This document describes a study that aims to measure implicit and explicit attitudes about sociosexuality using both a self-report questionnaire and an Implicit Association Test (IAT). The study administered the Big-Five Inventory personality questionnaire, the Revised Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI-R) to measure explicit sociosexuality, and a new IAT designed to measure implicit attitudes about casual versus monogamous relationships. The study aims to validate the new IAT by seeing if it predicts the same relationships as the explicit SOI-R. Results from the personality questionnaire will also be used to predict scores on both the implicit and explicit sociosexuality measures. This will provide evidence about whether certain personality traits can predict both implicit
This study examined whether emotional vulnerability leads women and men to confirm gender stereotypes. Fifty-nine couples were randomly assigned to discuss topics that did or did not induce feelings of vulnerability. When vulnerability was high, men's behaviors aligned more with traditional masculine stereotypes. Women's behaviors were not significantly affected. The findings provide support for social role theory, which proposes that people are more likely to behave in gender-stereotypical ways when performing social roles associated with their gender.
The document discusses several theories related to human reproductive behaviour and relationship formation and development. It describes theories of sexual selection, social penetration theory, physical attractiveness, filter theory, social exchange theory, equity theory, investment model, and relationship dissolution model. Key concepts include anisogamy, inter-sexual selection, intra-sexual selection, self-disclosure, halo effect, matching hypothesis, comparison level, stages of relationship development, intrinsic and extrinsic investments, and the four phases of relationship dissolution. Research supporting and critiquing various aspects of the theories is also reviewed.
This study examined how physical attractiveness, workplace satisfaction, length of employment, and biological sex influence perceptions of sexual harassment. A survey was administered varying the attractiveness of the harassing supervisor. The results showed no relationship between physical attractiveness and perception of harassment. There was also no significant difference between males and females, or influence of workplace satisfaction or length of employment on perceptions. Physical attractiveness, employment time, and satisfaction did not impact perceptions of sexual harassment.
This document summarizes research on the relationship between personality and romantic relationships. It discusses two studies that examined how the Five Factor Model of personality (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism) correlates with attachment styles and relationship outcomes. The first study found that insecure attachment was linked to lower extraversion and higher neuroticism, which related to poorer interpersonal skills. The second study found that secure attachment and higher scores on the Five Factor traits correlated with greater psychological well-being, healthier interpersonal behaviors, and longer romantic relationships. Both studies provide evidence that personality influences the development and quality of romantic bonds.
Transphobia in Today's Society: Implicit Attitudes and Personal BeliefsStephanie Azzarello
Research presented March 4, 2016 at the Eastern Psychological Association conference In New York City. Research indicates that implicit attitudes of transphobia currently match explicit attitudes, possibly due to low social desirability. Predictors for transphobia are adherence to traditional gender roles, right wing authoritarianism, social dominance, and the belief that gender identity is a choice
This document discusses theories around the stability of categories of sex, gender, and sexuality. It compares essentialist views that see these categories as innate and stable to social constructionist and queer theories that see them as changing based on social and cultural influences. The document analyzes several key studies and cases like Bruce/Brenda that have informed this debate. It examines perspectives from evolutionary psychology, social identity theory, psychoanalysis, and queer theory on how these categories are developed and maintained over time.
1) The study aimed to examine how adverse social conditions can lead to the development of social schemas that increase the likelihood of criminal behavior. It tested a model linking parenting, community disadvantages, and discrimination to the formation of three social schemas: a hostile view of relationships, concern for immediate gratification, and a cynical view of social norms.
2) The results found the three schemas were interrelated but did not conclusively demonstrate that they formed a "criminogenic knowledge structure" that predicted criminal acts. However, the social factors did influence schema formation in expected ways.
3) Future research could improve on limitations like the homogenous sample and test how situational definitions mediated the relationship between schemas and crime. A more
The study examined the relationship between permissive sexual attitudes and engaging in casual sexual relationships and experiences (CSREs). It also looked at whether identity confusion moderated this relationship. Logistic regression analysis found that more permissive sexual attitudes were associated with a higher likelihood of engaging in CSREs. However, identity confusion did not predict or moderate this relationship. The findings suggest that external factors may be more influential on casual sexual behavior than internal identity factors.
This study examined whether emotional vulnerability leads women and men to confirm gender stereotypes. Fifty-nine couples were randomly assigned to discuss topics that did or did not induce feelings of vulnerability. When vulnerability was high, men's behaviors aligned more with traditional masculine stereotypes. Women's behaviors were not significantly affected. The findings provide support for social role theory, which proposes that people are more likely to behave in gender-stereotypical ways when performing social roles associated with their gender.
The document discusses several theories related to human reproductive behaviour and relationship formation and development. It describes theories of sexual selection, social penetration theory, physical attractiveness, filter theory, social exchange theory, equity theory, investment model, and relationship dissolution model. Key concepts include anisogamy, inter-sexual selection, intra-sexual selection, self-disclosure, halo effect, matching hypothesis, comparison level, stages of relationship development, intrinsic and extrinsic investments, and the four phases of relationship dissolution. Research supporting and critiquing various aspects of the theories is also reviewed.
This study examined how physical attractiveness, workplace satisfaction, length of employment, and biological sex influence perceptions of sexual harassment. A survey was administered varying the attractiveness of the harassing supervisor. The results showed no relationship between physical attractiveness and perception of harassment. There was also no significant difference between males and females, or influence of workplace satisfaction or length of employment on perceptions. Physical attractiveness, employment time, and satisfaction did not impact perceptions of sexual harassment.
This document summarizes research on the relationship between personality and romantic relationships. It discusses two studies that examined how the Five Factor Model of personality (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism) correlates with attachment styles and relationship outcomes. The first study found that insecure attachment was linked to lower extraversion and higher neuroticism, which related to poorer interpersonal skills. The second study found that secure attachment and higher scores on the Five Factor traits correlated with greater psychological well-being, healthier interpersonal behaviors, and longer romantic relationships. Both studies provide evidence that personality influences the development and quality of romantic bonds.
Transphobia in Today's Society: Implicit Attitudes and Personal BeliefsStephanie Azzarello
Research presented March 4, 2016 at the Eastern Psychological Association conference In New York City. Research indicates that implicit attitudes of transphobia currently match explicit attitudes, possibly due to low social desirability. Predictors for transphobia are adherence to traditional gender roles, right wing authoritarianism, social dominance, and the belief that gender identity is a choice
This document discusses theories around the stability of categories of sex, gender, and sexuality. It compares essentialist views that see these categories as innate and stable to social constructionist and queer theories that see them as changing based on social and cultural influences. The document analyzes several key studies and cases like Bruce/Brenda that have informed this debate. It examines perspectives from evolutionary psychology, social identity theory, psychoanalysis, and queer theory on how these categories are developed and maintained over time.
1) The study aimed to examine how adverse social conditions can lead to the development of social schemas that increase the likelihood of criminal behavior. It tested a model linking parenting, community disadvantages, and discrimination to the formation of three social schemas: a hostile view of relationships, concern for immediate gratification, and a cynical view of social norms.
2) The results found the three schemas were interrelated but did not conclusively demonstrate that they formed a "criminogenic knowledge structure" that predicted criminal acts. However, the social factors did influence schema formation in expected ways.
3) Future research could improve on limitations like the homogenous sample and test how situational definitions mediated the relationship between schemas and crime. A more
The study examined the relationship between permissive sexual attitudes and engaging in casual sexual relationships and experiences (CSREs). It also looked at whether identity confusion moderated this relationship. Logistic regression analysis found that more permissive sexual attitudes were associated with a higher likelihood of engaging in CSREs. However, identity confusion did not predict or moderate this relationship. The findings suggest that external factors may be more influential on casual sexual behavior than internal identity factors.
Topics of Conflict in Romantic RelationshipsBrittany Weber
This study investigated topics of conflict in romantic relationships between men and women. The researcher hypothesized that men would report more conflict about sexual behavior, while women would report more conflict about intimacy. Undergraduate students completed questionnaires about their relationships. Results of t-tests showed no significant gender differences in reported topics of conflict regarding sexual behavior or intimacy. The hypotheses were not supported. Future research with both partners' perspectives could provide more accurate insights into sources of relationship conflict.
This document analyzes and compares the dynamics of same-sex and opposite-sex relationships. It finds that while power dynamics differ due to gender roles in heterosexual couples, relationships are otherwise quite similar. Same-sex couples break from traditional gender roles and power is balanced. Both types of couples also show similarities in intimacy, emotional fulfillment and parenting, with few differences found. Overall, the document concludes same-sex and opposite-sex relationships are largely comparable, with the exception of gender-based power dynamics in heterosexual couples.
The document summarizes a study on perceptions of relationships between men and women. It surveyed 10 heterosexual couples to assess their views on traditional gender roles. Results showed those identifying as masculine generally supported traditional roles, while androgynous individuals favored equality. Younger masculine men surprisingly supported women as primary caregivers. The author concludes identities and beliefs are influenced by generational changes, and that making masculinity/femininity more fluid could promote equality and self-expression.
This document summarizes a study that examined how adherence to gender roles affects perceptions of self and reactions to objectified images. The study hypothesized that strong adherence to gender roles would be associated with lower body satisfaction and more negative reactions to objectified images of one's sex. Surprisingly, the results did not support these hypotheses. Qualitative interviews were conducted to help explain these unexpected findings and suggest that views of gender roles may be more fluid than measured by the assessment used. The document provides background on theories of gender as a social construct and how media objectification relates to cultural ideals of masculinity and femininity.
Shifting Sands or Solid Foundation? Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender I...Iim Ibrahim
This document summarizes research and theories on LGBT identity development. It begins by outlining competing paradigms in the field, including essentialist vs. social constructionist views. It then reviews early works on minority identity formation and some of the first stage models of gay and lesbian identity proposed in the 1970s and 1980s. Many stage models posit a linear progression through stages of identity confusion, comparison, tolerance, acceptance, and pride. However, these models have been criticized for not accounting for individual differences and social/historical factors. The document calls for more broad, inclusive theories that consider multiple potential influences on identity.
This article discusses how masculinity vs feminism works. (This article has not been proof read). This work was done due to a curiosity generated through communication studies in my sophomore year of college.
This document provides an overview of research on disrespect in adolescent heterosexual romantic relationships. It discusses how masculinity ideology, which emphasizes traits like emotional stoicism and dominance over women, is socialized into boys from a young age through various influences. This socialization process can lead boys to act disrespectfully towards girls in their relationships in ways like minimizing a girl's emotional needs, expecting sex without consideration of her desires, and focusing on sex to avoid vulnerability. However, the research on motivations for sex and relationships among adolescents is limited and complex, and non-committed sexual experiences are not necessarily disrespectful depending on the intentions and perspectives of both partners. The document examines different types of disrespectful behaviors and explores some potential
This document proposes creating a relationship education curriculum for adolescent boys to help them empathize with girls struggling with media messages about physical beauty. It reviews research showing that mass media portrays unrealistic thin ideals that negatively impact girls' body satisfaction and may influence how boys view attractiveness in girls. Studies suggest boys place some importance on thinness in girls and may be affected by thin-ideal images. The curriculum aims to make boys allies for girls rejecting these images and foster respectful relationships.
Females had a more positive attitude towards romantic relationships than males. There was no significant gender difference in views on what a partner can provide or physical attractiveness. Males held more traditional views supporting the concept of double standards in relationships compared to females. The study found both similarities and differences in how males and females view romantic and sexual relationships, contradicting some past research. Further research should examine the influence of other factors like religion and relationship status.
Patterns of insecure attachment spsp 2010Jarryd_Willis
This study compared attachment styles across relationship types (caregiver, romantic partner, cross-sex friend, same-sex friend) between heterosexual, lesbian/gay, and bisexual individuals. It found largely similar patterns in attachment anxiety for romantic partners between heterosexual and LGB individuals. However, LGB individuals showed greater attachment anxiety toward caregivers, likely due to fears of rejection upon coming out. The study also found relationship-specific changes in attachment anxiety depending on romantic status and sexual orientation. Overall, it provided further evidence that attachment theory applies similarly to heterosexual and LGB relationships, while also highlighting some unique aspects of caregiver attachment for LGB individuals.
The document discusses differences in how masculinity and femininity are perceived to influence romantic relationships. A study surveyed 326 college students and found that men were more likely than women to believe in traditional relationship dynamics like cohabitation improving marriage. Meanwhile, women were more likely to value love over other factors in choosing a mate. The author then surveyed 10 couples about gender roles and found that those identifying as more masculine or feminine aligned with traditional views, while androgynous individuals favored flexibility. The author concludes exposure to less rigid gender norms, like through education, can impact relationship beliefs.
This document summarizes research on sex differences in distress from partner infidelity. It compares an evolutionary psychology perspective, which argues men and women have different mate selection strategies that lead to differing distress from emotional vs sexual infidelity, to an alternative perspective that distress results from violating relationship expectations. Studies generally support the evolutionary view, finding men more distressed by sexual infidelity and women by emotional infidelity. However, the document also proposes that distress could result from processing violations of expectations about a partner's likely unfaithful behavior. It aims to evaluate which perspective, evolutionary strategies or expectation violations, better predicts distress from infidelity.
This document summarizes a research paper on the effect of values systems on attitudes toward interracial marriage. The paper examines how individual and group values systems may impact opinions on interracial marriage and potentially segment people into groups not previously considered. The research aims to study interracial marriage through the lens of social values systems as a way to better understand reported attitudes versus rates of interracial marriage. It reviews literature on assimilation theory and interracial marriage trends. The study proposes to experimentally assess attitudes toward interracial marriage alongside participants' placement on a values system continuum.
Mehta & Strough_2009_ Sex segregation across the lifespanClare Mehta
This document summarizes research showing that sex segregation, or the separation of individuals into same-sex groups, persists across the lifespan rather than just being a childhood phenomenon. It reviews literature demonstrating sex segregation in friendships and normative contexts from childhood through older adulthood. Possible mechanisms that may contribute to and result from lifelong sex segregation include behavioral compatibility, communication styles, resistance to cross-sex relationships, and institutional barriers. Future research is needed to better understand the topic across diverse populations and contexts.
This study tested a model of modern homonegativity by examining the relationships between affective characteristics (anger and disgust), cognitive characteristics (religious beliefs and conservative ideology), exposure to queer individuals, and levels of modern homonegativity. The researchers hypothesized that anger, disgust and cognitive characteristics would be associated with higher modern homonegativity, while direct (but not indirect) exposure would be associated with lower homonegativity by impacting cognitive characteristics. Structural equation modeling supported the hypotheses and revealed that direct exposure reduced cognitive characteristics and modern homonegativity, while indirect exposure increased anger.
This is a poster presentation of our study published in the Journal of Social and Personal Relationship on the perception of potential promiscuous and non-promiscuous same-sex friends.
This study examined whether a person's need for sex predicts their comfort with casual sex and likelihood of engaging in risky sexual behaviors. 111 participants completed online questionnaires measuring their need for sex, views on casual sex, and sexual history. Higher need for sex correlated with more unrestricted views of casual sex and a higher frequency of risky sexual encounters. However, there was no significant interaction between the three measures. The findings suggest an individual's need for sex can impact their psychology and behaviors regarding casual and risky sex, which has implications for understanding hazardous sexual behavior.
The document discusses premarital and non-marital relationships. It covers topics like the changing nature of love and partner selection, which now emphasizes individual needs over institutional norms. Types of early relationships like dating, hooking up, and cohabitation are examined in the context of the transition to marriage. The roles of sexuality, sexual orientation, and factors influencing sexual behavior are also summarized.
This document discusses research on the relationship between gender and ethical perspectives. Some key points:
- Previous research has found that women tend to choose ethical options over unethical ones more often than men.
- The author conducted an experiment that found a relationship between gender identity (masculine, feminine, androgynous) and preference for different ethical perspectives (care-focused or justice-focused).
- Those with feminine gender identities tended to prefer care-focused ethical perspectives, while masculine and androgynous participants favored justice-focused perspectives.
- This provides some support for theories that gender influences how people approach ethical decision-making. However, more research is still needed to fully understand this relationship.
I Have,” I Would,” I Won’t” Hooking Up Among Sexually Dive.docxwilcockiris
“I Have,” “I Would,” “I Won’t”: Hooking Up Among Sexually Diverse
Groups of College Students
Scott S. Hall
Ball State University
David Knox
East Carolina University
Kelsey Shapiro
Ball State University
Incorporating the intention to “hook up” with whether one has hooked up can distinguish groups with
unique sets of background characteristics and experiences pertaining to hooking up within the college
culture. A large, gender-balanced sample of college students (N � 3,893) from 2 universities that
represented sizable numbers of diverse sexual identities was analyzed for the current study. Results
indicated that within each sexual identity, men were more likely than women to have hooked up (“I
have”) and to be willing to hookup if they hadn’t (“I would”). Across sexual identities, gay/lesbian and
bisexual individuals were more likely to have hooked up than were straight individuals. Gay and straight
individuals were more likely than bisexual individuals to intend to avoid hooking up (“I won’t”).
However, multivariate analyses that accounted for various background, attitudinal, and sexual experi-
ences appeared to account for much of the variation by sexual identity.
Public Significance Statement
This study identified that men as a group and individuals identifying as gay, lesbian, or bisexual were
more likely to have “hooked up” and to be willing to hook up if they hadn’t. Such differences among
sexual identities lessened when diverse beliefs and experiences were accounted for.
Keywords: hooking up, sexual identity, intentions
“Hooking up” has become a major focus of research in sexuality
and relationships of emerging adults, especially college students.
Though definitions vary, a hookup is typically understood to be a
sexual encounter that occurs between individuals who have no
relationship commitment, sometimes who are strangers (Garcia,
Reiber, Massey, & Merriwether, 2012; Lewis, Atkins, Blayney,
Dent, & Kaysen, 2013). Motivations for hooking up include not
having a formal dating scene alternative, sexual gratification,
wanting to fit in, fun/adventure, being too busy for a steady
relationship (e.g., demands of a college-student life), and hope for
a transition into a romantic relationship (Uecker et al., 2015). The
college context promotes hooking-up encounters, with an apparent
cultural expectation that hooking up is integral to embracing the
full college experience (Bogle, 2007; Garcia et al., 2012). Re-
searchers continue to investigate the profile of individuals likely to
hook up, their motivations for doing so, and the outcomes of the
experience.
Yet some college students report never having hooked up (Gar-
cia et al., 2012). Such individuals may be categorized as those who
avoid such encounters (e.g., the strongly religious) or those who
have not had the opportunity. Those who have not hooked up could
thus be meaningfully different from one another, depending on
their intentions related to hooking up. Understanding the charac-.
This study explored how peer relationships impact the human stress response in gay males. It found that:
1) Gay male friends engaged in higher levels of co-rumination (extensive negative problem discussion) when discussing problems compared to a control group.
2) However, gay male friends did not experience rises in the stress hormone cortisol in response to co-rumination.
3) Co-rumination in gay male friendships was related to increased negative affect.
This study investigated how physical attractiveness, social attractiveness, and self-esteem affect perceptions of desirability and reciprocity in online dating. 80 students viewed one of four fictional dating profiles that varied in physical and social attractiveness of the person depicted. Participants completed self-esteem and desirability/reciprocity measures. Results showed that profiles with high physical or social attractiveness were seen as more desirable. Profiles with both high physical and social attractiveness were seen as most desirable. Contrary to hypotheses, those with low self-esteem perceived higher reciprocity than those with high self-esteem. The study provides insight into how attributes affect perceptions in online dating.
Topics of Conflict in Romantic RelationshipsBrittany Weber
This study investigated topics of conflict in romantic relationships between men and women. The researcher hypothesized that men would report more conflict about sexual behavior, while women would report more conflict about intimacy. Undergraduate students completed questionnaires about their relationships. Results of t-tests showed no significant gender differences in reported topics of conflict regarding sexual behavior or intimacy. The hypotheses were not supported. Future research with both partners' perspectives could provide more accurate insights into sources of relationship conflict.
This document analyzes and compares the dynamics of same-sex and opposite-sex relationships. It finds that while power dynamics differ due to gender roles in heterosexual couples, relationships are otherwise quite similar. Same-sex couples break from traditional gender roles and power is balanced. Both types of couples also show similarities in intimacy, emotional fulfillment and parenting, with few differences found. Overall, the document concludes same-sex and opposite-sex relationships are largely comparable, with the exception of gender-based power dynamics in heterosexual couples.
The document summarizes a study on perceptions of relationships between men and women. It surveyed 10 heterosexual couples to assess their views on traditional gender roles. Results showed those identifying as masculine generally supported traditional roles, while androgynous individuals favored equality. Younger masculine men surprisingly supported women as primary caregivers. The author concludes identities and beliefs are influenced by generational changes, and that making masculinity/femininity more fluid could promote equality and self-expression.
This document summarizes a study that examined how adherence to gender roles affects perceptions of self and reactions to objectified images. The study hypothesized that strong adherence to gender roles would be associated with lower body satisfaction and more negative reactions to objectified images of one's sex. Surprisingly, the results did not support these hypotheses. Qualitative interviews were conducted to help explain these unexpected findings and suggest that views of gender roles may be more fluid than measured by the assessment used. The document provides background on theories of gender as a social construct and how media objectification relates to cultural ideals of masculinity and femininity.
Shifting Sands or Solid Foundation? Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender I...Iim Ibrahim
This document summarizes research and theories on LGBT identity development. It begins by outlining competing paradigms in the field, including essentialist vs. social constructionist views. It then reviews early works on minority identity formation and some of the first stage models of gay and lesbian identity proposed in the 1970s and 1980s. Many stage models posit a linear progression through stages of identity confusion, comparison, tolerance, acceptance, and pride. However, these models have been criticized for not accounting for individual differences and social/historical factors. The document calls for more broad, inclusive theories that consider multiple potential influences on identity.
This article discusses how masculinity vs feminism works. (This article has not been proof read). This work was done due to a curiosity generated through communication studies in my sophomore year of college.
This document provides an overview of research on disrespect in adolescent heterosexual romantic relationships. It discusses how masculinity ideology, which emphasizes traits like emotional stoicism and dominance over women, is socialized into boys from a young age through various influences. This socialization process can lead boys to act disrespectfully towards girls in their relationships in ways like minimizing a girl's emotional needs, expecting sex without consideration of her desires, and focusing on sex to avoid vulnerability. However, the research on motivations for sex and relationships among adolescents is limited and complex, and non-committed sexual experiences are not necessarily disrespectful depending on the intentions and perspectives of both partners. The document examines different types of disrespectful behaviors and explores some potential
This document proposes creating a relationship education curriculum for adolescent boys to help them empathize with girls struggling with media messages about physical beauty. It reviews research showing that mass media portrays unrealistic thin ideals that negatively impact girls' body satisfaction and may influence how boys view attractiveness in girls. Studies suggest boys place some importance on thinness in girls and may be affected by thin-ideal images. The curriculum aims to make boys allies for girls rejecting these images and foster respectful relationships.
Females had a more positive attitude towards romantic relationships than males. There was no significant gender difference in views on what a partner can provide or physical attractiveness. Males held more traditional views supporting the concept of double standards in relationships compared to females. The study found both similarities and differences in how males and females view romantic and sexual relationships, contradicting some past research. Further research should examine the influence of other factors like religion and relationship status.
Patterns of insecure attachment spsp 2010Jarryd_Willis
This study compared attachment styles across relationship types (caregiver, romantic partner, cross-sex friend, same-sex friend) between heterosexual, lesbian/gay, and bisexual individuals. It found largely similar patterns in attachment anxiety for romantic partners between heterosexual and LGB individuals. However, LGB individuals showed greater attachment anxiety toward caregivers, likely due to fears of rejection upon coming out. The study also found relationship-specific changes in attachment anxiety depending on romantic status and sexual orientation. Overall, it provided further evidence that attachment theory applies similarly to heterosexual and LGB relationships, while also highlighting some unique aspects of caregiver attachment for LGB individuals.
The document discusses differences in how masculinity and femininity are perceived to influence romantic relationships. A study surveyed 326 college students and found that men were more likely than women to believe in traditional relationship dynamics like cohabitation improving marriage. Meanwhile, women were more likely to value love over other factors in choosing a mate. The author then surveyed 10 couples about gender roles and found that those identifying as more masculine or feminine aligned with traditional views, while androgynous individuals favored flexibility. The author concludes exposure to less rigid gender norms, like through education, can impact relationship beliefs.
This document summarizes research on sex differences in distress from partner infidelity. It compares an evolutionary psychology perspective, which argues men and women have different mate selection strategies that lead to differing distress from emotional vs sexual infidelity, to an alternative perspective that distress results from violating relationship expectations. Studies generally support the evolutionary view, finding men more distressed by sexual infidelity and women by emotional infidelity. However, the document also proposes that distress could result from processing violations of expectations about a partner's likely unfaithful behavior. It aims to evaluate which perspective, evolutionary strategies or expectation violations, better predicts distress from infidelity.
This document summarizes a research paper on the effect of values systems on attitudes toward interracial marriage. The paper examines how individual and group values systems may impact opinions on interracial marriage and potentially segment people into groups not previously considered. The research aims to study interracial marriage through the lens of social values systems as a way to better understand reported attitudes versus rates of interracial marriage. It reviews literature on assimilation theory and interracial marriage trends. The study proposes to experimentally assess attitudes toward interracial marriage alongside participants' placement on a values system continuum.
Mehta & Strough_2009_ Sex segregation across the lifespanClare Mehta
This document summarizes research showing that sex segregation, or the separation of individuals into same-sex groups, persists across the lifespan rather than just being a childhood phenomenon. It reviews literature demonstrating sex segregation in friendships and normative contexts from childhood through older adulthood. Possible mechanisms that may contribute to and result from lifelong sex segregation include behavioral compatibility, communication styles, resistance to cross-sex relationships, and institutional barriers. Future research is needed to better understand the topic across diverse populations and contexts.
This study tested a model of modern homonegativity by examining the relationships between affective characteristics (anger and disgust), cognitive characteristics (religious beliefs and conservative ideology), exposure to queer individuals, and levels of modern homonegativity. The researchers hypothesized that anger, disgust and cognitive characteristics would be associated with higher modern homonegativity, while direct (but not indirect) exposure would be associated with lower homonegativity by impacting cognitive characteristics. Structural equation modeling supported the hypotheses and revealed that direct exposure reduced cognitive characteristics and modern homonegativity, while indirect exposure increased anger.
This is a poster presentation of our study published in the Journal of Social and Personal Relationship on the perception of potential promiscuous and non-promiscuous same-sex friends.
This study examined whether a person's need for sex predicts their comfort with casual sex and likelihood of engaging in risky sexual behaviors. 111 participants completed online questionnaires measuring their need for sex, views on casual sex, and sexual history. Higher need for sex correlated with more unrestricted views of casual sex and a higher frequency of risky sexual encounters. However, there was no significant interaction between the three measures. The findings suggest an individual's need for sex can impact their psychology and behaviors regarding casual and risky sex, which has implications for understanding hazardous sexual behavior.
The document discusses premarital and non-marital relationships. It covers topics like the changing nature of love and partner selection, which now emphasizes individual needs over institutional norms. Types of early relationships like dating, hooking up, and cohabitation are examined in the context of the transition to marriage. The roles of sexuality, sexual orientation, and factors influencing sexual behavior are also summarized.
This document discusses research on the relationship between gender and ethical perspectives. Some key points:
- Previous research has found that women tend to choose ethical options over unethical ones more often than men.
- The author conducted an experiment that found a relationship between gender identity (masculine, feminine, androgynous) and preference for different ethical perspectives (care-focused or justice-focused).
- Those with feminine gender identities tended to prefer care-focused ethical perspectives, while masculine and androgynous participants favored justice-focused perspectives.
- This provides some support for theories that gender influences how people approach ethical decision-making. However, more research is still needed to fully understand this relationship.
I Have,” I Would,” I Won’t” Hooking Up Among Sexually Dive.docxwilcockiris
“I Have,” “I Would,” “I Won’t”: Hooking Up Among Sexually Diverse
Groups of College Students
Scott S. Hall
Ball State University
David Knox
East Carolina University
Kelsey Shapiro
Ball State University
Incorporating the intention to “hook up” with whether one has hooked up can distinguish groups with
unique sets of background characteristics and experiences pertaining to hooking up within the college
culture. A large, gender-balanced sample of college students (N � 3,893) from 2 universities that
represented sizable numbers of diverse sexual identities was analyzed for the current study. Results
indicated that within each sexual identity, men were more likely than women to have hooked up (“I
have”) and to be willing to hookup if they hadn’t (“I would”). Across sexual identities, gay/lesbian and
bisexual individuals were more likely to have hooked up than were straight individuals. Gay and straight
individuals were more likely than bisexual individuals to intend to avoid hooking up (“I won’t”).
However, multivariate analyses that accounted for various background, attitudinal, and sexual experi-
ences appeared to account for much of the variation by sexual identity.
Public Significance Statement
This study identified that men as a group and individuals identifying as gay, lesbian, or bisexual were
more likely to have “hooked up” and to be willing to hook up if they hadn’t. Such differences among
sexual identities lessened when diverse beliefs and experiences were accounted for.
Keywords: hooking up, sexual identity, intentions
“Hooking up” has become a major focus of research in sexuality
and relationships of emerging adults, especially college students.
Though definitions vary, a hookup is typically understood to be a
sexual encounter that occurs between individuals who have no
relationship commitment, sometimes who are strangers (Garcia,
Reiber, Massey, & Merriwether, 2012; Lewis, Atkins, Blayney,
Dent, & Kaysen, 2013). Motivations for hooking up include not
having a formal dating scene alternative, sexual gratification,
wanting to fit in, fun/adventure, being too busy for a steady
relationship (e.g., demands of a college-student life), and hope for
a transition into a romantic relationship (Uecker et al., 2015). The
college context promotes hooking-up encounters, with an apparent
cultural expectation that hooking up is integral to embracing the
full college experience (Bogle, 2007; Garcia et al., 2012). Re-
searchers continue to investigate the profile of individuals likely to
hook up, their motivations for doing so, and the outcomes of the
experience.
Yet some college students report never having hooked up (Gar-
cia et al., 2012). Such individuals may be categorized as those who
avoid such encounters (e.g., the strongly religious) or those who
have not had the opportunity. Those who have not hooked up could
thus be meaningfully different from one another, depending on
their intentions related to hooking up. Understanding the charac-.
This study explored how peer relationships impact the human stress response in gay males. It found that:
1) Gay male friends engaged in higher levels of co-rumination (extensive negative problem discussion) when discussing problems compared to a control group.
2) However, gay male friends did not experience rises in the stress hormone cortisol in response to co-rumination.
3) Co-rumination in gay male friendships was related to increased negative affect.
This study investigated how physical attractiveness, social attractiveness, and self-esteem affect perceptions of desirability and reciprocity in online dating. 80 students viewed one of four fictional dating profiles that varied in physical and social attractiveness of the person depicted. Participants completed self-esteem and desirability/reciprocity measures. Results showed that profiles with high physical or social attractiveness were seen as more desirable. Profiles with both high physical and social attractiveness were seen as most desirable. Contrary to hypotheses, those with low self-esteem perceived higher reciprocity than those with high self-esteem. The study provides insight into how attributes affect perceptions in online dating.
The document summarizes two studies on how people perceive others' sociosexual orientations from facial cues and short videos. In Study 1, observers could distinguish between composites of individuals with restricted vs. unrestricted orientations. Both male and female observers found unrestricted women more attractive. In Study 2 using real faces, perceived orientation correlated with self-reported scores. The document also discusses prior work finding observers more accurately judge sociosexual orientation than other traits, and that accuracy depends on trait importance and ability to detect valid cues.
The document discusses definitions of homosexuality and bisexuality, as well as negative stereotypes, impacts, and conflicts faced by LGBTQ individuals. It then outlines the objectives, variables, tools, and results of a survey conducted in Kolkata, India on the relationship between intra-personal and inter-personal conflicts experienced by homosexual and bisexual individuals. The survey found that socioeconomic status, family support, societal awareness and norms significantly influence psychological conflicts. Resilience factors and implications for increasing social support and awareness are discussed.
This document discusses definitions related to gender identity, gender expression, sex, and sexual orientation. It notes that gender identity refers to one's internal sense of gender, which may differ from their sex assigned at birth. Sexual orientation refers to romantic or sexual attraction toward other people and exists on a spectrum. The document emphasizes that major medical and mental health professional organizations do not consider homosexuality a mental disorder and that efforts to change sexual orientation through conversion or reparative therapy have been found ineffective and potentially harmful.
In this paper, I researched how aspects of personality can influence behavior; the specific example here is infidelity. I synthesized the data of multiple experiences to create a personality profile of a person who is more likely to cheat on a romantic partner than the "average" person.
This document provides a summary and response to an article titled "Gender Differences in Intimacy, Emotional Expressivity and Relationship Satisfaction." The summary discusses key findings from the article, including that women reported higher levels of supportiveness and negative emotional expressivity, while men reported higher levels of nonverbal and verbal affection and intimacy in relationships. However, men reported lower levels of relationship satisfaction. The response paper analyzes the article's methodology and conclusions, noting some limitations but finding the theoretical framework and arguments to be logically sound.
The document summarizes research on the relationship between attachment styles and the Big Five personality traits. It discusses how attachment styles develop from infant relationships with caregivers and shape views of self and others. Personality traits are relatively stable characteristics that distinguish individuals. The study examined correlations between attachment anxiety/avoidance dimensions and the Big Five traits of Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness using surveys of 100 college students. Results revealed some personality traits like Neuroticism were strongly correlated with certain attachment styles while others showed weaker or no correlations.
Gender refers to the psychological sense of maleness or femaleness related to one's culture or society, whereas sex refers to biological attributes. Gender development involves learning gender roles and stereotypes from a young age through socialization. Gender identity forms between ages 2-3 and involves identifying as male or female, while gender constancy develops at ages 6-7 with the understanding that gender is permanent. Gender stereotyping can be positive or negative, but is inherently harmful as it reduces individuals to narrow roles and leads to making assumptions about people based on their gender.
Attachment anxiety in lgb & straight relationshipsJarryd_Willis
This study contributed to literature suggesting that heterosexual and LGB relationships function similarly, and several attachment theoretical findings based on heterosexual samples profited from an empirical cross-validation with a mixed-orientation sample.
"Research on gay male, lesbian, and bisexual (LGB) attachment relationships may provide empirical contributions to the generalizability of differential attachment, and to our understanding of how gender affects close relationships." (Peplau & Fingerhut, 2007)
The emotional, physiological, and behavioral functions of the romantic attachment system do not vary based on the gender composition of the dyad.
Readings and ResourcesArticles, Websites, and VideosDiscussio.docxlillie234567
Readings and Resources
Articles, Websites, and Videos:
Discussions pertaining to gender can be touchy. In this 7-minute video, viewers will be presented with both sides of the argument as to whether you believe gender is actually a social construct or you do not – then, you can decide for yourself!
https://youtu.be/s33R4OnW-eo
In this video, which has been viewed over 50 million times, a 26 year-old mother, Emma Murphy, talks of her experiences in a domestic violence relationship. After show a video with graphic images of her injuries, she discusses how she left her abuser, gaining strength from her experiences, not letting them define her or diminish her self-worth.
https://youtu.be/frFEdN7aMh8
Sexual assault is one of the most underreported forms of violence against another person. Why? This video provides firsthand accounts of sexual assault survivors and the reality of how they were treated after the attack. It allows us to understand the barriers which prevent survivors from coming forward.
https://youtu.be/HxP4Djzv3FA
The brains of children changes as a result of exposure to dysfunctional familial relationships, stress and exposure to trauma. This video examines how children develop a “learning brain” under healthy conditions and a “survival brain” when faced with harsh conditions. How these two brains interact is important towards our understanding of human behaviors.
https://youtu.be/KoqaUANGvpA
This video looks at the impact of gender in our society through the eyes of 12 year-old Audrey Mason-Hyde and the world she experiences.
https://youtu.be/NCLoNwVJA-0Gender, Gender Identity, Gender Expression, and Sexism
Chapter 9Chapter Introduction
AP Images/J. ScottApplewhiteLearning Objectives
This chapter will help prepare students to
EP 2a
EP 2b
EP 2c
EP 3a
EP 3b
EP 6a
EP 7b
EP 8b
· LO 1 Define gender, gender identity, gender expression, and gender roles
· LO 2 Discuss the social construction of gender
· LO 3 Examine the complexities of gender, gender identity, and gender expression.
· LO 4 Evaluate traditional gender-role stereotypes over the lifespan
· LO 5 Assess some differences between men and women (including abilities and communication styles)
· LO 6 Discuss economic inequality between men and women
· LO 7 Examine sexual harassment
· LO 8 Review sexist language
· LO 9 Examine rape and sexual assault
· LO 10 Explore intimate partner violence
· LO 11 Identify means of empowering women
Girls are pretty. Boys are strong.
Girls are emotional. Boys are brave.
Girls are soft. Boys are tough.
Girls are submissive. Boys are dominant.
These statements express some of the traditional stereotypes about men and women.
Stereotypes are “fixed mental images of members belonging to a group based on assumed attributes that portray an overly simplified opinion about that group.” (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2012b, p. 25). The problem with such fixed images is that they allow no room for individual differences within the group. One of the major values adhe.
The document summarizes key concepts related to interpersonal attraction and relationships. It defines affiliation and interpersonal attraction, and discusses principles and theories of attraction such as association, reinforcement, exchange theory, and balance theory. It also outlines determinants of attraction like physical characteristics, warmth, competence, and similarity. The document then examines friendship, romantic relationships, love, and homosexual relationships. It concludes by discussing troubled relationships, breakups, and the phases of ending a relationship.
This research examined how women's endorsement of benevolent sexism beliefs impacted their psychological and performance outcomes when experiencing sexual objectification in the workplace. The study found that women high in benevolent sexism who experienced severe objectification reported less negative affect, poorer work performance, and were less likely to perceive the objectification as harassment compared to women low in benevolent sexism. For women who experienced mild objectification, benevolent sexism was also correlated with these outcomes but to a lesser extent and not always significantly. No effects were found for those in the control condition who did not experience objectification.
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Female SexualOrientaMatthewTennant613
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Female Sexual
Orientation, Childhood Gender Typicality and Adult
Gender Identity
Andrea Burri1,2*, Lynn Cherkas2, Timothy Spector2, Qazi Rahman1*
1 Biological and Experimental Psychology Group, School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom, 2 Department
of Twin Research and Genetic Epidemiology, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
Abstract
Background: Human sexual orientation is influenced by genetic and non-shared environmental factors as are two
important psychological correlates – childhood gender typicality (CGT) and adult gender identity (AGI). However,
researchers have been unable to resolve the genetic and non-genetic components that contribute to the covariation
between these traits, particularly in women.
Methodology/Principal Findings: Here we performed a multivariate genetic analysis in a large sample of British female
twins (N = 4,426) who completed a questionnaire assessing sexual attraction, CGT and AGI. Univariate genetic models
indicated modest genetic influences on sexual attraction (25%), AGI (11%) and CGT (31%). For the multivariate analyses, a
common pathway model best fitted the data.
Conclusions/Significance: This indicated that a single latent variable influenced by a genetic component and common non-
shared environmental component explained the association between the three traits but there was substantial
measurement error. These findings highlight common developmental factors affecting differences in sexual orientation.
Citation: Burri A, Cherkas L, Spector T, Rahman Q (2011) Genetic and Environmental Influences on Female Sexual Orientation, Childhood Gender Typicality and
Adult Gender Identity. PLoS ONE 6(7): e21982. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021982
Editor: Stacey Cherny, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Received March 9, 2011; Accepted June 14, 2011; Published July 7, 2011
Copyright: � 2011 Burri et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: These authors have no support or funding to report.
Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
* E-mail: [email protected] (AB); [email protected] (QR)
Introduction
Understanding of the origins of sexual orientation can help
narrow competing developmental explanations for behavioral sex
differences in general and is of increasing importance to
researchers concerned with the physical and mental health of
sexual minorities [1,2]. Homosexuality appears to be a stable
sexual phenotype in humans with population-based surveys
suggesting lifetime prevalence of 2–4% in men and 0.5–1.5% in
women when measured as exclusive same-sex ‘‘feelings’’ (e.g.,
homosexual attractions and fantasies) [3,4]. The distribution of the
...
Jess Alder (Program Director, Start Strong, Boston Public Health Commission), Nicole Daley (Director of Evaluation and Engagement, One Love Foundation), and Emily F. Rothman, ScD (Professor, Boston University School of Public Health) delved into the topic of whether porn use is a public health problem and highlighted a curriculum they developed for teens to discuss porn, healthy relationships, and sexual violence.
Panel: Healthy Sexuality, Pornography, and Porn Literacy
Thesis Max Alley
1. Running Head: IMPLICIT SOCIOSEXUALITY
Predicting Explicit and Implicit attitudes of Sociosexuality using the Big-Five Personality
Traits
Empirical Thesis
Max Alley
Bates College
2. Running Head: IMPLICIT SOCIOSEXUALITY
Abstract
The Sociosexual Orientation inventory (Gangestad & Simpson,1991) is a self-report
questionnaire designed to measure individual differences in the tendency to have
casual, uncommitted sexual relationships or monogamous relationships. This
questionnaire assesses explicit ideas about unrestricted sexual experiences. Ideas
about sociosexuality have previously only been observed explicitly, however in this
experiment, a measure was created to determine if implicit ideas about sociosexuality
could be observed implicitly using an Implicit Association Test (IAT; A. G. Greenwald, D.
E. McGhee, & L. K. Schwartz, 1998). The IAT, a reaction time task, measures
differential associations of 2 target concepts with an attribute. In this study, the IAT
attempts to provide a measure of implicit sociosexuality. Certain traits in the Five Factor
Model of personality (Goldberg, 1993) have been shown to predict responses correlated
with sociosexuality (Wright, 1997). Participants completed the IAT, the Revised
Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI-R), and the Big-Five Inventory (BFI) (Srivastava,
1999), to determine superordinate personality traits. Additionally, (I provided evidence
that) convergent validity can be found between the both implicit and explicit measures of
sociosexuality. Certain traits of the the Big-Five Inventory were shown to predict explicit
and implicit sociosexuality with convergence on the two measures of sociosexuality.
3. Running Head: IMPLICIT SOCIOSEXUALITY
Predicting Explicit and Implicit attitudes of Sociosexuality using the Big-Five Personality
Traits
The term sociosexuality was first coined by Alfred Kinsey in his book, Sexual
Behavior in the Human Male (Kinsey, 1948). Sociosexuality refers to individual
differences in the willingness to engage in sexual activity outside of a committed,
monogamous relationship. Research into sociosexuality remained untouched until
Gangestad & Simpson’s development of the Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI),
(Simpson, & Gangestad, 1991). The SOI distinguishes between individuals who report
unrestricted sociosexual orientation and restricted sociosexual orientation. Individuals
with a more restricted sociosexual orientation are less willing to engage in casual sex;
they prefer greater love, commitment, and emotional closeness before having sex with
romantic partners. Alternatively, individuals who have a more unrestricted sociosexual
orientation are more willing to have casual sex and are more comfortable engaging in
sex without love, commitment, or closeness.
Later, in 2008, the revised Sociosexual Orientation inventory (SOI-R) was
created (Penke & Asendorpf, 2008) to correct major criticisms to the original model.
Critics believed that the original model viewed sociosexuality as a single dimension,
leading the revised version to focus on three convergent measures of sociosexuality.
The SOI-R today contains 9 items compared to the original SOI, which only contains 5.
Additionally, the scale lacked internal consistency, displayed skewed score distribution,
and contained one question only applicable to participants not in relationships. Today,
the SOI-R is the most widely used model for gauging sociosexuality and is now
available in 25 languages, with the option to use 9-point response scales or 5-point
4. Running Head: IMPLICIT SOCIOSEXUALITY
response scales. In this study I used the SOI-R questionnaire with a 9-point response
scale to accurately assess sociosexuality in the participants.
The SOI-R compiles a score using three major aspects of sociosexuality: past
behavioral experiences, the attitude toward uncommitted sex, and sociosexual desire.
Of the nine questions on the SOI-R, the first three ask participants to recall past
behavioral experiences regarding sexuality forming the behavior facet of sociosexuality.
Questions 4-6 ask participants to gauge how committed they feel they must be to a
partner in order to engage sexually aggregating to form the attitude facet. The final
three ask participants to respond on past scenarios and hypothetical situations
regarding sexual activity with someone they are not in a committed relationship with
comprising the desire facet. Once scores are recorded, a total score of global
sociosexuality is assigned to a participant, representing a preference for unrestricted
sexual relationships or monogamous relationships.
Sociosexuality has been studied extensively and is shown to be highly correlated
with gender and sexual preference differences. First, across many cultures (48 nations),
men have scored higher in sociosexuality (preference for unrestricted sex) than women
(Schmitt, 2005). However, despite this gender distinction, there is very high variability
among men and women in their degree of sociosexuality. Gay men, for example report
being the most unrestricted in sociosexual behavior, followed by bisexual men and then,
heterosexual men (Schmitt, 2007). In fact, both gay men and women report higher
sociosexuality scores than their heterosexual counterparts.
Sociosexuality has been showed to be directly related to mate preference and
mate selection strategies. Collapsing across gender, participants who report being
5. Running Head: IMPLICIT SOCIOSEXUALITY
sexually unrestricted view short-term mates with greater sexual experience as more
desirable (Wiederman & Dubois, 1998). However, this brings up an interesting question
about short-term vs long-term mate preferences. Past research has shown that
unrestricted individuals prefer short-term uncommitted relationships; however, the two
are not mutually exclusive. Individuals may have a preference for long term, committed,
relationships, but allow sex with others outside of the relationship. This is referred to as
polyamory (Manley et al., 2015). Individuals who identify as polyamorous go against the
stereotype of unrestricted individuals preferring short-term commitment to long-term
commitment. Polyamory is often confused with unrestricted sexuality or promiscuity, but
its practitioners form a separate category because they believe in forming short term,
and long term committed relationships, but their definition of commitment often does not
include sexual monogamy.
Preference for commitment has been shown in research regarding sociosexuality
and attraction preferences. Unrestricted individuals have been shown to place higher
emphasis on partners’ physical attractiveness and sex appeal, while restricted
individuals place more weight on characteristics indicative of good personal and
parenting qualities (e.g., kind, responsible, faithful1) (Simpson & Gangestad, 1992).
When unrestricted men and restricted men both viewed attractive female models, the
unrestricted men showed higher interest in the models’ physical attractiveness while
restricted men placed a higher emphasis on social traits (Townsend & Wasserman,
1998). This makes sense, given unrestricted individuals’ preferences for short-term
1 It is important to note that examples used are not exclusively good parenting qualities; these
qualities may also be present in any relationship.
6. Running Head: IMPLICIT SOCIOSEXUALITY
relationships. Unrestricted sociosexuality is also associated with early life experiences
with sex, more frequent sexual activity, and a greater number of lifetime sex partners.
Sociosexuality has been linked to the continuum of erotophobia and erotophilia.
The construct of erotophobia-erotophilia has been operationalized the Sexual Opinion
Survey (SOS; Fisher et al., 1988). The measure works to clarify an individual’s
preference and comfortability with eroticism. The spectrum of erotophobia-erotophilia
shows the learned attitudes in responding to sexual cues along a negative–positive
dimension of affect and evaluation (Fisher). Individuals that scored high in
sociosexuality reported being more erotophilic than those who were sexually restricted.
Erotophilia encompasses group sex and sex acts with more than one partner, which
would strongly go against the views on individuals who report being sexually restricted.
Sociosexuality is also shown to predict and be predicted by many other non-
sexual factors: risk taking, impulsivity (Seal & Agostinelli,1994), attachment style
(Simon, 1997), dark triad traits (i.e. narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy)
(Jonason et al, 2009), masculinity (Clark, 2004), eveningness vs morningness
(Jankowski et al, 2014), self monitoring (Sakaguchi et al, 2007), and intrinsic vs extrinsic
religious orientation (Rowatt & Schmitt, 2003). Leads us to believe that sociosexuality is
deeply rooted in personality traits and may be more genetic rather than learned.
Other research has shown how certain personality traits can be predictors of
sociosexuality. In one study, unrestricted men described themselves as irresponsible,
unproductive, not warm, not anxious, and assertive compared to their restricted
counterparts (Reise & Wright 1996). Most personality research concerning
sociosexuality uses the Big-Five personality traits as predictors for sociosexuality.
7. Running Head: IMPLICIT SOCIOSEXUALITY
The Big-Five Personality Traits
The five-factor model of personality is a broad organization of personality traits in
containing five basic dimensions of personality: openness vs. closeness to experience
(O), conscientiousness vs. lack of direction (C), extraversion vs. introversion (E),
agreeableness vs. antagonism (A), and neuroticism vs emotional stability (N) or
(OCEAN). It is important to note that these characteristics are all scale items, and one’s
measure on the Big-Five inventory is the degree to which they align themselves with
each dichotomous variable of the five-factor model.
Many psychologists believe that the five-factor model provides a general
structure of important personality traits and should be used as an accepted
classification scheme to organize phenomena and to formulate and test hypotheses
regarding individual differences in personality (Digman,1990; Goldberg, 1993; Ozer &
Reise, 1994).
The accepted tool for reporting one’s responses on the Big-Five personality traits
is the Big-Five Inventory (BFI; (Srivastava, 1999)). In the past the BFI has been used to
use personality traits to predict sociosexuality in Caucasian and Asian college students
(Wright & Reise, 1997). Wright & Reise found that extraversion, low agreeableness and
low neuroticism were direct predictors of unrestricted sociosexuality. In a separate study
by the same authors observed the relationship between personality and sociosexuality
and provided evidence that extraversion and agreeableness were the best predictors of
sexual behavior in college aged women (Wright & Reise, 1999).
8. Running Head: IMPLICIT SOCIOSEXUALITY
In the current study, Wright & Reise’s research was replicated using college
students and a random sample using by using the BFI (a similar model to the NEO-PI-R
for assessing the Big-Five personality traits) to predict explicit and implicit sociosexual
attitudes.
The IAT
Ideas about sociosexuality have previously only been observed explicitly, using
the SOI and the SOI-R, however implicit ideas about sociosexuality can be measured
implicitly using an Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald et al., 1998) The IAT, a
reaction time task, measures differential associations of 2 target concepts with an
attribute. Most commonly the IAT is used to uncover hidden racial biases. In this study,
the IAT attempts to provide a measure for the strength of implicit associations of
sociosexuality to positive or negative outcomes in memory in students at Bates College
and a random sample. We know that there is variance in responses on the SOI-R when
measuring sociosexuality explicitly. One concern is whether or not individuals will report
honestly on the questionnaire. Using an IAT, I attempted to find an unbiased measure of
sociosexuality by using implicit associations of “casual sex” and “monogamous
relationships.”
To do this, unrestricted sex related words and restricted sex related words were
paired with either positive or negative words. In the study’s IAT, the category label of
“unrestricted sex” was replaced with “casual sex” and the category label of “restricted
sex” was replaced with “monogamous relationship” to appear more familiar to
participants and free of jargon. Reaction times on each trial were measured to uncover
9. Running Head: IMPLICIT SOCIOSEXUALITY
any hidden biases about sociosexuality and provide an honest, unbiased assessment of
one’s preference for restricted or unrestricted sex.
I then compared participants’ explicit and implicit measures of sociosexuality to
look for trends. Lastly, I used participants’ results on the BFI personality questionnaire
to predict measures of implicit and explicit sociosexuality.
The first goal of this study is to replicate Wright & Reise (1997)’s findings to
determine which of the Big-Five personality traits; openness to experience,
conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism (OCEAN), predict
preferences for either unrestricted sex or restricted sex.
The second, and perhaps main goal of the study was to accurately assess
sociosexuality through an IAT. Sociosexuality has never been assessed through implicit
measures and, a main goal of this study is to validate the IAT as a useful method to
assessing implicit sociosexual attitudes. One way to validate the Unrestricted
Sex/Restricted Sex IAT (UR-IAT) is to test for convergent validity with the SOI-R, which
has already been proven successful at measuring sociosexual attitudes. I am curious as
to if the UR-IAT) can predict the same outcomes as the SOI-R.
I then used the data to determine which Big-Five personality traits predict explicit
and implicit preferences for either unrestricted sex or restricted sex. Personality data
predicted accurate and convergent predictions about sociosexuality with the UR-IAT
and the SOI-R I providing evidence to validate the UR-IAT as a viable method for
implicitly measuring sociosexual attitudes.
Method
10. Running Head: IMPLICIT SOCIOSEXUALITY
Participants
This study contains (400) participants. (270) participants were recruited a
compensated through Amazon’s Mechanical Turk and (200) were college aged students
recruited through the internet and students in a Psychology 101 class. The two separate
groups aim to recruit a diverse pool of participants with variability in age, race,
geographic location, and gender.
Measures
All measures were administered through an online survey within the Qualtrics
utility accessible through a link. Within the survey, the measures administered during
this study include the Big-Five Inventory (BFI; (Srivastava, 1999)) to assess participants’
personality traits in the Big-Five model. This model has already been developed and
has been used and tested in many psychology studies to accurately assess the Big-Five
personality traits (Costa & McCrae, 2008). Participants also completed the Revised
Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI-R) to explicitly describe their sociosexual
attitudes and preferences toward uncommitted or committed sex. This model has
already been developed and used in many psychology studies (Penke & Asendorpf,
2008). Participants completed the survey in English using SOI-R items with 9-point
response scales. The survey contains 9 questions asking participants about three major
aspects of sociosexuality; past behavioral experiences, attitudes toward uncommitted
sex, and sociosexual desire. Both the BFI and the SOI-R can be found in the appendix.
11. Running Head: IMPLICIT SOCIOSEXUALITY
After the finishing the Big-Five Inventory and the SOI-R, participants completed
an IAT to measure implicit sociosexual attitudes. It follows the model previous IATs
have used to assess bias against racial groups (Richeson & Shelton, 2005), however
for this experiment participants completed a modified pencil-paper IAT. The pencil-
paper IAT was developed as a way for participants to complete an IAT using only a
pencil and paper and could be completed without the use of a computer. It has been
shown test-retest reliability comparable to the computer-format IAT (Lemm, 2008).
Because an online version of the IAT was not available, I chose to modify the pencil-
paper IAT to be built into the Qualtrics survey to become a drag and drop task.
The requires participants to categorize casual sex-related and monogamy-related
words, and positive and negative words as quickly as possible by pressing one of two
response keys. Positive and negative words were taken from the original IAT developed
by Greenwald et al, (1998). Examples of positive words that were used are paradise,
vacation, rainbow, gentle, cheer, and smile (Greenwald). Examples of negative words
that were used are accident, disaster, poverty, hatred, grief, and stink (Greenwald).
For the “casual sex” and “monogamous relationship” categories, a pilot test on
through Qualtrics determined which words are associated with each category before the
IAT was created and administered. Participants in the pilot study were shown a large
collection of words believed to represent either a “monogamous relationship” or “casual
sex.” They then placed the word presented to them in either category to see if the words
chosen accurately represent the category. Words in the “casual sex” category,
associated with having sex outside of monogamous, committed relationship were
chosen to be: casual, player, hooking up, fuck buddy, random hookup, and booty call.
12. Running Head: IMPLICIT SOCIOSEXUALITY
These words were chosen in the pilot study to be the most associated with the category
label of “casual sex.” Words in the “monogamous relationship” category include words
associated with monogamous relationships: stable, partner, soulmate, exclusive,
monogamous, and living together. These words were chosen in the pilot study to be the
most associated with the category label of “monogamous relationship.” All words were
also chosen to correspond with each-other in the metric of character count. Each
“casual sex” related word was paired with a “monogamous relationship” related word
with a similar length and character count to control for word length biasing the sorting
task.
The IAT contained 7 blocks of trials. Each block contained 40 trials. Participants
were shown a list of words and asked to drag and drop them using a computer mouse
to whichever one of the two boxes they correspond to. The two boxes were stacked on
represented vertically to the right of the word list. After several blocks of introductory
and practice trials, participants completed the first test block in which they were asked
to drag and drop casual sex-related words and positive words in a shared box, and
asked to drag and drop monogamy-related and negative words into a separate shared
block (Causal sex+/Monogamous relationship- Block) with a restricted time limit (15s).
Then the associations were reversed (Monogamous relationship-/Casual sex+ Block)-
monogamy-related words and negative words shared a box and casual sex-related
words and positive words shared a box. After practice trials on the new association
scheme, participants completed a second testing block.
Before the survey was released, a pilot test was conducted to validate the
original 16 second time limit in the drag and drop IAT task. In the pilot study participants
13. Running Head: IMPLICIT SOCIOSEXUALITY
completed almost all items in the task creating a possible ceiling effect. To decrease the
total amount of words the participants were able to categorize I changed the time limit
from 16 seconds to 15 seconds, increasing the difficulty of the task. Additionally, in the
pilot task I found that the use of the word loyal as a word is the positive category was
often confused as a monogamy-related word and created a confound in the task. As a
result, the word loyal was replaced with smile as a sample positive word in the task.
The order of presentation of these two testing blocks was counter-balanced
across participants, and each testing block consists of 40 trials. The location of certain
boxes was counterbalanced so that one box was not always shown on top of the other.
The difference between average latencies during the Casual Sex+/Monogamous
Relationship- Block and the average latencies during the Monogamous Relationship-
/Casual Sex+ Block provided our index of each target’s level of implicit sociosexuality
scores.
Table 1: Experiment blocking in UR-IAT
Sequence # Top Box Bottom Box
1 Casual Sex Monogamous Relationship
2 Negative Positive
3* Casual Sex + Negative Monogamous Relationship
+ Positive
4 Monogamous Relationship Casual Sex
5* Monogamous Relationship
+ Negative
Casual Sex + Positive
14. Running Head: IMPLICIT SOCIOSEXUALITY
*Trials are performed twice
Procedure
All participants completed the Big-Five Inventory, the SOI-R, and the modified
pencil-paper IAT online within the Qualtrics survey. Participants were also asked to fill
out a brief demographics survey including a Kinsey scale to measure participants’
sexual orientation (Kinsey), a measure for need for cognition, and other standard
demographics.