course.
The patient and her family are of Jewish background. The patient’s daughter is her primary caregiver and has financial power-of-attorney, but it is not known whether she has formal power of attorney for personal care. Concerns have been raised to the ICU team about the possibility of elder abuse in the home by the patient’s daughter.
Unfortunately, on postoperative day 4, the patient develops delirium with respiratory failure secondary to hospital acquired pneumonia and pulmonary edema. (Fluid in the lungs) Her goals of care were not assessed pre-operatively. She is admitted to the ICU for non-invasive positive pressure ventilation for 48 hours, and then deteriorates and is intubated. After 48 hours of ventilation, it was determined that due to the severity of her underlying cardio-pulmonary status (COPD and aortic stenosis), ventilator weaning would be difficult and further ventilation would be futile.
The patient’s daughter is insistent on continuing all forms of life support, including mechanical ventilation and even extracorporeal membranous oxygenation (does the work of the lungs) if indicated. However, the Mrs Ruth’s delirium clears within the next 24 hours of intubation, and she is now competent, although still mechanically ventilated. She communicated to the ICU team that she preferred 1-way extubation (removal of the ventilator) and comfort care. This was communicated in writing to the ICU team, and was consistent over time with other care providers. The patient went as far to demand the extubation over the next hour, which was felt to be reasonable by the ICU team.
The patient’s daughter was informed of this decision, and stated that she could not come to the hospital for 2 hours, and in the meantime, that the patient must remain intubated.
At this point, the ICU team concurred with the patient’s wishes, and extubated her before her daughter was able to come to the hospital.
The daughter was angry at the team’s decision, and requested that the patient be re-intubated if she deteriorated. When the daughter arrived at the hospital, the patient and daughter were able to converse, and the patient then agreed to re-intubation if she deteriorated.
(1) What are the ethical issues emerging in this case? State why? (
KRISTINA)
(2) What decision model(s) would be ideal for application in this case? State your justification.
(Lacey Powell
)
(3) Who should make decisions in this situation? Should the ICU team have extubated the patient?
State if additional information was necessary for you to arrive at a better decision(s) in your case.
9 dissuasion question Bartol, C. R., & Bartol, A. M. (2017)..docxpriestmanmable
9 dissuasion question
Bartol, C. R., & Bartol, A. M. (2017). Criminal behavior: A psychological approach (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Chapter 12, “Sexual Assault” (pp. 348–375)
Chapter 13, “Sexual Abuse of Children and Youth” (pp. 376–402)
To prepare for this Discussion:
Review the Learning Resources.
Think about the following two statements:
Rape is seen as a pseudosexual act.
Rape is always and foremost an aggressive act.
Consider the two statements above regarding motivation of sexual assault. Is rape classified as a pseudosexual act to you, or is it more or less than that? Explain your stance. Do you see rape as an aggressive act by nature, or can it be considered otherwise in certain situations? Explain your reasoning for this.
Excellent - above expectations
Main Discussion Posting Content
Points Range:
21.6 (54%) - 24 (60%)
Discussion posting demonstrates an
excellent
understanding of
all
of the concepts and key points presented in the text/s and Learning Resources. Posting provides significant detail including multiple relevant examples, evidence from the readings and other scholarly sources, and discerning ideas.
Points Range:
19.2 (48%) - 21.57 (53.92%)
Discussion posting demonstrates a
good
understanding of
most
of the concepts and key points presented in the text/s and Learning Resources. Posting provides moderate detail (including at least one pertinent example), evidence from the readings and other scholarly sources, and discerning ideas.
Points Range:
16.8 (42%) - 19.17 (47.93%)
Discussion posting demonstrates a
fair
understanding of the concepts and key points as presented in the text/s and Learning Resources. Posting may be
lacking
or incorrect in some area, or in detail and specificity, and/or may not include sufficient pertinent examples or provide sufficient evidence from the readings.
Points Range:
0 (0%) - 16.77 (41.93%)
Discussion posting demonstrates
poor or no
understanding of the concepts and key points of the text/s and Learning Resources. Posting is incorrect and/or shallow and/or does not include any pertinent examples or provide sufficient evidence from the readings.
Reply Post & Peer Interaction
Points Range:
7.2 (18%) - 8 (20%)
Student interacts
frequently
with peers. The feedback postings and responses to questions are excellent and fully contribute to the quality of interaction by offering constructive critique, suggestions, in-depth questions, use of scholarly, empirical resources, and stimulating thoughts and/or probes.
Points Range:
6.4 (16%) - 7.16 (17.9%)
Student interacts
moderately
with peers. The feedback postings and responses to questions are good, but may not fully contribute to the quality of interaction by offering constructive critique, suggestions, in-depth questions, use of scholarly, empirical resources, and stimulating thoughts and/or probes.
Points Range:
5.6 (14%) - 6.36 (15.9%)
Student interacts
minimally
with peers .
9 AssignmentAssignment Typologies of Sexual AssaultsT.docxpriestmanmable
9 Assignment
Assignment: Typologies of Sexual Assaults
There are many different types of sexual assaults and many different types of offenders. Although they are different, they can be classified in order to create a common language between the criminal justice field and the mental health field. This in turn will enable more accurate research, predict future offenses, and assist in the prosecution and rehabilitation of the offenders.
In this Assignment, you compare different typologies of sexual offenders to determine the differences in motivation, expression of aggression, and underlining personality structure. You also determine the best way to interview each typology of sexual offenders.
To prepare for this Assignment:
Review the Learning Resources.
Select two typologies of sexual offenders listed in the resources.
By Day 7
In a 3- to 5- page paper:
Compare the two typologies of sexual offenders you selected by explaining the following:
The motivational differences between the two typologies
The expression of aggression in the two typologies
The differences in the underlining personality structure of the two typologies
Excellent - above expectations
Points Range:
47.25 (63%) - 52.5 (70%)
Paper demonstrates an
excellent
understanding of
all
of the concepts and key points presented in the text/s and Learning Resources. Paper provides significant detail including multiple relevant examples, evidence from the readings and other sources, and discerning ideas.
Points Range:
42 (56%) - 47.2 (62.93%)
Paper demonstrates a
good
understanding of
most
of the concepts and key points presented in the text/s and Learning Resources. Paper includes moderate detail, evidence from the readings, and discerning ideas.
Points Range:
36.75 (49%) - 41.95 (55.93%)
Paper demonstrates a
fair
understanding of the concepts and key points as presented in the text/s and Learning Resources. Paper may be
lacking
in detail and specificity and/or may not include sufficient pertinent examples or provide sufficient evidence from the readings.
Points Range:
0 (0%) - 36.7 (48.93%)
Paper demonstrates poor understanding of the concepts and key points of the text/s and Learning Resources. Paper is missing detail and specificity and/or does not include any pertinent examples or provide sufficient evidence from the readings.
Writing
Points Range:
20.25 (27%) - 22.5 (30%)
Paper is
well
organized, uses scholarly tone, follows APA style, uses original writing and proper paraphrasing, contains very few or no writing and/or spelling errors, and is
fully
consistent with graduate level writing style. Paper contains
multiple
, appropriate and exemplary sources expected/required for the assignment.
.
The document discusses a new guidance published by Public Health England to enhance the public health role of nurses and midwives. It aims to make every contact with patients by nurses and midwives count towards health promotion and disease prevention. The guidance prioritizes areas like reducing preventable deaths, tackling long-term conditions, and improving children's health. It also emphasizes place-based public health approaches. The document outlines specific actions nurses and midwives can take to contribute to public health at the individual, community and population levels, such as providing health advice to patients and engaging with communities.
9 Augustine Confessions (selections) Augustine of Hi.docxpriestmanmable
9 Augustine
Confessions
(selections)
Augustine of Hippo wrote his Confessions between 397 -400 CE. In it he gives an
autobiographical account of his whole life up through his conversion to Christianity.
In Book 2, excerpted here, he thinks over the passions and temptations of his youth,
especially during a period where he had to come home from where he was studying
and return to living with his parents. His mother Monica was already Christian and
his father was considering it. They want him to be academically successful and
become a great orator.
From Augustine, Confessions. Translated by Caroline J-B Hammond. Loeb Classical
Library Harvard University Press 2014
(Links to an external site.)
.
1. (1) I wish to put on record the disgusting deeds in which I engaged, and
the corrupting effect of sensual experience on my soul, not because I love
them, but so that I may love you, my God. I do this because of my love for
your love, to the end that—as I recall my wicked, wicked ways in the
bitterness of recollection—you may grow even sweeter to me. For you are
a sweetness which does not deceive, a sweetness which brings happiness
and peace, pulling me back together from the disintegration in which I was
being shattered and torn apart, when I turned away from you who are unity
https://www-loebclassics-com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/view/augustine-confessions/2014/pb_LCL026.61.xml
https://www-loebclassics-com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/view/augustine-confessions/2014/pb_LCL026.61.xml
https://www-loebclassics-com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/view/augustine-confessions/2014/pb_LCL026.61.xml
https://www-loebclassics-com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/view/augustine-confessions/2014/pb_LCL026.61.xml
https://www-loebclassics-com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/view/augustine-confessions/2014/pb_LCL026.61.xml
and dispersed into the multiplicity that is oblivion. For there was a time
during my adolescence when I burned to have my fill of hell. I ran wild and
reckless in all manner of shady liaisons, and my outward appearance
deteriorated, and I degenerated before your eyes as I went on pleasing
myself and desiring to appear pleasing in human sight.
2. (2) What was it that used to delight me, if not loving and being loved? But
there was no boundary maintained between one mind and another, and
reaching only as far as the clear confines of friendship. Instead the slime
of fleshly desire and the spurts of adolescence belched out their fumes,
and these clouded and obscured my heart, so that it was impossible to
distinguish the purity of love from the darkness of lust. Both of them
together seethed in me, dragging my immaturity over the heights of bodily
desire, and plunging me down into a whirlpool of sin. Your anger grew
strong against me, but I was unaware of it. I had been deafened by the
loud grinding of the chain of my mortality, the punishment for the pride of
my soul, and I went even further away from yo.
8.3 Intercultural Communication
Learning Objectives
1. Define intercultural communication.
2. List and summarize the six dialectics of intercultural communication.
3. Discuss how intercultural communication affects interpersonal relationships.
It is through intercultural communication that we come to create, understand, and transform culture and identity. Intercultural communication is communication between people with differing cultural identities. One reason we should study intercultural communication is to foster greater self-awareness (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). Our thought process regarding culture is often “other focused,” meaning that the culture of the other person or group is what stands out in our perception. However, the old adage “know thyself” is appropriate, as we become more aware of our own culture by better understanding other cultures and perspectives. Intercultural communication can allow us to step outside of our comfortable, usual frame of reference and see our culture through a different lens. Additionally, as we become more self-aware, we may also become more ethical communicators as we challenge our ethnocentrism, or our tendency to view our own culture as superior to other cultures.
As was noted earlier, difference matters, and studying intercultural communication can help us better negotiate our changing world. Changing economies and technologies intersect with culture in meaningful ways (Martin & Nakayama). As was noted earlier, technology has created for some a global village where vast distances are now much shorter due to new technology that make travel and communication more accessible and convenient (McLuhan, 1967). However, as the following “Getting Plugged In” box indicates, there is also a digital divide, which refers to the unequal access to technology and related skills that exists in much of the world. People in most fields will be more successful if they are prepared to work in a globalized world. Obviously, the global market sets up the need to have intercultural competence for employees who travel between locations of a multinational corporation. Perhaps less obvious may be the need for teachers to work with students who do not speak English as their first language and for police officers, lawyers, managers, and medical personnel to be able to work with people who have various cultural identities.
“Getting Plugged In”
The Digital Divide
Many people who are now college age struggle to imagine a time without cell phones and the Internet. As “digital natives” it is probably also surprising to realize the number of people who do not have access to certain technologies. The digital divide was a term that initially referred to gaps in access to computers. The term expanded to include access to the Internet since it exploded onto the technology scene and is now connected to virtually all computing (van Deursen & van Dijk, 2010). Approximately two billion people around the world now access the Internet regularl.
8413 906 AMLife in a Toxic Country - NYTimes.comPage 1 .docxpriestmanmable
8/4/13 9:06 AMLife in a Toxic Country - NYTimes.com
Page 1 of 4http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/04/sunday-review/life-in-a-toxic-country.html?ref=world&pagewanted=all&pagewanted=print
August 3, 2013
Life in a Toxic Country
By EDWARD WONG
BEIJING — I RECENTLY found myself hauling a bag filled with 12 boxes of milk powder and a
cardboard container with two sets of air filters through San Francisco International Airport. I was
heading to my home in Beijing at the end of a work trip, bringing back what have become two of
the most sought-after items among parents here, and which were desperately needed in my own
household.
China is the world’s second largest economy, but the enormous costs of its growth are becoming
apparent. Residents of its boom cities and a growing number of rural regions question the safety of
the air they breathe, the water they drink and the food they eat. It is as if they were living in the
Chinese equivalent of the Chernobyl or Fukushima nuclear disaster areas.
Before this assignment, I spent three and a half years reporting in Iraq, where foreign
correspondents talked endlessly of the variety of ways in which one could die — car bombs,
firefights, being abducted and then beheaded. I survived those threats, only now to find myself
wondering: Is China doing irreparable harm to me and my family?
The environmental hazards here are legion, and the consequences might not manifest themselves
for years or even decades. The risks are magnified for young children. Expatriate workers
confronted with the decision of whether to live in Beijing weigh these factors, perhaps more than at
any time in recent decades. But for now, a correspondent’s job in China is still rewarding, and so I
am toughing it out a while longer. So is my wife, Tini, who has worked for more than a dozen years
as a journalist in Asia and has studied Chinese. That means we are subjecting our 9-month-old
daughter to the same risks that are striking fear into residents of cities across northern China, and
grappling with the guilt of doing so.
Like them, we take precautions. Here in Beijing, high-tech air purifiers are as coveted as luxury
sedans. Soon after I was posted to Beijing, in 2008, I set up a couple of European-made air
purifiers used by previous correspondents. In early April, I took out one of the filters for the first
time to check it: the layer of dust was as thick as moss on a forest floor. It nauseated me. I ordered
two new sets of filters to be picked up in San Francisco; those products are much cheaper in the
United States. My colleague Amy told me that during the Lunar New Year in February, a family
http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/w/edward_wong/index.html
http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/china/index.html?inline=nyt-geo
8/4/13 9:06 AMLife in a Toxic Country - NYTimes.com
Page 2 of 4http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/04/sunday-review/life-in-a-toxic-country..
8. A 2 x 2 Experimental Design - Quality and Economy (x1 and x2.docxpriestmanmable
8. A 2 x 2 Experimental Design: - Quality and Economy (x1 and x2 as independent variables)
Dr. Boonghee Yoo
[email protected]
RMI Distinguished Professor in Business and
Professor of Marketing & International Business
Make changes on the names, labels, and measure on the variable view.
Check the measure.
Have the same keys between “Name” and “Label.”
Run factor analysis for ys (dependent variables).
Select “Principal axis factoring” from “Extraction.”
The two-factor solution seems the best as (1) they are over one eigenvalue each and (2) the variance explained for is over 60%.
The new eigenvalues after the rotation.
The rotated factor matrix is clear.
But note that y3 and y1 are collapsed into one factor.
If not you should rerun factor analysis after removing the most problematic item one at a time.
Repeat this procedure until the rotated factor pattern has
(1) no cross-loading,
(2) no weak factor loading (< 0.5), and
(3) an adequate number of items (not more than 5 items per factor).
If a clear factor pattern is obtained, name the factors.
Attitude and purchase intention (y3 and y1)
Boycotting intention (y2)
Compute the reliability of the items of each factor
Make sure all responses were used.
Cronbach’s a (= Reliability a) must be greater than 0.70. Then, you can create the composite variable out of the member items.
Means and STDs must be similar among the items.
No a here should be greater than Cronbach’s a. If not, you should delete such item(s) to increase a.
Create the composite variable for each factor.
BI = mean (y2_1,y2_2,y2_3)
“PI” will be added to the data.
Go to the Variable View and change its “Name” and “Label.”
8. A 2 x 2 Experimental Design: - Quality and Economy (x1 and x2 as independent variables)
Dr. Boonghee Yoo
[email protected]
RMI Distinguished Professor in Business and
Professor of Marketing & International Business
BLOCK 1. Title and introductory paragraph.
Title and introductory paragraph
Plus, background questions
BLOCK 2 to 5. Show one of four treatments randomly.
x1(hi), x2 (hi)
x1 (hi), x2 (low)
x1 (low), x2 (hi)
x1 (low), x2 (low)
BLOCK 6. Questions.
Manipulation check questions (multi-item scales)
y1, y2, and y3 (multi-item scales)
Socio-demographic questions
Write “Thank you for participation.”
The questionnaire (6 blocks)
A 2x2 between-sample design: SQ (Service quality and ECON (Contribution to local economy)
Each of the four BLOCKs consist of:
The instruction: e.g., “Please read the following description of company ABC carefully.”
The scenario: An image file or written statement
(No questions inside the scenario blocks)
Qualtrics Survey Flow (6 blocks)
Manipulation check questions y1, y2, …, yn
Questions to verify that subjects were manipulated as intended. For example, if the stimulus is dollar-amount price, the manipulation check.
800 Words 42-year-old man presents to ED with 2-day history .docxpriestmanmable
800 Words
42-year-old man presents to ED with 2-day history of dysuria, low back pain, inability to fully empty his bladder, severe perineal pain along with fevers and chills. He says the pain is worse when he stands up and is somewhat relieved when he lies down. Vital signs T 104.0 F, pulse 138, respirations 24. PaO2 96% on room air. Digital rectal exam (DRE) reveals the prostate to be enlarged, extremely tender, swollen, and warm to touch.
In your Case Study Analysis related to the scenario provided, explain the following:
The factors that affect fertility (STDs).
Why inflammatory markers rise in STD/PID.
Why prostatitis and infection happen. Also explain the causes of systemic reaction.
Why a patient would need a splenectomy after a diagnosis of ITP.
Anemia and the different kinds of anemia (i.e., micro, and macrocytic).
.
8.1 What Is Corporate StrategyLO 8-1Define corporate strategy.docxpriestmanmable
8.1 What Is Corporate Strategy?
LO 8-1
Define corporate strategy and describe the three dimensions along which it is assessed.
Strategy formulation centers around the key questions of where and how to compete. Business strategy concerns the question of how to compete in a single product market. As discussed in Chapter 6, the two generic business strategies that firms can follow to pursue their quest for competitive advantage are to increase differentiation (while containing cost) or lower costs (while maintaining differentiation). If trade-offs can be reconciled, some firms might be able to pursue a blue ocean strategy by increasing differentiation and lowering costs. As firms grow, they are frequently expanding their business activities through seeking new markets both by offering new products and services and by competing in different geographies. Strategic leaders must formulate a corporate strategy to guide continued growth. To gain and sustain competitive advantage, therefore, any corporate strategy must align with and strengthen a firm’s business strategy, whether it is a differentiation, cost-leadership, or blue ocean strategy.
Corporate strategy comprises the decisions that leaders make and the goal-directed actions they take in the quest for competitive advantage in several industries and markets simultaneously.3 It provides answers to the key question of where to compete. Corporate strategy determines the boundaries of the firm along three dimensions: vertical integration along the industry value chain, diversification of products and services, and geographic scope (regional, national, or global markets). Strategic leaders must determine corporate strategy along the three dimensions:
1. Vertical integration: In what stages of the industry value chain should the company participate? The industry value chain describes the transformation of raw materials into finished goods and services along distinct vertical stages.
2. Diversification: What range of products and services should the company offer?
3. Geographic scope: Where should the company compete geographically in terms of regional, national, or international markets?
In most cases, underlying these three questions is an implicit desire for growth. The need for growth is sometimes taken so much for granted that not every manager understands all the reasons behind it. A clear understanding will help strategic leaders to pursue growth for the right reasons and make better decisions for the firm and its stakeholders.
WHY FIRMS NEED TO GROW
LO 8-2
Explain why firms need to grow, and evaluate different growth motives.
Several reasons explain why firms need to grow. These can be summarized as follows:
1. Increase profits.
2. Lower costs.
3. Increase market power.
4. Reduce risk.
5. Motivate management.
Let’s look at each reason in turn.
INCREASE PROFITS
Profitable growth allows businesses to provide a higher return for their shareholders, or owners, if privately held. For publicly trade.
8.0 RESEARCH METHODS These guidelines address postgr.docxpriestmanmable
8.0 RESEARCH METHODS
These guidelines address postgraduate students who have completed course
requirements and assumed to have sufficient background experience of high-level
engagement activities like recognizing, relating, applying, generating, reflecting and
theorizing issues. It is an ultimate period in our academic life when we feel confident
at embarking on independent research.
It cannot be overemphasized that we must enjoy the experience of research process
and not look at it as an academic chore.
To enable such a desired behaviour, these guidelines consider the research process
in terms of the skills and knowledge needed to develop independent and critical
styles of thinking in order to evaluate and use research as well as to conduct fresh
research.
The guidelines should be viewed as briefs which the Research Supervisors are expected
to exemplify based on their own experience as well as expertise.
8.1 Chapter 1 - Introduction
INTRODUCE the subject or problem to be studied. This might require the
identification of key managerial concerns, theories, laws and governmental rulings,
critical incidents or social changes, and current environmental issues, that make the
subject critical, relevant and worthy of managerial or research attention.
• To inform the Reader (stylistically - forthright, direct, and brief / concise),
• The first sentence should begin with `This Study was intended
to’….’ And immediately tell the Reader the nature of the study for the
reader's interest and desire to read on.
8.1.1 The Research Problem
What is the statement of the problem? The statement of the problem or problem
statement should follow logically from what has been set forth in the background of
the problem by defining the specific research need providing impetus for the
study, a need not met through previous research. Present a clear and precise
statement of the central question of research, formulated to address the need.
8.1.2 The Purpose of the Study
What is the purpose of the study? What are the RESEARCH QUESTION (S) of
the study? What are the specific objective (s) of the study? Define the specific
research objective (s) that would answer the research Question (s) of the study.
8.1.3 The Rationale of the Study:
1. Why in a general sense?
2. One or two brief references to previous research or theories critical in structuring
this study to support and understand the rationale.
3. The importance of the study for the reader to know, to fully appreciate the need
for the study - and its significance.
4. Own professional experience that stimulated the study or aroused interest in the
area of research.
5. The Need for the Study - will deal with valid questions or professional concerns
to provide data leading to an answer - reference to literature helpful and
appropriate.
8.1.4 The Significance of the Study:
1. Clearly .
95People of AppalachianHeritageChapter 5KATHLEEN.docxpriestmanmable
95
People of Appalachian
Heritage
Chapter 5
KATHLEEN W. HUTTLINGER and LARRY D. PURNELL
Overview, Inhabited Localities,
and Topography
OVERVIEW
Appalachia consists of that large geographic expanse in
the eastern United States that is associated with the
Appalachian mountain system, a 200,000-square-mile
region that extends from the northeastern United States
in southern New York to northern Mississippi. It includes
all of West Virginia and parts of Alabama, Georgia,
Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, New York, North
Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee,
and Virginia. This very rural area is characterized by a
rolling topography with very rugged ridges and hilltops,
some extending over 4000 feet high, with remote valleys
between them. The surrounding valleys are often 2000
feet or more in elevation and give one a sense of isolation,
peacefulness, and separateness from the lower and more
heavily traveled urban areas. This isolation and rough
topography have contributed to the development of
secluded communities in the hills and natural hollows or
narrow valleys where people, over time, have developed a
strong sense of independence and family cohesiveness.
These same isolated valleys and rugged mountains pre-
sent many transportation problems for those who do not
have access to cars or trucks. Very limited public trans-
portation is available only in the larger urbanized areas.
Even though the Appalachian region includes several
large cities, many people live in small settlements and in
inaccessible hollows or “hollers” (Huttlinger, Schaller-
Ayers, & Lawson, 2004a). The rugged location of many
communities in Appalachia results in a population that is
often isolated from the mainstream of health-care ser-
vices. In some areas of Appalachia, substandard secondary
and tertiary roads, as well as limited public bus, rail, and
airport facilities, prevent easy access to the area (Fig. 5–1).
Difficulty in accessing the area is partially responsible for
continued geographic and sociocultural isolation. The
rugged terrain can significantly delay ambulance response
time and is a deterrent to people who need health care
when their health condition is severe. This is one area in
which telehealth innovations can and often do provide
needed services.
Many of the approximately 24 million people who live
in Appalachia can trace their family roots back 150 or
more years, and it is common to find whole communities
comprising extended, related families. The cultural her-
itage of the region is rich and reflected in their distinctive
music, art, and literature. Even though family roots are
strong, many of the region’s younger residents have left
the area to pursue job opportunities in the larger urban
cities of the north. The remaining, older population
reflects a group that often has less than a high-school edu-
cation, is frequently unemployed, may be on welfare
and/or disability, and is regularly uninsured (20.4 per-
cent) (Virginia He.
8-10 slide Powerpoint The example company is Tesla.Instructions.docxpriestmanmable
8-10 slide Powerpoint The example company is Tesla.
Instructions
As the organization’s top leader, you are responsible for communicating the organization’s strategies in a way that makes the employees understand the role that they play in helping to achieve the organization’s strategies. Design a presentation that explains the following:
The company is Tesla
1. Your Organization's Mission and Vision
2. Your organization’s overall strategies and how they align with the Mission and Vision
3. At least five of your organization’ strategic SMART goals that align with the overall organizational strategy
4. At least three different departments’ specific roles in helping to achieve those strategic SMART goals
5. This can be a PowerPoint presentation with a voice-over or it can be a video presentation.
Length: 8 – 10 slides, not including title and reference slide.
Notes Length: 200-250 words for each slide.
References: Include a minimum of five scholarly resources.
I will do the voice over. I do not need a separate document of speaker notes as long as the PowerPoint has the requested 200-250 words for each slide
.
8Network Security April 2020FEATUREAre your IT staf.docxpriestmanmable
8
Network Security April 2020
FEATURE
Are your IT staff ready
for the pandemic-driven
insider threat? Phil Chapman
Obviously the threat to human life is
the top concern for everyone at this
moment. But businesses are also starting
to suffer as productivity slips globally
and the workforce itself is squeezed.
The UK Government’s March budget
did announce some measures, especially
for small and medium-size enterprises
(SMEs), that will make this period
slightly less painful for organisations.
However, as is apparent from the tank-
ing stock market (the FTSE 100 has
hit levels not seen since June 2012) the
economy and pretty much all businesses
in the country (unless you produce hand
sanitiser) are going to suffer. There is no
time like now for the UK to embrace
its mantra of ‘keep calm and carry on’
because that is what we must do if we’re
going to keep business flowing.
For the IT department at large there is
lots of urgent work to do to ensure that
the business is prepared to keep running
smoothly even if people are having to
work remotely. The task at hand for cyber
security professionals is arguably even
larger as Covid-19 is seeing cyber criminals
capitalising on the fact that the insider
threat is worse than ever, with more people
working remotely from personal devices
than many IT and cyber security teams
have likely ever prepared for.
This article will argue that the cyber
security workforce, which is already suf-
fering a digital skills crisis, may also be
lacking the adequate soft skills required
to effectively tackle the insider threat
that has been exacerbated by the pan-
demic. It will first examine the insider
threat, and why this has become so
much more insidious because of Covid-
19. It will then look into the essential
soft skills required to tackle this threat,
before examining how organisations can
effectively implement an apprentice-
ship strategy that generates professionals
with both hard and soft skills, includ-
ing advice from the CISO of globally
respected law firm Pinsent Masons, who
will provide insight into how he is mak-
ing his strategy work. It will conclude
that many of these issues could be solved
if the industry didn’t rely so heavily on
recruiting graduates and rather looked
towards hiring apprentices.
The insider threat
In the best of times, every cyber-pro-
fessional knows that the biggest threat
to an organisation’s IT infrastructure
is people, both malicious actors and
– much more often – employees and
partners making mistakes. The problem
is that people lack cyber knowledge and
so commit careless actions – for exam-
ple, forwarding sensitive information to
the wrong recipient over email or plug-
ging rogue USBs into their device (yes,
that still happens). Cyber criminals
capitalise on this ignorance by utilising
social engineering tactics ranging from
the painfully simple, like fake emails
from Amazon, to the very sophisticated,
such as.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Physiology and chemistry of skin and pigmentation, hairs, scalp, lips and nail, Cleansing cream, Lotions, Face powders, Face packs, Lipsticks, Bath products, soaps and baby product,
Preparation and standardization of the following : Tonic, Bleaches, Dentifrices and Mouth washes & Tooth Pastes, Cosmetics for Nails.
Assessment and Planning in Educational technology.pptxKavitha Krishnan
In an education system, it is understood that assessment is only for the students, but on the other hand, the Assessment of teachers is also an important aspect of the education system that ensures teachers are providing high-quality instruction to students. The assessment process can be used to provide feedback and support for professional development, to inform decisions about teacher retention or promotion, or to evaluate teacher effectiveness for accountability purposes.
2. of personality, ADHD, and antisocial behavior to substance
abuse, as
well as gene-environment interrelationships.
Lisa Legrand is a Research Associate with the Minnesota Center
for
Twin and Family Research at the University of Minnesota. She
received her Ph.D. in 2003 from the University of Minnesota.
Her
major research interests include gene-environment interplay in
the
development of externalizing psychopathology.
Dawn Peuschold is a Senior Clinical Forensic Psychologist at
the
Hennepin Country District Court and an instructor at the
University of
Minnesota. She completed a post-doctoral fellowship in forensic
psychology at the University of Massachusetts Medical School
after
receiving her Ph.D. in clinical psychology from the University
of
Minnesota. She is interested in risk factors for reoffense in
juveniles.
William G. Iacono is a Distinguished McKnight University
Professor
at the University of Minnesota, the institution from which he
received
his Ph.D. in psychology. He conducts longitudinal studies of
adolescent twins and adoptees aimed at understanding the
development of adult adjustment and mental health.
J. Taylor (�)
Department of Psychology, Florida State University,
Tallahassee, Florida 32306-1270, USA
3. e-mail: [email protected]
I. J. Elkins · L. Legrand · D. Peuschold · W. G. Iacono
Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota – Twin
Cities,
Minnesota, USA
cence. Boys and girls were grouped by history of DSM-III-R
conduct disorder (CD) and ASPD: Controls (n = 340) had
neither diagnosis; CD Only (n = 77) had CD by age 17 but
no ASPD through age 20; Adolescent ASPD (n = 64) had
ASPD by age 17. The Adolescent ASPD group was then
compared to 20 young adult men who met criteria for ASPD
(ASPD group). As expected, the Adolescent ASPD group
had significantly more depression and substance use disor-
ders, a greater performance >verbal IQ discrepancy, more
deviant peers, and poorer academic functioning than the CD
Only group and Controls. The Adolescent ASPD and ASPD
groups did not differ on most variables. Results support the
construct validity of Adolescent ASPD and suggest that such
a diagnosis could help identify adolescents at risk for persis-
tent antisocial behavior.
Keywords Antisocial personality . Adolescent antisocial
behavior . Co-morbidity
Antisocial behavior is so common among adolescents
that some have called it normative (Moffitt, 1993). Non-
normative manifestations of antisocial behavior can be iden-
tified in children and adolescents by applying diagnostic cri-
teria for conduct disorder (CD) as outlined in the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Ed. (DSM-
IV: American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Another DSM
diagnosis that describes manifestations of antisocial behavior
is antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), which is reserved
for adults aged 18 and older because research shows that
while most adult antisocial behavior has its roots in child-
4. hood, most antisocial children do not grow up to be antisocial
adults (Robins, 1966). As such, the age requirement for the
ASPD diagnosis helps avoid placing a lasting label on chil-
dren who might very well desist in their antisocial behavior.
Unfortunately, this age restriction on the application of the
Springer
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:1048–1057 1049
ASPD diagnosis may result in overlooking a clinically im-
portant group of antisocial adolescents.
Research suggests that earlier onset of CD and other types
of conduct problems are associated with a poor prognosis in
terms of academic functioning and trajectory of antisocial
behavior (e.g., Moffitt & Caspi, 2001). A similar set of poor
outcomes might hold for early presentations of ASPD, in
which case the identification of those individuals would be
useful in order to hasten intervention. Moreover, the type of
intervention that is applied with adolescents exhibiting CD
only might differ from that applied to those with ASPD in
terms of duration needed to see improvement, client moti-
vation for treatment, adherence to treatment, and need for
treatment of more numerous and/or severe co-morbid disor-
ders (e.g., substance dependence). At present there are no
studies in the literature that speak directly to the construct
validity of an ASPD diagnosis assigned before age 18 (here-
after referred to as “Adolescent ASPD”). However, there is
some precedent for examining “adult” constructs in child-
hood or adolescence.
Psychopathy is a manifestation of antisocial behavior
comprised of an antisocial lifestyle combined with a cal-
5. lous and emotionally detached interpersonal style, and early
descriptions of this clinical phenomenon informed the cre-
ation of the ASPD diagnosis. However, psychopathy is not
a DSM-based diagnosis and has no age restriction for its
application, and a large body of research exists on the
downward extension of the psychopathy construct to chil-
dren. Findings indicate that children with CD who also
show callous and unemotional traits have similar charac-
teristics of adults with psychopathy in terms of response
styles (Barry et al., 2000; O’Brien & Frick, 1996), an-
tisocial behavior pattern (Christian et al., 1997; Frick &
Ellis, 1999), and processing of emotional stimuli (Blair,
1999; Frick et al., 1999), suggesting that the psychopa-
thy construct is likely valid for children. To the extent that
psychopathy and ASPD have overlapping features and tap
a similar construct (i.e., a persistent antisocial personal-
ity/behavioral style), it stands to reason that the ASPD diag-
nosis might similarly be valid when applied to adolescents
who are not yet 18, but this notion has not yet been tested.
Although the bulk of research appears to support the
downward extension of psychopathy to children, it is im-
portant to note that this extension has occurred with some
controversy and debate over the possible dangers of applying
such a label to children (Frick, 2002; Lynam, 2002; Seagrave
& Grisso, 2002). One of the primary concerns is that adult
psychopathy is thought to be treatment resistant and, there-
fore, identifying juveniles as psychopathic might lead the
criminal justice system to view those individuals as simi-
larly untreatable perhaps leading to a premature dismissal
of the possibility of rehabilitation that could result in more
harsh sentences (Seagrave & Grisso, 2002). Another concern
is that characteristics of adults such as psychopathic traits
might appear transiently in juveniles (Seagrave & Grisso,
2002) thereby leading to the potential for false labels that
6. could carry serious consequences. However, Frick (2002)
persuasively argues that psychopathy is not that different
from other disorders found in adults that have been applied
to children and adolescents (e.g., depression), and a similar
argument could be made for ASPD.
The goal of the present study was to examine the validity
of Adolescent ASPD. To this end, we compared adolescents
who met the criteria for ASPD to those with CD only
on robust correlates of antisocial behavior to show that
CD and Adolescent ASPD are distinct in important ways
and may therefore convey different information about an
adolescent’s antisocial behavior problem. Alcohol and drug
dependence (Cottler et al., 1995; Helzer & Pryzbeck, 1988;
Hesselbrock, 1991; Taylor & Carey, 1998), depression
(Moffitt et al., 2001; Pager, 1998; Schuckit, 1986), and
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Disney
et al., 1999; Lahey et al., 1995) are positively associated
with antisocial behavior across gender. A differential rate of
association of these disorders with ASPD versus CD in ado-
lescents would indicate potential differences with regard to
psychological impairment that could impact the severity of
antisocial behavior (e.g., alcohol or drug dependence serving
to increase antisocial behavior) and/or the complexity of the
treatment plan (e.g., more issues to address in treatment).
Cognitive functioning has also been linked to antisocial
behavior. Specifically, verbal intelligence is inversely related
to antisocial behavior in children and adolescents (White
et al., 1994), and low verbal IQ predicts persistence of antiso-
cial behavior (Farrington & Hawkins, 1991; Simonoff et al.,
2004). Furthermore, antisocial behavior is often associated
with a marked performance IQ > verbal IQ (PIQ > VIQ)
discrepancy (Cornell & Wilson, 1992; Snow & Thurber,
1997). Given these findings, it may be the case that ASPD
(characterized by persistence of antisocial behavior from
7. adolescence into adulthood) is underlied, in part, by greater
VIQ deficits than CD that does not develop into ASPD.
Antisocial behavior has also been robustly linked to de-
viance in peer groups (e.g., Jessor et al., 1995; Simons et al.,
1994) and to poor academic functioning (Patterson, 1986).
Antisocial peers might serve both as models for and facil-
itators of antisocial behavior, which suggests that they can
impact the likelihood that antisocial behavior will persist (as
in the case of ASPD) or desist (as in the case of CD only). The
persistence associated with ASPD might also translate into
a particularly poor level of academic functioning given that
the effects of early school problems likely compound over
time. The potential differential association of deviant peers
and academic functioning with ASPD versus CD only might
have important impacts on family functioning (e.g., greater
family conflict surrounding highly deviant friends and bad
Springer
1050 J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:1048–1057
grades among adolescents with ASPD) as well as treatment
plans (e.g., need to focus attention on academic improve-
ments and perhaps remedial education for adolescents with
ASPD).
Finally, the influence of genes on CD and ASPD is well
documented and a recent study shows that a similar set of ge-
netic factors contributes to both disorders in men and women
but adult symptoms of ASPD have an overall greater genetic
influence than CD (Kendler et al., 2003). Thus, ASPD and
CD that does not progress into ASPD might have different
etiological structures that could help explain the difference
8. in their course (i.e., greater genetic influence on ASPD might
contribute to persistence of antisocial behavior).
Hypotheses
Our hypothesis was that Adolescent ASPD is a valid con-
struct, and this was examined in two ways. First, we com-
pared an Adolescent ASPD group, a CD Only group (who
had a CD diagnosis, but not ASPD), and a Control group
(with no CD or ASPD diagnosis) on robust correlates of an-
tisocial behavior. We had the following specific predictions
for these comparisons:
1. Boys and girls in the Adolescent ASPD group will show
significantly higher rates of alcohol and drug dependence,
ADHD, and depression than adolescents in the CD Only
and Control groups.
2. Boys and girls in the Adolescent ASPD group will show
significantly lower verbal IQ and a greater PIQ > VIQ dis-
crepancy than those in the CD Only and Control groups.
3. Boys and girls in the Adolescent ASPD group will show
significantly greater peer group deviance and poorer aca-
demic functioning (lower grades, more suspensions and
absences) than those in the CD Only and Control groups.
4. Boys and girls in the Adolescent ASPD group will show
a higher rate of paternal ASPD than the other groups.
Second, we compared the Adolescent ASPD group to a
young adult group who had ASPD using all DSM criteria
(including the age of onset criterion) in order to show that
the ASPD diagnosis conveys similar clinical characteristics
whether it is assigned before or after age 18. This is important
in showing that the ASPD diagnosis could be used before
9. age 18 to help identify adolescents at risk for following a
more persistent antisocial behavior trajectory.
Method
Participants
Participants were drawn from a sample of 578 16- to 18-
year-old male (M = 17; SD = .45) and 674 female (M = 17;
SD = .65) same-sex monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ)
twin pairs participating in the Minnesota Twin Family Study
(MTFS). Twin pairs were identified through Minnesota state
birth records for the years 1972 through 1977 (male ado-
lescent cohort) and 1975 through 1979 (female adolescent
cohort). Exclusion criteria were minimal (twins could not
be adopted nor could they have a physical or intellectual
disability as determined through a detailed phone interview
with the twins’ mother). After complete description of the
study to participants, parents provided informed written con-
sent for their own and their minor child’s participation in the
MTFS. Children under 18 provided written assent to partic-
ipate. Families were paid for their participation. The racial
composition of the entire MTFS sample (98% white) is con-
sistent with the demographics of Minnesota in the birth years
sampled. Twins were recruited for the first follow-up assess-
ment at an average age of 20 (i.e., approximately 3 years after
the intake assessment). Most (88%) of the 1,252 twins com-
pleted diagnostic measures for that follow-up assessment.
Participants were grouped based on diagnoses of CD and
ASPD from clinical interviews conducted at ages 17 (intake)
and 20 (first follow-up). At both ages, symptoms of ASPD
(including symptoms of CD present prior to age 15) were
assessed independently in each twin using the Structured
Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R Personality Disorders
10. (SCID-II; Spitzer et al., 1987). (The DSM-III-R criteria
were the diagnostic standard at the time of the assessments.)
Highly trained interviewers who had at least a B.A. degree in
psychology conducted all interviews. At age 17 only, symp-
toms of CD were also assessed via the Diagnostic Interview
for Children and Adolescents – Revised (DICA-R-P) (Her-
janic & Reich, 1982; Reich & Welner, 1988) administered to
the twins’ mother in an independent interview. A case con-
ference team of two advanced clinical psychology graduate
students assigned symptoms of disorders after reviewing the
interview data from a particular informant (i.e., symptoms
reported by the mother were assigned independently from
those reported by the twin for any diagnosis with both
informant reports). Separate case conferences were used to
assign symptoms for members of each twin pair and teams
were blind to the co-twin’s diagnostic status and to the pair’s
zygosity during the case conferences. Symptoms assigned
during case conferences were entered into a computer
and algorithms (to implement DSM-III-R criteria) were
employed to produce study diagnoses. When reports from
both the mother and the twin were available, a symptom was
counted toward the diagnosis if either informant endorsed
it, as is typical in a best-estimate diagnostic strategy (Bird,
Gould, & Staghezza, 1992). At age 20, the twin was the sole
informant for all interviews and therefore diagnoses at that
assessment were based solely on the twin’s report.
Seventy-seven participants (25 girls; 32.5%) comprised
the CD Only group, which had a probable or definite (2 or
Springer
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:1048–1057 1051
11. more symptoms plus duration) CD diagnosis at age 17 and
no more than one adult antisocial behavior (AAB) symptom
from the ASPD criteria through age 20. Sixty-four partic-
ipants (17 girls; 26.6%) comprised the Adolescent ASPD
group, which had a probable or definite ASPD diagnosis (3
or more AAB symptoms and a probable or definite CD diag-
nosis) at age 17. Twenty men (but no women) were identified
as having probable or definite ASPD when all DSM-III-R
criteria were applied (including age at onset). These men,
who comprised the ASPD group, had CD at age 15 but did
not meet (probable or definite) ASPD criteria until age 20.
The inclusion of probable cases helped maximize the num-
ber of participants classified, but did not greatly inflate the
rates of CD (6.2%) or ASPD (6.7%) in the overall sam-
ple. Table 1 presents the rates of endorsement of CD and
AAB symptoms for each group. Three hundred forty Con-
trols (274 girls; 81%) were identified who had no CD or AAB
symptoms through age 20.
Note that eight of the Adolescent ASPD group members
were 18 at the time of the “age 17” assessment because there
was not enough time in a year for all pairs to visit at age 17.
Analyses were rerun with the eight 18-year-olds removed
with similar findings, therefore, results for the full Adoles-
cent ASPD group are reported. Also, there was a potential
concern about comparing a disproportionately female con-
trol group to two largely male antisocial behavior disorder
groups. Thus, a control group with a similar proportion of
girls to that found in the disordered groups was created by
randomly selecting 50 girls from the 274 control girls and
combining them with the 66 control boys (N = 116; 43%
girls). All analyses were rerun with this control group and
results were quite similar, therefore, the results using the full
Control group (N = 341) are reported.
Approximately 30–60% of each group was comprised of
12. MZ or DZ twin pairs representing related individuals within
the group: Control (102 pairs or 204 related individuals), CD
Table 1 Symptom characteristics of the conduct disorder only
(CD only), adolescent antisocial personality disorder
(adolescent ASPD), and
antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) groups
CD Only (n = 77) Adolescent ASPD (n = 64) ASPD (n = 20)
Symptom (DSM-III-R) N % N % N %
Conduct disorder (CD)
Stolen without confrontation 14 18.2 37 57.8 12 60.0
Ran away overnight 3 3.9 9 14.1 1 5.0
Often lies 21 27.3 35 54.7 11 55.0
Set fires deliberately 1 1.3 5 7.8 1 5.0
Often truant 6 7.8 29 45.3 6 30.0
Broken into home/car 4 5.2 23 35.9 5 25.0
Destroyed property 26 33.8 32 50.0 14 70.0
Cruel to animals 31 40.3 17 26.6 7 35.0
Used weapon in a fight 16 20.8 13 20.3 6 30.0
Often initiates physical fights 35 45.5 31 48.4 9 45.0
Stolen with confrontation 1 1.3 5 7.8 1 5.0
Cruel to people 4 5.2 17 26.6 5 25.0
Adult Antisocial Behavior (AAB)
Inconsistent work behavior 2 2.6 41 64.1 10 50.0
Fails to conform to social norms 1 1.3 46 71.9 17 35.0
Irritable and aggressive 4 5.2 40 62.5 13 65.0
Fails to honor financial debts 0 0 5 7.8 4 20.0
Fails to plan ahead/impulsive 0 0 3 4.7 1 5.0
No regard for the truth 2 2.6 38 59.4 9 45.0
Reckless disregard for safety 28 36.4 53 82.8 19 95.0
Irresponsible parent 0 0 0 0 0 0
Non-monogamous 0 0 1 1.6 0 0
Lacks remorse 1 1.3 28 43.8 4 20.0
13. Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
No. of CD Symptoms 2.56 1.21 4.39 2.09 4.25 1.45
No. of AAB Symptoms 0.49 0.50 3.98 1.02 3.85 0.93
Note. CD Only group members were allowed to have one AAB
symptom at 17 or 20, and the table reflects AAB symptoms
endorsed at either age.
For the Adolescent ASPD group, the table reflects symptoms
reported at age 17, when that group met criteria for ASPD. For
the ASPD group, the
rates for CD are from age 17 and rates for AAB are from age 20
given that they had a CD diagnosis at 17 but did not meet the
AAB component of
ASPD until age 20.
Springer
1052 J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:1048–1057
Only (10 pairs), Adolescent ASPD (11 pairs), and ASPD (3
pairs). As indicated below, steps were taken to account for
this non-independence of observations in the analyses.
Measures
Co-morbid disorders
At ages 17 and 20, twins were independently interviewed
with the expanded Substance Abuse Module (SAM) of the
Composite International Diagnostic Interview (Robins et al.,
1988) to assess lifetime criteria of substance use disorders
including nicotine dependence and abuse and dependence
14. on alcohol, cannabis, amphetamines, opioids, sedatives, co-
caine, PCP, hallucinogens, and inhalants. Lifetime criteria of
major depression were assessed using the Structured Clinical
Interview for DSM-III-R (SCID; Spitzer et ., 1987) at ages 17
and 20. At age 17, twins reported their symptoms of ADHD
via the DICA-R and mothers reported on the twins’ ADHD,
depression, and substance use disorders via the DICA-R-P.
The case conference procedure described above was used to
assign symptoms of ADHD, depression, and substance use
disorders, and computer algorithms implementing DSM-III-
R criteria were used to determine diagnoses. At age 17, diag-
noses were derived using the aforementioned best estimate
strategy. At age 20, diagnoses were based solely on the twin’s
report. Independent case conference teams (blind to the orig-
inal team’s symptom ratings and to the study diagnoses) rated
a random sample of cases and produced diagnostic reliability
coefficients (kappa) of .75 or greater.
Co-morbid diagnoses were considered present if criteria
were met at a definite diagnostic level. Alcohol, nicotine,
and cannabis use disorders were examined separately from
all other drug classes because they were the most common;
the remaining drugs were combined into an illicit abuse (i.e.,
criteria met for abuse of any illicit drug other than cannabis)
and an illicit dependence (criteria met for dependence on any
illicit drug other than cannabis) variable.
Cognitive functioning
Verbal IQ (VIQ) was estimated from the Information and Vo-
cabulary subtests and performance IQ (PIQ) was estimated
from the Picture Arrangement and Block Design subtests
of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Revised (WAIS-
R; Wechsler, 1981) administered at age 17. The PIQ > VIQ
discrepancy reflected the simple difference between PIQ and
VIQ.
15. Peer group
At age 17, each twin nominated up to four teachers to comp-
lete a teacher rating form modeled after the Connors Teacher
Rating Scale (Connors, 1969; Pelham et al., 1989) and the
Rutter Child Scale B (Rutter, 1967). The Bad Peers scale
included four descriptors (tough, dangerous, rebellious, and
involved with alcohol and drugs) rated on a 5-point scale.
Ratings were averaged across teachers and high scores indi-
cated greater levels of the four descriptors in the twin’s peer
group (Alpha = .77).
Academic functioning
Official school records are not obtained by the MTFS given
the variability in grading procedures (e.g., assignment of
grades versus some other evaluative mark) and standards
(e.g., using something other than a 4-point academic scale)
used across school districts from which twins were drawn.
As such, at age 17, teachers completing the teacher rating
form (described above) also rated twins’ academic achieve-
ment in four areas: English, Math, Science, and Social Stud-
ies. Achievement in each area was rated on an academic
grade scale of A (coded 4) to F (coded 0). Ratings were
averaged across teachers with high scores reflecting better
grades. Teachers also reported the number of school suspen-
sions and unexcused absences, and ratings were averaged
across teachers within each of these variables.
Paternal history of ASPD
At age 17, twins participated in the MTFS with their parents.
Biological fathers were independently interviewed regard-
ing symptoms of ASPD using the SCID-II. The consensus
16. case conference procedure described above was applied to
diagnostic data from fathers to arrive at study diagnoses of
ASPD. For each twin, paternal history of ASPD was denoted
as either positive (lifetime probable or definite diagnosis of
ASPD present in biological father) or negative (no lifetime
diagnosis of ASPD in biological father). (Our decision to
focus on paternal ASPD was a practical one based on initial
examination of the data that showed that only four biologi-
cal mothers of adolescents assigned to any of the groups met
criteria for ASPD thus precluding an analysis of maternal
ASPD effects.)
Analyses
In the first test of the study hypothesis, the Adolescent ASPD,
CD Only, and Control groups were compared on rates of
co-morbid diagnoses at age 17 using chi-square tests with
one twin from each twin pair within a group randomly se-
lected and removed prior to analysis to meet the requirement
of independence of observations. To correct for the number
of tests conducted, alpha was set to .01 for the omnibus
chi-square tests. Alpha was set to .05 (1-tailed) for follow-up
chi-square contrasts following significant omnibus tests.
Springer
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:1048–1057 1053
The three groups were also compared on VIQ score and
PIQ > VIQ discrepancy, Bad Peers scale scores, and aca-
demic achievement in analyses using the Mixed procedure
in SPSS 12.0 which provided a multilevel framework that
allowed twins to be nested within families and thus allowed
all cases to be included in the analyses. A mixed linear model
17. was fit for each cognitive variable using restricted maximum
likelihood estimation. Models included fixed effects in a full
factorial model with tests for group, gender, and the group ×
gender interaction. The effect of twins nested within families
was modeled as a random effect in each model. Alpha was
set to .01 for the omnibus F-tests, and follow-up contrasts to
significant effects were conducted using the Bonferroni test
with alpha set to .05 (1-tailed). Initial examination of the sus-
pensions and unexcused absences variables revealed highly
positively skewed distributions that were not amenable
to transformations to improve normality. Thus, these two
variables were examined using non-parametric Kruskal
Wallis omnibus and follow-up tests. Such tests do not lend
themselves to nesting and, therefore, one twin was removed
from each pair within a group for the analyses. Alpha was
set to .025 (.05/2) for the omnibus tests and .05 for follow-up
tests. Finally, groups were compared on paternal ASPD
history using a chi-square test with one twin from each twin
pair within a group removed and alpha was set to .05.
The second test of the study hypothesis entailed a compar-
ison of the Adolescent ASPD and the ASPD groups. Groups
were first compared on their rates of endorsement of each
CD and AAB symptom using chi-square tests with co-twins
removed as described above. Groups were then compared on
rates of co-morbid disorders at age 17 (when the Adolescent
ASPD group first met criteria for ASPD) and at age 20 (when
the ASPD group first met criteria for ASPD) using chi-square
tests with co-twins removed as indicated previously. This
strategy afforded an examination of the clinical problems
that precede, occur with, and follow an ASPD diagnosis.
The two groups were then compared on VIQ and PIQ > VIQ
discrepancy, Bad Peers scores, and academic achievement
using the Mixed procedure in SPSS 12.0. Models included
a fixed effect for group and the effect of twins nested within
families as a random effect (there were no gender effects in
18. the models because the ASPD group was all male). Next, dif-
ferences in school suspensions and unexcused absences were
examined with Mann-Whitney non-parametric tests with co-
twins removed. Finally, groups were compared on paternal
ASPD history using a chi-square test with co-twins removed.
The alpha for all tests was set to .05 (2-tailed).
Results
The Adolescent ASPD group was distinct from the CD
Only group in most analyses, largely supporting our hy-
potheses. As expected, the omnibus chi-square test was
significant (p < .001) for each disorder: ADHD (χ 2 [2]
= 24.13), depression (χ 2 [2] = 38.81), alcohol abuse (χ 2
[2] = 220.06), alcohol dependence (χ 2 [2] = 153.41),
nicotine dependence (χ 2 [2] = 164.73), cannabis abuse (χ 2
[2] = 125.48), cannabis dependence (χ 2 [2] = 105.75),
illicit drug abuse (χ 2 [2] = 46.15), and illicit drug depen-
dence (χ 2 [2] = 28.51). Fig. 1 presents the percent of each
group with a co-morbid diagnosis at age 17. As expected,
the Adolescent ASPD group had a significantly (p < .001)
greater rate of depression and all substance use disorders
than the CD Only and Control groups (which did not dif-
fer significantly). Both the CD Only and Adolescent ASPD
group differed significantly (p < .007) from Controls (but
not from each other) on rate of ADHD. (To investigate pos-
sible gender differences, analyses were rerun separately by
gender and results were unchanged although a few effects
were significant at p < .05 instead of p < .01 likely due to
the reduced power of the within-gender analyses.)
Table 2 presents a summary of the group comparisons
on the cognitive, peer, academic, and paternal ASPD vari-
ables. Some participants were missing data on some of the
variables resulting in the variable df for tests reported in the
19. table. The group × gender interaction was non-significant
for VIQ, PIQ > VIQ, Bad Peers, and all academic achieve-
ment variables. The main effect for group was significant
(p < .001) for all variables except VIQ, English, and Math
(the latter two approached significance at p < .02, which
was just short of the adopted alpha of .01). As expected,
the Adolescent ASPD group was significantly (p < .05) dif-
ferent from the Control and CD Only groups (which were
not significantly different) on PIQ > VIQ, Bad Peers, and
Science grades. The Adolescent ASPD group differed sig-
nificantly only from Controls on Social Studies grades and
paternal history of ASPD. The Kruskal Wallis test was sig-
nificant at p < .02 for school suspensions (χ 2 [2] = 8.05)
and for unexcused absences (χ 2 [2] = 35.01). As expected,
the Adolescent ASPD group was significantly higher in mean
rank than the CD Only and Control groups, who differed sig-
nificantly (p = .048) only on unexcused absences (with the
CD Only group having a higher mean rank than the Control
group).
The second test also supported our hypothesis in that the
Adolescent ASPD group was not significantly different from
the ASPD group in most analyses. As expected, groups did
not differ significantly on their rates of endorsement of the
individual CD or AAB symptoms (see Table 1), suggesting
that adolescents and young adults diagnosed with ASPD
endorse similar kinds of symptoms. Also as expected, the
groups did not differ significantly on any diagnosis at age
20 and differed at age 17 on alcohol abuse (χ 2 [1] = 8.90,
p = .003), nicotine dependence (χ 2 [1] = 9.37, p = .002),
and cannabis (χ 2 [1] = 5.49, p = .02) where the Adolescent
Springer
20. 1054 J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:1048–1057
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
AD
HD
De
pr
es
sio
n
Al
24. diagnoses in the control,
conduct disorder (CD) only, and
adolescent antisocial personality
disorder (Adolescent ASPD)
groups at age 17. Data were
missing for a few cases on one
or more disorders resulting in
slightly variable group Ns.
ADHD = attention-deficit/
hyperactivity disorder. Illicit
drug abuse and dependence
refer to abuse and dependence
on illicit drugs other than
cannabis. The vertical line with
crossbars represents the 95% CI
for the percent estimate
ASPD group had the higher rates of co-morbidity. Figure 2
presents the rate of co-morbid diagnoses for each group at
ages 17 and 20.
As expected, the two ASPD groups did not differ signifi-
cantly on any of the cognitive, peer, academic achievement,
or paternal history variables. Table 2 presents a summary
of those analyses. Note that there were two members of the
Adolescent ASPD group with co-twins in the ASPD group,
which might bias the result toward our null expectation given
that members of a twin pair have identical data for paternal
history. The analysis for the paternal ASPD history vari-
able was re-run after removing the two Adolescent ASPD
twins who had ASPD co-twins and the results were nearly
identical (the rate of paternal ASPD went from 21.7% in
the Adolescent ASPD group to 20.5% and the χ 2 remained
non-significant). Finally, the Adolescent ASPD and ASPD
groups did not differ significantly on school suspensions or
25. unexcused absences.
Discussion
Adolescent antisocial behavior is an important topic of re-
search given its negative consequences to both families and
Table 2 Summary of group comparisons on cognitive
functioning, peer group, academic achievement, and paternal
ASPD history
Control vs. CD Only vs. Adolescent ASPD Adolescent ASPD
vs. ASPD
Control CD Only Adolescent ASPD ASPD
F (df) Mean (SE) Mean (SE) Mean (SE) F (df) Mean (SE)
VIQ 2.67 (2, 472.8) 98.18 (0.99) 95.80 (1.59) 93.47 (1.96) 0.16
(1, 66.6) 92.62 (2.74)
PIQ > VIQ 73.36 (2, 439.9)∗ ∗ ∗ 7.64 (1.25)a 8.79 (2.13)a
18.44 (2.55)b 0.30 (1, 67.1) 21.10 (3.64)
Bad Peers 51.51 (2, 313.2)∗ ∗ ∗ 0.14 (0.10)a 0.15 (0.02)a 0.43
(0.03)b 0.56 (1, 52.0) 0.39 (0.05)
Achievement
English 4.19 (2, 270.3) 3.15 (0.06) 3.09 (0.10) 2.54 (0.19) 1.56
(1, 38.8) 1.92 (0.25)
Math 3.94 (2, 226.3) 2.98 (0.08) 2.96 (0.15) 2.32 (0.23) 0.41 (1,
38.0) 2.15 (0.23)
Science 10.33 (2, 241.0)∗ ∗ ∗ 3.07 (0.08)a 2.85 (0.13)a 2.07
(0.21)b 0.52 (1, 2.5) 2.09 (0.20)
Social
Studies
6.69 (2, 261.3)∗ ∗ ∗ 3.19 (0.07)a 2.91 (0.12)a,b 2.55 (0.18)b
2.61 (1, 40.8) 1.94 (0.23)
26. χ 2 (df) % (95% CI) % (95% CI) % (95% CI) χ 2 (df) % (95%
CI)
Paternal
ASPD
12.79 (2)∗ ∗ 5.5a(2.89–9.46) 9.5a,b(3.58–19.59) 21.7b(10.95–
36.36) 0.15 (1) 16.7(2.09–48.41)
Note. Groups within a row that do not share a superscript
differed at p < .05. For the Adolescent ASPD vs. ASPD
comparisons, none of the effects
were statistically significant (all ps > .11). The Bad Peers
scores were log-transformed (log10 [x + 1]) for analyses and
means are presented in
log-transformed units. The academic achievement variables
were rated on a grading scale of A (4) to F (0). CD = conduct
disorder; ASPD =
antisocial personality disorder; VIQ = verbal IQ; PIQ =
performance IQ; Paternal ASPD refers to presence vs. absence
of a lifetime diagnosis
of ASPD in the twin’s biological father. The entries in the table
reflect the percent of each group with ASPD present in the
biological father.
∗ ∗ p < .002; ∗ ∗ ∗ p < .001.
Springer
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:1048–1057 1055
0
10
20
30
34. p
w
ith
D
ia
g
n
o
si
s
Adolescent ASPD (n = 35-9) ASPD (n = 16-7)
Fig. 2 Rate of co-morbid diagnoses in the adolescent antisocial
per-
sonality disorder (Adolescent ASPD) and antisocial personality
disor-
der (ASPD) groups at age 17 and age 20. Data were missing for
a few
cases on one or more disorders resulting in slightly variable
group Ns.
ADHD = attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Illicit drug
abuse
and dependence refer to abuse and dependence on illicit drugs
other
than cannabis. The vertical line with crossbars represents the
95% CI
for the percent estimate
society. The results of the present study suggest that Adoles-
35. cent ASPD is a valid construct that could identify adolescents
with non-normative antisocial behavior. This might better
enable parents, clinicians, and teachers to reach out early to
adolescents who might be on a more persistent pathway for
antisocial behavior.
Adolescent ASPD was found to be distinct from CD in
terms of co-morbid psychiatric diagnoses, cognitive func-
tioning, peer deviance, and academic performance. More-
over, because no evidence of an interaction between gender
and group was found, Adolescent ASPD appears to be a
valid construct for both genders. Thus, loosening the DSM
criteria for ASPD to allow diagnosis among adolescents
could provide a means to identify adolescents at risk for
persistent antisocial behavior.
Consistent with the large body of literature linking CD
to other childhood behavioral disorders, both CD and Ado-
lescent ASPD were significantly associated with ADHD in
Springer
1056 J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:1048–1057
this study. But, as predicted, boys and girls with Adolescent
ASPD had significantly higher rates of depression and sub-
stance use disorders as compared to those with CD Only.
However, the present findings are not inconsistent with pre-
vious studies relating CD to substance use disorders (e.g.,
Disney et al., 1999) as members of the Adolescent ASPD
group also had CD. If groups had been selected simply on
CD status, then the “CD group” would have had high rates
of substance use disorders, but our results suggest that the
36. elevated rates would have been attributable to the members
with Adolescent ASPD. This suggests that the assessment of
ASPD in adolescents could identify those at greatest risk for
substance use disorders or, stated another way, restricting the
ASPD diagnosis to those over age 18 may result in a missed
opportunity at identifying antisocial adolescents that are at
high risk for early-onset substance use disorders.
An important finding was that, as expected, Adolescent
ASPD and CD were distinct in many ways. Equally impor-
tant was the finding that an ASPD diagnosis—regardless
of when it was assigned—was associated with substantial
rates of co-morbid psychiatric disorder in adolescence and
early adulthood. In addition, the Adolescent ASPD and ASPD
groups showed a similar PIQ > VIQ discrepancy, the mag-
nitude of which ( >18 points) is considered not only statis-
tically significant but also abnormal (Hsu et al., 2000) and
corroborates the idea that cognitive deficits are associated
with persistent forms of antisocial behavior (Moffitt, 1993).
In addition, the Adolescent ASPD and ASPD groups showed
similarly deviant peer groups and similarly poorer academic
functioning (in both achievement and discipline) at age 17.
These results suggest that cognitive deficits in verbal rela-
tive to performance IQ, affiliation with deviant peers, and
poorer academic functioning may contribute to the devel-
opment and/or maintenance of persistent antisocial behavior
that could be identified in adolescents by applying ASPD
criteria.
Our expectation for a statistically significant difference
between the CD Only and Adolescent ASPD groups on pater-
nal ASPD history was not supported. However, the data were
ordered in the expected direction, with the rate of paternal
ASPD for the adolescent ASPD group more than double that
seen in the CD Only group. Only the Adolescent ASPD group
showed a high rate of substance use disorders—another form
37. of externalizing disorder. Thus, the biological risk transmit-
ted in families may primarily manifest as an antisocial be-
havior disorder in children (CD or ASPD), but other factors
(e.g., deviant peer group, cognitive functioning) then con-
tribute to the continuity of the antisocial behavior (CD vs.
ASPD) and perhaps also to the likelihood that other external-
izing disorders manifest (e.g., substance use disorders; see
Krueger et al., 2002).
The major strengths of this study included the use of a
mixed gender sample with groups carefully selected on CD
and ASPD diagnostic status. Analyses of gender were con-
ducted wherever possible and showed similar results for boys
and girls. Structured clinical interviews provided excellent
measurement of CD, ASPD, and co-morbid disorders. The
use of teachers as raters of peer group and academic func-
tioning served to avoid the complete reliance on self-reports
that plagues many studies. It also likely resulted in less biased
information than might have been obtained through self or
even parent reports on those measures. Finally, the use of lon-
gitudinal data allowed us to compare individuals diagnosed
with ASPD in adolescence to those who met the criteria in
early adulthood. The longitudinal data also allowed us to
examine prospectively the co-morbidity between Adolescent
ASPD, depression, and substance use disorders.
Limitations of the study also existed and included the use
of a predominantly white sample, indicating that caution be
used in generalizing our results to non-white populations.
Certainly, additional work is needed to confirm and extend
the present findings. In addition, though the rates of CD and
ASPD were consistent with those found in the general popu-
lation, our ASPD group size was modest. Thus, confidence in
our results would be enhanced with replications using larger
samples (e.g., obtained from clinics where the disorders are
38. found at higher rates). Such replications would also bolster
confidence in the predicted null findings given that null re-
sults could arise from actual similarity across groups but
also from methodological or statistical anomalies. Finally,
we acknowledge that teachers might not be able to provide
the most comprehensive rating of peer group given their lim-
ited context of interaction with the adolescents. Moreover, it
is possible that the teacher’s perceptions of the peer group
could affect their rating of academic performance (e.g., per-
ception of a negative peer group might lead to more negative
academic evaluations).
In summary, this study suggests that Adolescent ASPD is
a valid construct that appears to provide incremental clinical
utility beyond what is gleaned from a CD diagnosis alone.
Given the high prevalence of antisocial behavior during ado-
lescence, it may be difficult for parents and professionals
alike to determine whether an adolescent is exhibiting nor-
mative, transitory antisocial behavior or whether he/she is
at risk for a more persistent course. The application of the
ASPD criteria to adolescents under the age of 18 appears to
identify a clinically important subgroup of antisocial ado-
lescents who might benefit most from interventions to help
deter them from a continued course of antisocial behav-
ior. Such applications, however, should be made cautiously
until further research confirms the present findings given the
potential dangers that diagnostic labels can bring.
Acknowledgements The present study was supported in part by
National Institute of Drug Abuse grant DA 05147 and National
In-
stitute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism grant AA09367.
Springer
39. J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:1048–1057 1057
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Document 1 of 1
The construct validity of the extraversion subscales of the
Myers-Briggs type indicator
Author: Zumbo, Bruno D; Taylor, Shannon V
ProQuest document link
Abstract (Abstract): It seems that the MBTI scales formed a
factor of their own and that the EPQ combined with
Sociability and Impulsiveness to create the third factor. This
comes as no surprise since the EPQ seems
intuitively to define extraversion in terms of these two
variables. The fact that the MBTI and the EPQ occurred
as separate factors suggests that these two measures do not hold
identical views on extraversion. However, as
evidenced by the factor correlation matrix, Factor 1 (MBTI) and
Factor 3 (SOC/EPQ/IMP) had a fairly high
correlation. From this one could conclude that although each
measure is unique, each contains a high degree of
sociability and impulsiveness in its definition. The interfactor
correlation among factors one and three was in
support of Campbell &Heller (1987). The substantial correlation
among factors one and three, and the factor
loadings of the SOC, EPQ, and IMP suggested that the MBTI
was primarily a sociability measure with a minimal
association with impulsivity. This was also in support of
Campbell &Heller. The second factor (INF/ANX) yielded
only low negative correlations with the other factors and it
seems therefore that although it took up 14.5% of the
variance, it bears little relation to the other factors. Finally,
52. Factor 4, Dominance, which was responsible for only
4.2% of the variance, obtained only a low loading on the MBTI
factor in the three - factor solution and was
relegated to its own factor in the final four - factor solution.
From this first phase of the results it is clear that
extraversion cannot be described as entirely unitary. It would
appear to be defined in these measures by
sociability, impulsiveness, a lack of inferiority and anxiety and
the presence of dominance. Part 2 of the results
made apparent the possibility of a single higher - order factor
capable of bridging the gap between the original
four factors. The results did, in fact, indicate that these can be
brought together into one interpretable, though
less convincing higher - order factor. We may ask at this point
whether the results were out of the ordinary and
this question is difficult to answer since the study was unique in
its approach. To the authors' knowledge, there
have been no scale - level analyses of extraversion, though
many item - level analyses exist. Such item
analyses have revealed that extraversion is composed of many
factors. For example, Sipps &Alexander (1987)
reported finding three factors of extraversion which were
sociability, impulsivity/non - planning and risk - taking /
jocularity while [Browne, J.A.] (1971) reported twelve.
Certainly, it would be safe to say that sociability has never
been far away from any set of results. Apart from being present
in most factor analyses of extraversion, it has
been shown that the extraversion scale of the MBTI is largely a
measure of sociability (Sipps &DiCaudo, 1988).
Given that the present study declared MBTI extraversion as the
most salient factor, one must wonder about the
strength of the relationship between extraversion and
sociability.
Links: Obtain full text from Shapiro Library
Full text: Abstract
This paper examined the construct validity of the extraversion
53. and introversion subscales of the Myers - Briggs
Type Indicator (MBTI) with the Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire (EPQ) and the Howarth Personality
Questionnaire (HPQ). We further explored the accompanying
issue of the unitary nature of extraversion. A
conjoint factor analysis undertaken at the scale level produced
four first - order factors: Factor 1 - MBTI
extraversion/introversion, Factor 2 - Inferiority/ Anxiety, Factor
3 - Sociability/EPQ/Impulsiveness and Factor 4 -
Dominance. A subsequent higher - order factor analysis
revealed one factor. The results suggested that the
MBTI subscales were largely a measure of sociability and that
extraversion as represented in these three
measures is not, at first glance, unitary although interfactor
correlations do exist in varying degrees.
Resume
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Le present document porte sur la validite conceptuelle des sous
- echelles d'extraversion et d'introversion de
54. l'indicateur de type de Myers - Briggs (MBTI), ainsi que sur le
questionnaire de personnalite d'Eysenck (EPQ) et
sur le questionnaire de personnalite de Howarth (HPQ). La
question connexe de la nature unitaire de
l'extraversion y est egalement examinee. Il est ressorti d'une
analyse factorielle mixte de differentes echelles
quatre facteurs de rang un: facteur 1 - extraversion/introversion
MBTI, facteur 2 - inferiorite/anxiete, facteur 3 -
sociabilite/EPQ/impulsivite et facteur 4 - dominance. Un facteur
de rang superieur est ressorti d'une analyse
subsequente. Les resultats semblent indiquer que les sous -
echelles du MBTI constituent, en grande partie,
une mesure de la sociabilite et que l'extraversion, representee
dans les trois mesures susmentionnees, n'est
pas unitaire de prime abord, meme si des correlations existent
entre les facteurs a divers degres. There are
now several measures of extraversion available to the researcher
and practitioner. Of these the Myers - Briggs
Type Indicator (MBTI) and its corresponding extraversion -
introversion subscales are widely used in Canada
and the United States. Workshops and a very lucrative
enterprise around the MBTI has evolved in the Canadian
and American workplace. However, the construct validity of
this measure has not yet been clearly established.
There are a few studies which have explored the construct
validity of the MBTI. Sipps &Alexander(1987)
administered the MBTI and the Eysenck Personality Inventory
(EPI) scales and factor analyzed the combined
results. (For a comparison of the EPI and the later EPQ, please
see Campbell &Reynolds, 1984). In their
conjoint item analysis three factors of extraversion emerged: a
sociability component, an impulsivity/non -
planning component and a liveliness/risk - taking/jocularity
component. A synthesis of the reliability and validity
studies of the MBTI can be found in Carlyn (1977), Carskadon
(1979) or Carlson (1985). Briefly, various studies
55. investigated the split - half reliability coefficients for the MBTI
scales. They found that the reliability varied from
.80 to .90. However, the test - retest tend to be slightly lower
but acceptable. Furthermore, Thompson and
Borrello (1986) and Tzeng, Outcalt, Boyer, Ware, and Landis
(1984) have demonstrated item - level construct
validity of the MBTI. That is, the results of the assessments of
the MBTI tend to substantiate that it is a reliable
instrument that has four distinct psychometric dimensions
(validated by item - level factor analysis) that are
unidimensional and consistent with the theoretical constructs of
the MBTI. Interwoven in the issue of the
construct validity of the MBTI extraversion - introversion
subscales is the questionable unitary nature of
extraversion. As Zumbo and Hubley (1993) state, establishing
validity is difficult because it is generally
intertwined with the construction and verification of scientific
theories. That is, trying to verify a measure is often
difficult to separate from trying to verify a theory. Specifically,
it is important to confront the question of whether
the criterion scales concur in their conception of extraversion.
That is, to establish the construct validity of the
MBTI, the authors see a need to examine empirically the
correlational framework in which these subscales
exist. Necessarily, such a task must deal with the innate tension
which exists between the conceptual and the
concrete forms of a term. Campbell &Reynolds (1984, p. 318)
warn that the "actual labels attached to concepts
and scales is not at issue; the point is that semantic similarity
bears no clear relationship to - and cannot
substitute for - empirical similarity". The authors support this
statement and seek to clarify, empirically, what it is
that is measured in certain extraversion subscales.
The purpose of the present paper is directed at the above
question although in a somewhat novel fashion. The
study is limited to three measures of extraversion: the MBTI,
56. the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), and
the Howarth Personality Questionnaire (HPQ). To the authors'
knowledge, scale - level construct validity
analysis of extraversion has not been reported in the literature.
Appropriate subscales were combined into one
test which enabled us to carry out a factor analysis to
investigate the overall factor structure. In doing this, it was
possible to examine the construct validity of the MBTI
extraversion - introversion subscale and whether
extraversion as represented in these tests is fairly unified.
Before presenting the current study we will briefly review the
literature on the unitary nature of extraversion.
Confusion as to what it is that tests of extraversion are
measuring stems not only from the area of test
construction but from basic problems involved in the definition
of extraversion. Taking a brief look at the history
of extraversion we see that it has roots as far back as the late
seventeenth century when extraversion was used
in reference to the mind as a turning outward of one's thoughts
toward objects and was at the same time used
in chemistry meaning "to render visible or sensible the latent
constituents of a substance" (Browne, 1971, p. 7).
The word "extraversion" is taken from "extra" meaning
"outward" and "vert - ere" meaning "to turn". By contrast,
introversion is derived from a different prefix, "intro", meaning
"inward" (Browne, 1971, p. 7). Although this
definition may provide some insight into the literal meaning of
extraversion - introversion, it is not clear what is
directed outward or inward.
A discussion of the history of extraversion can be found in
Eysenck (1970). Early in the present century,
research began to emerge which focussed on the biological side
of extraversion - introversion (for a recent
57. discussion, see Stelmack, 1990). As well, later, ideas were
beginning to surface concerning the adaptive
qualities of extraversion. Speculation about extraversion
occurred on what is now considered a subjective level
until the 1930's when factor analysis of test scores enabled a
quantitative definition by researchers such as the
Guilfords (Guilford &Guilford, 1934). The Guilfords published
several articles on their attempts to identify various
factors of personality and of extraversion, using factor analysis.
Factor analysis of personality dimensions
probably attained its height in the 1960's when its use in
personality theory was widely popular.
FACTORS OF EXTRAVERSION
H.J. Eysenck and S.B.G. Eysenck have been important
contributors to the study of extraversion. Eysenck and
Eysenck (1963) discussed the possibility of sociability and
impulsiveness being aspects of extraversion that
were not independent. In a subsequent publication (Eysenck
&Eysenck, 1967) their factor analysis involved
scores on the lemon test (a physiological measure of
extraversion) as well as scores on extraversion items and
neuroticism items. Their results indicated two uniform factors
which were extraversion and neuroticism. Eysenck
&Eysenck concluded that for the purposes of the experiment,
extraversion was unitary in nature due to its
appearance as a unitary factor.
Guilford (1977) published a response to a long series of
disagreements between himself and the Eysencks
concerning the nature of extraversion. Guilford disagreed with
Eysenck's notion of extraversion being a second
- order factor resting on impulsiveness (factor R in Guilford's
scheme) and sociability (factor s). The dispute was
based on the fact that in factor analysis, a certain hierarchy of
factors exists in which first - order factors are
more molecular than second order factors. Having discovered
many different first - order factors, the task is to
58. assess how they may combine to form second - order factors.
In the case of J.P. Guilford and H.J. Eysenck, they both
believed that extraversion could exist as a second order
factor, but whereas Eysenck believed it to be connected to R
and S, Guilford believed it to be more closely tied
to R and T (Thoughtfulness). Guilford suggested to Eysenck
that his options were either to adopt extraversion
as resting on R and T since they were more highly correlated
than R and S, or to adopt extraversion as being
equivalent to the first order factor R. Guilford believed that R
and S were independent and that Eysenck's
extraversion factor became "rotated out of existence" (Guilford,
1977, p. 415). EXTRAVERSION AND SOCIAL
DESIRABILITY
Having looked at extraversion from a theoretical point of view,
let us examine some popular conceptions of
extraversion. Farley and Goh (1976) instructed students
whencompleting a measure of psychoticism,
neuroticism and extraversion to answer by relaying either a
"good impression" (reflecting social desirability), a
"worst impression" (reflecting psychiatric illness) or to answer
"normally". Results showed increased scores on
psychoticism, neuroticism and introversion for the "worst
impression" set. Here we see evidence of a popular
belief that introversion reflects mental instability. Furnham and
Henderson (1982) conducted a similar study in
which subjects who were instructed to give a bad impression on
various personality tests demonstrated
significantly lower extraversion scores while subjects instructed
to give a good impression scored significantly
higher on extraversion. These two pieces of research raise the
disconcerting possibility of test response bias on
measures of extraversion.
59. This leads us now to the method used in the present study which
is a conjoint factor analysis, a procedure
enabling various items or various scales to be combined and
analyzed together in the same matrix. For
example, Sells, Demaree &Will (1970) used 600 items for their
conjoint analysis while Browne and Howarth
(1977) combined four hundred items. CONJOINT FACTOR
ANALYSIS OF EXTRAVERSION Conjoint factor
analytic studies have been used for measures of more specific
scales than personality inventories. They have
proven themselves useful in the analysis of measures of
extraversion although very few actually exist to date.
Guilford and Guilford (1934) chose thirty - five items from
current introversion - extraversion tests which they
combined into one questionnaire. The results produced eighteen
factors of which four were considered central:
a) a tendency to fear the environment, b) an emotional
sensitivity to the environment, c) impulsiveness, and d)
interest in self. It was concluded that "the usual scale bearing
the name [extraversion] does not refer to any real
dimension of personality any more than the usual intelligence
test measures a single real variable of mental
ability" (Guilford &Guilford, 1934, p. 399).
Finally, the study which most resembles the present one was
reported in 1971 (Browne, 1971). Browne
combined 400 items taken from twenty different item sources.
An item factor analysis yielded twelve factors:
sociability, adjustment - emotionality, social shyness, trust vs.
suspicion, impulsivity, persistence, sex
&superego, Freudian introversion, dominance, unidentified,
cooperativeness - considerateness and finally,
inferiority. This broad spectrum of factors led Browne to
conclude that extraversion is too broad to be
considered a unitary concept.
THE PRESENT STUDY
This leads us to the question, now, of whether tests which claim
60. to be measuring the same thing, such as
extraversion, are actually measuring the same thing. It may be
that two tests claiming to measure the exact
same trait, for example, may not be measuring the same one,
and this may be due to either a disparity between
operational definitions or to inadequacies in the construction of
the tests. The present study is focussed on
these questions and has chosen to examine the concept of
extraversion as reflected by various measures.
METHOD
Subjects
The sample consisted of 210 introductory psychology students
who completed their questionnaires in full. The
sample was constructed of 109 females and 92 males(f.1). The
age range of the 171 subjects who indicated
their age was 19 to 52. The overall mean age was 22.4 (SD =
5.4). The average age for females was 23.2 (SD
= 6.2) and for males 21.4 (SD = 3.9). Our sample is
representative, in both age and gender composition, of
those previously used in investigating the psychometric
properties of the MBTI, EPQ, and HPQ.
Psychometric Instruments
A 98 - item questionnaire was developed as a measure of
extraversion and was constructed from three
measures of extraversion. These three scales were as follows:
1. The extraversion and introversion subscales of the Myers
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Form G.
2. The extraversion subscale of the Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire (EPQ).
3. The five subscales of the Howarth Personality Questionnaire
(HPQ) which comprise extraversion. The HPQ
(Howarth, 1980) has been constructed from an item pool based
on twenty personality factors of which ten traits
are represented in the HPQ. For a more detailed history of the
HPQ and subsequent research see Howarth
&Zumbo (1988). The HPQ and EPQ were chosen because of
61. their popularity and because they were soundly
constructed on the basis of factor analysis.
The questionnaire was constructed by simply amalgamating the
subscales beginning with the MBTI followed by
the EPQ and the HPQ. There was no particular reason for this
ordering. The item order of each subscale was
unchanged from the order in which they originally appeared and
instructions for each section were retained from
the original. The MBTI extraversion subscale contains 21 items,
the EPQ also contains 21 items and the HPQ
contains 12 items for each subscale by which extraversion is
defined: Sociability, Anxiety, Dominance,
Impulsiveness and Inferiority (Howarth, 1985) for a total of 60
items from the HPQ. From these 102 items four
were eliminated due to replication (EPQ #70 "Can you get a
party going?", HPQ #21 "Do you like going out a
lot?", #71 "I am a good social mixer" and #101 "I generally
keep in the background on social occasions").
Scoring
A. Item Scores. Each item of the questionnaire was scored
according to the test manuals. A score of one was
given to a response endorsing extraversion and zero elsewhere.
This resulted in 98 dichotomously scored
items.
B. Scale Scores. To provide a score with which to validate the
extraversion scales, we computed a scale score
for each subject for each extraversion scale. This was
accomplished by assigning a unit weight to each item
which comprised the HPQ and EPQ scales. Therefore, the
subjects received one point for each extraversion
item they endorsed (i.e., answered in favour of extraversion).
This procedure is identical to that given in the test
manuals of the EPQ and HPQ.
62. It should be noted that for the EPQ and HPQ introversion is, in
theory, lack of extraversion. That is, they are
envisioned as two ends of a continuum. However, the MBTI
differentiates between extraversion and introversion
in that subjects receive scores for extraversion as well as for
introversion. For the most part, extraversion items
are identical to introversion items except that each item is
weighted differently depending on whether the
subject responds in favour of extraversion or introversion. The
weighting for each item is given in the test
manual. The scale scores for the MBTI were, therefore, formed
in accordance with these weightings.
When data analysis of extraversion scales was executed, those
items which had been removed from any given
scale due to replication elsewhere in the questionnaire were
reinserted into their appropriate scale calculations
so that all scales contained their complete set of items.
Reliabilities
Reports of the MBTI have generally yielded satisfactory
reliabilities. Carskadon (1977) reported test - retest
reliabilities on the extraversion/introversion scale as being .79
for males and .83 for females. The manual for the
EPQ reports a test - retest reliability for the extraversion
subscale as being high at .89 and being equally high
for university students. The reliabilities for the five subscales of
the HPQ range from .72 to .84 in value
(Howarth, 1985).
RESULTS
The means, standard deviations and reliabilities were calculated
for the items comprising each scale (see Table
1). These statistics were computed from the dichotomous data
resulting from the item scoring. It is important to
note that the two MBTI scales and the EPQ scale were each
scored out of 21 and each of the HPQ scales,
(Sociability (SOC), Anxiety (ANX), Dominance (DOM),
Impulsiveness (IMP) and Inferiority (INF), were scored
63. out of 12.
PART 1
Factorability of the Correlation Matrix
Table 2 contains the correlation matrix of the eight scales.
These eight scales were obtained via the scale
scoring description given above. The Kaiser - Meyer Olkin
(KMO) measure of sampling adequacy (Kaiser,
1970) was used yielding a value of .79 which is more than
adequate. Bartlett's Sphericity test was used in order
to determine whether the correlation matrix differed from the
identity matrix. The test yielded a value of 1322.27,
p <.001. Given the magnitude of the correlations these results
were not surprising and allowed us to
appropriately use the factor model. A maximum likelihood
factor analysis followed by oblique rotation (Direct
Quartimin, that is, Direct Oblimin with a delta value set at zero)
was used for all factor solutions. A delta value of
zero was chosen because when it is set at a large negative value
the factor solutions are increasingly
orthogonal, a value of zero allows for factors to be fairly highly
correlated, while values approaching one
produce factors that are highly correlated. We chose the
moderate value zero. It should be noted, however, that
even though there is a relation between the value of delta and
the size of the correlation among the factors, the
maximum value of the correlation among the factors for a given
value of delta depends on the data. This is
particularly why the Direct Quartimin was chosen, it allows the
factors to be highly correlated (a solution very
likely in a domain like extraversion) while not forcing a
positive manifold (i.e., a one factor second - order
solution; that is, something akin to a g - factor of extraversion)
on the factor space. Furthermore, maximum
64. likelihood analysis allows for a statistical test of the goodness -
of - fit between the data and the factor model
while oblique rotation which is recommended by Hakstian
(1971) and Hakstian &Abel (1974), does not constrain
the resulting factors to being orthogonal and allows us to
investigate any possible second - order factors.
Various factor solutions were tested in which one - through to
five - factor solutions were examined. Criteria
used in determining the suitability of the model were twofold.
The Chi - squared goodness - of - fit test and the
residuals between the observed and the reproduced correlations
each served to test how well the model fit the
actual data. All of the residuals should be less than 0.10 in
order for the solution to be appropriate for the data
(McDonald, 1985). Neither the one - factor solution nor the two
- factor solution met any of the criteria. The three
- factor solution did not meet the criterion of the goodness - of -
fit although the residuals were deemed
adequate. A glance at the pattern matrix for the 3 - factor
solution relayed reasonably high loadings of variables
on factors except for the variable Dominance which had a low
loading on all factors. It is the authors' opinion
that the 3 - factor model is an under extraction. Without going
into much detail, Factor 1 included MBTI -
introversion, MBTI - extraversion, and Dominance. Factor 2
included Inferiority and Anxiety while Factor 3
included Sociability, EPQ, and Impulsiveness. The four - factor
solution was decided upon as being most
suitable. The goodness - of - fit test, x(Fe 2) (2) = 0.7463, p
<.65, suggested an acceptable fit and all the
residuals were acceptable at less than .10. Furthermore, all the
communalities were less than 1.0 (see Table 2)
which is an indicator of an adequate solution.
The factors obtained were as follows: (see Table 3)
Factor 1. This first factor was indeed responsible for a large
portion of the total variance (46.0%) and was made
65. up of the MBTI scales. It makes theoretical sense for both
MBTI scales to be in the same factor since, as we
have seen, they are almost perfectly negatively correlated in the
original correlation matrix.
Factor 2. Howarth's Inferiority and Anxiety scales created this
factor. Howarth's own definition describes
extraversion as "lacking either anxiety or feelings of
inferiority" (Howarth, 1985) and it would appear that a
lacking in both of these is somehow related. Factor 2 accounted
for 14.5% of the total variance.
Factor 3. Sociability, EPQ extraversion and Impulsiveness
formed the third factor which accounted for 6.6% of
the total variance. Factor 4. The final factor responsible for
only 4.2% of the total variance included only one
variable, Dominance.
In order to obtain a general idea of how the factors related to
each other, let us now look at the factor correlation
matrix. Table 4 indicates negative correlations between Factor 2
and all factors, which was expected
considering Howarth's belief that his scales measure something
which other extraversion scales lack. One
cannot help noticing the large value (.787) which has resulted
between Factor 1 (MBTI) and Factor 3
(SOC/EPQ/IMP). However, weaker correlations seemed to exist
between Factors 4 and 1 and between Factors
4 and 3.
Before proceeding, it should be noted that the results of this
section were obtained from scale scores. These
are the scores that an individual would obtain when scoring the
measures according to their respective test
manuals.
This is important to note because there exists an alternative
manner of analysing this data. That is, under
statistically optimal conditions (i.e., given that we have 98
items we need well over 1500 subjects) the
alternative approach would be to simultaneously fit all of the
66. scales via confirmatory factor analysis, then the
resulting inter - factor correlation matrix would serve as the
input for the exploratory factor analysis. However,
the alternative analysis was not conducted for the following
reasons:
1. In administering these scales in an applied setting factor
score coefficients are not used. Rather, unit weights
are utilized. We were interested in examining the construct
validity of these scales within the context that they
are being used. See Zumbo and Hubley (1993) for a discussion
of the importance of considering the intended
use of tests when investigating their validity.
2. The sample size in the present study is too small to allow for
item - level analysis. This study was planned for
scale - level analysis and therefore we planned for a factor
analysis of eight variables. Furthermore, with the
simultaneous fit method, our sample size would result in poor
estimation of factor coefficients and factor scores.
This would have a cascading disastrous effect on the joint
distribution of the variables and the correlation
coefficients among the factors (Tucker, 1971). Therefore, we
have followed the recommendations of Bartlett
(1937) and Overall and Klett (1983) to use unit weights rather
than factor scoring coefficients(f.2)
3. It can be seen in the literature review that the item - level
factorial validity of the EPQ, HPQ, and MBTI are
well supported. In fact, these measures were chosen because of
their psychometric properties. Another item -
level analysis is not necessarily needed to substantiate the
factorial validity of these measures.
In summary, the simultaneous method was not utilized because
of the issue of establishing validity within the
context of test use, the inappropriate sample size, and that the
67. item - level factorial validity has been established
in previous papers. Therefore, the four - factor solution based
on the factor analysis of the scale scores can now
be submitted to higher - order factor analysis.
PART 2
Having extracted four factors from the data, the next step was to
examine the structure of possible second -
order factors. The four - factor correlation matrix achieved an
adequate KMO - value of .61 and a significant
value of 263.82, p <.05 on the Bartlett test of sphericity. These
results allowed us to proceed with a higher -
order factor analysis. The four - factor solution which was
found to be appropriate in Part 1 of the results was
subjected to a factor analysis in order to explore the possibility
of extracting a single interpretable higher - order
factor. Factor analysis proceeded as before, although rotation
was not necessary for a one - factor solution.
Using the same criteria as in Part 1, it was found that the Chi -
squared goodness - of - fit was not statistically
significant with X'Symbol not transcribed'2 (2)= 5.74, p >.05
with all residuals less than .10. The one - factor
solution was, therefore, found to be appropriate.
This second - order factor was labelled a general extraversion -
introversion factor. The highest loading on this
one general factor was Factor 1 with a value of .979 followed
by factors 3, 4, and 2, with loadings of .804, .441,
and -.273, respectively. This general extraversion - introversion
factor is a coalescence of the MBTI
extraversion/lack of introversion as well as Sociability,
Impulsiveness and Eysenck's extraversion. Again, the
small negative loading on Factor 2 lends credence to Howarth's
statement that INF and ANX measure
something that Eysenck's extraversion scale lacks.
Out of curiosity the previously rejected three - factor solution
was subjected to higher - order analysis. The
criteria for the Kaiser - Meyer - Olkin and Bartlett tests were
68. met. The resulting three - factor matrix was similar
to the four - factor matrix with Factor 1 (which now includes
Dominance) loading almost perfectly followed by
Factor 3 and Factor 2. The ordering of factors was similar to the
above - mentioned solution and the factors
themselves, described earlier, were almost identical in the
content of their variables. Again, Factor 2 made up of
Inferiority and Anxiety received a negative loading. This
solution lends to the robustness of the unifactorial
extraversion model. DISCUSSION
In this paper we were interested in the construct validity of the
MBTI subscales as a vehicle for exploring the
potential unitary nature of extraversion. A conjoint factor
analysis of certain extraversion scales seemed to be
an interesting gateway to these issues.
Though some studies have carried out item analyses of
extraversion (Sipps &Alexander, 1987; Browne, 1971),
the present study is unique to the authors' knowledge in its
factor analytic calculations of extraversion at the
scale level. What this means is that each measure of
extraversion was represented in its entirety somewhere
within the overall factor structure of the combined scales, as
opposed to individual items being represented
somewhere within the overall structure of the combined items.
In other words, conjoint analysis at the scale
level was more qualified to address the question of how each
scale may differ from the other scales in terms of
factor membership and the extent to which the factors are
correlated. Conversely, analysis at the item level is
limited to the question, "How well are each of the factors
reproduced by the items?". So it is clear that conjoint
scale analysis is better equipped to deal with our present
concern which is that of discrepancies between scales
69. in what is being measured, i.e. factorial validity. See Howarth
and Zumbo (1989; 1988) for further discussion.
It seems that the MBTI scales formed a factor of their own and
that the EPQ combined with Sociability and
Impulsiveness to create the third factor. This comes as no
surprise since the EPQ seems intuitively to define
extraversion in terms of these two variables. The fact that the
MBTI and the EPQ occurred as separate factors
suggests that these two measures do not hold identical views on
extraversion. However, as evidenced by the
factor correlation matrix, Factor 1 (MBTI) and Factor 3
(SOC/EPQ/IMP) had a fairly high correlation. From this
one could conclude that although each measure is unique, each
contains a high degree of sociability and
impulsiveness in its definition. The interfactor correlation
among factors one and three was in support of
Campbell &Heller (1987). The substantial correlation among
factors one and three, and the factor loadings of
the SOC, EPQ, and IMP suggested that the MBTI was primarily
a sociability measure with a minimal
association with impulsivity. This was also in support of
Campbell &Heller. The second factor (INF/ANX) yielded
only low negative correlations with the other factors and it
seems therefore that although it took up 14.5% of the
variance, it bears little relation to the other factors. Finally,
Factor 4, Dominance, which was responsible for only
4.2% of the variance, obtained only a low loading on the MBTI
factor in the three - factor solution and was
relegated to its own factor in the final four - factor solution.
From this first phase of the results it is clear that
extraversion cannot be described as entirely unitary. It would
appear to be defined in these measures by
sociability, impulsiveness, a lack of inferiority and anxiety and
the presence of dominance. Part 2 of the results
made apparent the possibility of a single higher - order factor
capable of bridging the gap between the original
70. four factors. The results did, in fact, indicate that these can be
brought together into one interpretable, though
less convincing higher - order factor. We may ask at this point
whether the results were out of the ordinary and
this question is difficult to answer since the study was unique in
its approach. To the authors' knowledge, there
have been no scale - level analyses of extraversion, though
many item - level analyses exist. Such item
analyses have revealed that extraversion is composed of many
factors. For example, Sipps &Alexander (1987)
reported finding three factors of extraversion which were
sociability, impulsivity/non - planning and risk - taking /
jocularity while Browne (1971) reported twelve. Certainly, it
would be safe to say that sociability has never been
far away from any set of results. Apart from being present in
most factor analyses of extraversion, it has been
shown that the extraversion scale of the MBTI is largely a
measure of sociability (Sipps &DiCaudo, 1988). Given
that the present study declared MBTI extraversion as the most
salient factor, one must wonder about the
strength of the relationship between extraversion and
sociability.
We would like to emphasize that factorial construct validity
should be conducted not only at the item level
whereby one establishes the reproducibility of the postulated
scales but also at the scale level whereby several
similarly labelled scales can be explored within a common
factor space. We concur with Campbell &Reynolds
(1984) in the following: In summary, we suggest that the most
useful question to ask is not "Which is the real
factor?" but rather "How do the available measures operate?"
Researchers should continue to examine the
utility of primary and higher - order traits... As a final caveat,
researchers should not be misled by semantic
similarity, either between models or across successive
instruments for a given model; a dimension of
71. personality is best understood by its operating characteristics,
not by its label (p. 319). One may wonder
whether research in the area of extraversion is still necessary.
Although the literature is less prevalent than in
the past, the concept of extraversion has infiltrated personality
measures and common language and remains
an integral part of many personality inventories. As long as the
term is still in use, research in this domain
cannot be futile, nor can it be futile to examine and question the
construct validity of representative scales. The
authors believe there is a need for further scale level analyses
as a process for expanding our knowledge of
extraversion and its psychometric homologues.
Thanks to Prof. Bob Stelmack of the University of Ottawa and
three anonymous reviewers for comments on an
earlier draft. Parts of this paper were reported by the second
author for her B.A. Honours thesis at Carleton
University under the supervision of BDZ.
Send correspondence to: Bruno D. Zumbo, Measurement and
Evaluation, Faculty of Education, University of
Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario CANADA K1N 6N5. E - mail: ZUMBO
AT ACADJM1. UOTTAWA.CA.
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Submitted June 28, 1991 Revision July 6, 1992 Accepted
October 14, 1992
Footnote
(f.1) To comply with ethical standards at our institution,
subjects were given the option of submitting age and
gender on the questionnaire. Nine subjects did not indicate their
gender.
(f.2) Although a simultaneous factor analysis of all items was
not conducted, a scale - by - scale unifactorial
solution was obtained. Factor scores were computed for each
scale separately and these factor scores were
used to create an 8 x 8 correlation matrix. The results of this
analysis were a replication of the scale - level
results in Table 4. We would like to thank a reviewer for this
suggestion and prompting our consideration or this
issue.
TABLE 1
Mean Scores, Standard Deviations and Reliabilities for Each
Scale
------------------------------------------------------------ Scale Mean
Standard Reliability Deviation -------------------------------
----------------------------- MBTI-Ext 13.90 6.30 .83 MBTI-Int
14.14 6.34 .83 EPQ 14.51 4.79 .86 SOC 8.36 3.34 .85