This document provides information about the media studies exam for audiences and representations. It will consist of 3 questions: 1) a textual analysis question on an audio/visual clip or print texts, 2) a stepped question with multiple parts of increasing difficulty focusing on either audiences or representations, and 3) a longer essay question that also focuses on audiences or representations and requires specific examples. It discusses why studying audiences is important and provides several theories for classifying and understanding audiences, including demographic profiles, socio-economic status, lifestyle categories, and uses and gratifications theory. It also discusses how media texts appeal to audiences through fulfilling needs, desires, and addressing fears. Students are prompted to apply these audience theories and concepts to specific media texts and examples

2. Audiences & the Media Studies Exam
As you know your media studies exam will be made up of three questions.
The first will always be a textual analysis of either an AV (audio visual) clip, or two print based media
texts.
Question two will be a stepped question with two or three parts, with each part progressing in the
marks available.
Question three will be a longer essay style question.
Two important facts about questions 2 & 3:
One of the questions will always be about Audience theory, the other will always be
about Representations.
The last part of question 2 and all of question 3 will require you to provide: ‘Your own
specific examples’
At the beginning of the year you were asked to keep a media diary to help you keep a note of all the
different media you encountered and to help you revise the theories we had studied in class by
applying it to the media you watch and read in your everyday life.
What is audience & why do we study it?
The audience are the consumers of texts – and importantly, the users of texts. It is important in this
day and age that we don’t simply think of an audience as sitting in front of a TV passively soaking up
whatever is beamed into their living rooms. Media theory of today has moved with the media
technologies of today. The media audience is mass, but within that mass are diverse range of groups
that are attracted to and appealed by many different types of media. Each will read texts differently
according to their own diverse lives and many will use the media to fulfil needs in their lives.
Broadly speaking we can divide the study of Audience into three separate areas:
• Classification & categorisation
• Appeals & Uses
• Responses & Effects

3. Part 1: Audience classification & categorisation
A media text may appeal to a huge variety of millions of different people which we call a mass
audience, or may be a text so specialist in subject matter or the way it is presented that it appeals to
a more select range of people which we call a niche audience.
Furthermore, a media text will always have a target audience. These are the people that the
encoders (the producers of the text) are aiming their text at.
Because the audience is so diverse, for many years advertising agencies and media theorists have
broken down the mass audience into groups to better understand how to aim their products.
Why is this useful to us?
These categories are useful to us as media students because we are able to use these categories to
analyse a text and work out exactly who has been targeted and other audiences that would use the
text or be attracted to it. The methods of classifying audiences into groups can also help us
understand why audiences respond to texts in certain ways.
We have studied four main theories of audience classification:
Audience Profiles - The Constructed Audience
The theory associated with this is Fiske and Hartley’s list of Subjectivities that provide us with a
variety of characteristics that may vary about an audience – they include:
• Gender
• Age
• Family
• Class
• Nationality
• Ethnicity
• Religion
• Level of education
• Political beliefs
• Where they live
The important thing is how we write about an audience in a profile. Look at the examples provided
about the magazines FHM and Cosmopolitan:

4. These profiles are examples of how the media text has constructed their audience.
The FHM reader is typically in his mid twenties, in a white-collar
occupation and with a higher than average disposable personal
income. He's savvy to the latest brands and trends and regards FHM
as both a mate and a navigator which enables him to stay ahead of
the pack. He loves spending on himself buying fashion, fragrance and
grooming products, cars and gadgets, video games and DVDs. Young
men are notoriously difficult to reach as their consumption of TV,
radio and newspapers decreases. FHM is still the most effective way
to reach them when they are in their own zone.
Cosmopolitan focuses on young
women (18 to 35) with an above-average
income and higher education who
usually have a job or are studying. The
Cosmopolitan reader intends to improve the quality of her life and her
immediate environment. She has wide interests and a lively imagination.
She is impulsive, dares to carry out new ideas, thinks positively and is
quite prepared and adventurous enough to step over a boundary now
and then. She sees Cosmopolitan as a source of inspiration for realising
the realistic, ideal image presented in the magazine, step by step. She
loves beautiful things and comfort. She likes looking good and puts
deliberate effort into it. She wants work that will give her satisfaction
and the opportunity to develop her talents. She spends money easily and
impulsively. She enjoys indulging herself. (And even more, being spoiled!)
Cosmopolitan incites readers to demand the most from life and
themselves.
RESEARCH POINT: Choose one print based text and one Audio Visual text that you know
well. Write a profile of who you think the target audience is similar to the ones above.
Hint: You may find a little research into the texts goes a long way!
1.
2.

5. Status & Income
The oldest and best known of the classification categories will measure an audience based on the
type of job that they do and their social class. There are definite limitations to this theory as it tells
little about who these people are or why they might engage in a text, however it is a method of
measuring audiences still widely used by the newspaper industry. The categories are as follows:
A Upper middle class: Top management, bankers, lawyers, doctors and other professionals
B Middle class: Middle management, teachers, many 'creatives' eg graphic designers etc.
C1 Lower middle class: Office supervisors, junior managers, nurses, specialist clerical staff etc
C2 Skilled working class: Skilled workers, tradespersons (white collar)
D Working class: Semi-skilled and unskilled manual workers (blue collar)
E People at lowest level of income: Unemployed, students, pensioners, casual workers.
Remember that a media text can be aimed across more than group. For example, you might
describe The Daily Telegraph as having a target audience of ABs. Whereas you might describe the
target audience of The Sun to be C2-E.
Young & Rubicam’s 4Cs model
Advertising agency, Y&R created a system of segmenting the entire mass audience based on
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs model. By splitting everybody up into seven groups they were able to
see what needs and values each group had and therefore market products accordingly.
In Media Studies, we use the categories as a way of determining Target Audiences for media texts.
Most media products will be aimed at one or more of the following four categories…
THE MAINSTREAM
These are people who live in the world of the domestic and the everyday. A daily routine is
fundamental to the way they live their lives. Their life choices are ‘we’ rather than ‘me’. As their
name implies, they are the mainstream of society. They are the largest group of people within 4Cs
across the world. They respond to big established brands, to ‘family’ brands and to offers of value
for money. Their core need in life is for security.
THE ASPIRER
Materialistic, acquisitive people, who are driven by others’ perceptions of them rather than by their
own values. As a result, they respond to what others perceive as being superficial: image,
appearance, persona, charisma and fashion. An attractive pack is as important to them as its
contents. Their core need in life is for status.

6. THE SUCCEEDER
Succeeders possess self-confidence, have a strong goal orientation and tend to be very organised. As
a result, they tend to occupy positions of responsibility in society. Their investment in the status quo
means they tend to support it. When it comes to brands, they seek reward and prestige, and will
often seek out the best, because that is what they feel they deserve. On the other hand, they also
seek out caring and protective brands – their aggressive attitude to life means they need to relax
occasionally. Their core need in life is for control.
THE EXPLORER
These people are driven by a need for discovery, challenge and new frontiers. Young in nature, if not
in reality, Explorers are often the first to try out new ideas and experiences. They respond to
brands that offer new sensations, indulgence and instant effects. In short, difference is what they
seek out. Their core need in life is for discovery.
(remember: ‘Explorer’ is a word used as a metaphor – this audience type does not just like media
texts which involve travel or adventures or physically exploring the world).
Applying the 4Cs.
The following examples demonstrate how you might apply the 4Cs categories to media texts.
The Mighty Boosh is a British situation comedy (sitcom) that would
appeal to the Explorer audience category. Whilst there are many elements
of traditional sitcoms, The Mighty Boosh is experimental in its use of a
humour through strange & unconventional characters and unrealistic
settings. It also uses a combination of live action and occasional animated
scenes, and added to the unusual mix are musical numbers which makes for
a bizarre hybrid show that offers a new experience and challenges an
audiences expectations of the traditional sitcom.
Toy Story 3 is a computer animated film from
Disney/Pixar that would appeal to the
Mainstream audience category. Not only is Disney a well trusted and
household brand name, but the Toy Story series of films is also very well
known as two of the most popular animated films of recent years. The
audience would be aware that this film has ‘something for everyone’, the
subject matter & story for children and potentially some humour
appealing to parents. It would also provide an opportunity to enjoy
something as a group. The Mainstream audience could be secure in the
knowledge that their expectations would be met.

7. The Lifestyle Categories
This classifies audiences according to a their beliefs and attitudes towards life. Many media texts will
be consumed multiple lifestyle categories.
Cowboys – People who want to make money quickly and easily.
Cynics – People who always have something to complain about.
Drifters – People who aren’t at all sure what they want.
Drop-outs – People who do not want to get committed in any way.
Egoists – People who are mainly concerned to get the most for themselves out of life.
Groupies – People who want to be accepted by those around them.
Innovators – People who want to make their mark on the world.
Puritans – People who want to feel they have done their duty.
Rebels – People who want the world to fit in with their idea of how it should be.
RESEARCH POINT: Find four texts to apply to each of the four audience types. Analyse why
the text is appropriate for that particular audience. Use texts studied in lessons if necessary.
Mainstream:
Aspirer:
Succeeder:
Explorer:

8. Traditionalists – People who want everything to remain the same.
Trendies – People who are desperate to have the admiration of their peer group.
Utopians – People who want to make the world a better place.
Applying Lifestyle Categories
Although it’s fairly easy to work out which of the categories a text would appeal to, it Is important
to remember to pick out specific codes from that media text to prove your point. Without evidence
your answer won’t be of any real value
e.g. The font cover of the Daily Mail clearly appeals to
a variety of different audience types from across the
Lifestyle Categories. Primarily the Traditionalists, this
is evident in both the old fashioned style of font used
for the masthead but also the subject matter of the
main story: “Save the weekly bin round”, is warning
people of changes to their living conditions and is
fighting for things to return as they were. To a lesser
extent the cover appeals to the Cynics – those
familiar with the Daily Mail will be aware that it often
uses shock tactics and moral panics to demonise or
alienate certain groups in society, it often does this by
complaining about their possible effects. It may also be
argued that the cover appeals to the Innovators &
Puritans who may feel that by joining: “the great
dustbin revolt” that they have either helped change
the world around them, or contributed to the
solution of a problem and therefore ‘done their duty’.
Part 2: Audience Appeals
RESEARCH POINT: Watch the next set of advertisements on any commercial TV channel.
Analyse an advert that appeals to several of the Lifestyle Categories using evidence from the advert
(not just based on the product being sold).

9. Part 2: Audience Appeal
One of the big questions (Question 2c or Question 3) could be based on audience appeal and could
be phrased in some of the following ways:
• Using your own specific examples, discuss how audiences are attracted to media texts.
• Using your own specific examples, discuss how media texts appeal to an audience.
• Using your own specific examples, discuss what use an audience has for media texts.
• Using your own specific examples, discuss why audiences consume media texts.
There are many, many, many reasons why the mass audience engages with the media. This, of
course, depends on the type of media and who the audience are.
The aim of this section is to collect together the various reasons why a media text might appeal to
an audience and prompt you to find examples that you could write about.
If this comes up as Question 3, it will be worth 30% of your exam mark!
You will also be encouraged to search for your think of your own examples of how the media
appeals to an audience. You can find examples, use texts you know well, or use texts we have
studied in class.
The Uses & Gratifications Model
This is probably the most important theory for you to know. According to uses and gratification
theory, we all have different uses for the media and we make choices over what we want to watch.
In other words, when we encounter a media text, it is not just some kind of mindless entertainment
– we are expecting to get something from it: some kind of gratification.
This will make certain media texts more appealing than others.
1. Information: we want to find out about society and the world. This would fit the news and
documentaries which both give us a sense that we are learning about the world.
2. Personal Identity: we may watch the television in order to look for models for our behaviour.
So, for example, we may identify with characters that we see in a soap. The characters help us to
decide what feel about ourselves and if we agree with their actions and they succeed we feel better
about ourselves – think of the warm feeling you get when you favourite character triumphs at the
end of a programme.
3. Social Interaction: we use the media in order to find out more about the circumstances of
other people. Watching a show helps us to empathise and sympathise with the lives of others so
that we may even end up thinking of the characters in programme as friends even though we might
feel a bit sad admitting it! At the same time television may help us to get on with our real friends as
we are able to talk about the media with them.
4. Entertainment/Escapism: sometimes we simply use the media for enjoyment, relaxation or
just to fill time.

10. You can probably recognise yourself in some of these descriptions and not surprisingly uses and
gratification theory has become quite popular amongst media critics. It is important to remember
with this theory that it is likely that with any media text you enjoy, you will be getting a number of
gratifications from it and not just one.
The Appeals of Advertising… and beyond…
Various theorists have looked at exactly how advertising works, this not only applies to both print
based and television adverts but can also be applied to magazines – and can be more broadly
attached to why we engage with a number of TV genres. The following list appeals to us because
they fulfill various needs, desires and fears…
Need for sex - surprisingly, only a small percent of the tv ads use sex to sell products. It may be
too blatant, and often detracts from the product.
Need for affiliation - the largest number of ads use this approach: you are looking for friendship
or to be part of a happy family? Advertisers can also use this negatively, to make you worry that
you’ll lose friends if you don’t use a certain product.
Need to nurture - every time you see a puppy or a kitten or a child, the appeal is to your paternal
or maternal instincts.
Need for guidance - a father or mother figure can appeal to your desire for someone to care for
you, so you won’t have to worry.
Need to aggress - we all have a desire to get even, and some media gives you this satisfaction.
Need to achieve - the ability to accomplish something difficult and succeed identifies the product
with winning. Sports figures as spokespersons project this image.
RESEARCH POINT: Think of a TV show that provides all of the Uses & Gratifications. Write
down something specific that proves your point.
TV Show:
Escapism/Entertainment:
Personal Identity:
Social Interaction:
Information:

11. Need to dominate - the power we lack is what we can look for in a commercial “master the
possibilities.”
Need for prominence - we want to be admired and respected; to have high social status. Tasteful
china and classic diamonds offer this potential.
Need for attention - we want people to notice us; we want to be looked at. Cosmetics are a
natural for this approach.
Need for autonomy - within a crowded environment, we want to be singled out, to be a “breed
apart.” This can also be used negatively: you may be left out if you don’t use a particular product
Need to escape - flight is very appealing; you can imagine adventures you cannot have; the idea of
escape is pleasurable
Need for aesthetic sensations - beauty attracts us, and classic art or dance makes us feel
creative, enhanced
Need to satisfy curiosity - facts support our belief that information is quantifiable and numbers
and diagrams make our choices seem scientific
Physiological needs - Our need to sleep, eat, and drink are in this category. Advertisers for juicy
pizza are especially appealing late at night.
Need to feel safe - to be free from threats, to be secure is the appeal of many insurance and bank
ads
Love and Belonging needs: friends, companions, family, being part of a group
Esteem needs: respect, confidence based on the good opinion of others, admiration, self-
confidence, self– acceptance, self-worth.
Self actualisation needs: fulfil one’s potential, develop potential, do what you are best suited for,
discover the truth about yourself, create beauty, produce order, promote justice.
The last five of these are, of course, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
Narrative & Genre Expectations
RESEARCH POINT: Find an advert in a magazine or newspaper, analyse the advert & write
down all of the codes, which appeal to any of the needs discussed above.

12. Film is a little bit different from advertising, magazines and even TV inasmuch as it doesn’t necessarily
fulfil our psychological needs. However it is appealing to audiences in the way that it fulfils and
challenges our expectations.
These expectations come from our experience and knowledge of Generic and Narrative
conventions. Some people love a film that follows all of the rules of their favourite genre, others
love it when the rules are broken. Most people enjoy the feeling of completion and closure after a
story has gone through its beginning, middle and end – other people like it when stories are told in
the wrong order or the ending has a twist.
The following is a list of various expectations that an audience may have of narrative and genre:
Narrative Expectations
STRUCTURE - most audiences expect a linear structure. Usually one that follows Todorov’s five
stages of narrative:
1. Equilibrium
2. Disruption
3. Recognition of the disruption
4. Attempt to repair
5. Reinstatement of equilibrium or New equilibrium
CHARACTERS – audiences will expect to see certain characters types or archetypes to appear in
films – they also expect them to behave in certain ways. Most of the time characters types and
archetypes conform to expectations, other times they break the mould. Propp’s theory of character
type recognizes several recurring character types:
• Hero
• Princess
• Villain
• Donor / Helper
• Mentor
• Princesses father
The appeal of narrative...
Most people have grown up with stories, in Film, TV, and in books - linear narratives with set
structures and stock characters are engrained in us. For many, watching a narrative play out in the
way that we expect, or seeing characters that are familiar is a pleasure and an appeal.
However we should also consider that for some audiences, having these expectations challenged or
broken is just as much of an appeal. A twist ending or a double-crossing hero can be as much of an
appeal for some as the hero saving the day for others.

13. Generic Expectations
Just as we go into the cinema or sit in front of the TV with expectations of narrative, an audience
will also be drawn by the genre of a text.
Look at anyone’s collection of CDs, DVDs, or Computer Games and you will probably see one
genre more prevalent than others. A genre has a function and a style - if an audience gets to know
the conventions of that style and like it, then a film that matches the conventions will be popular.
Breaking expectations and Crossing conventions
As with narrative, an audience can be drawn to a text that challenges our expectations of a genre by
tinkering with the conventions or creating an unexpected hybrid of genres.
e.g.
Star Wars was the most popular film for a generation and although it may look like a science-fiction
movie, critics and filmmakers are agreed that it is essentially a Western but with the setting changes
to a galaxy far, far away!
Shaun of the Dead was a hugely successful British movie that crossed the classic Romantic Comedy
with the cult Zombie film to create the first Zom-Rom-Com. The mash up of genres found laughs in
places that other Romantic Comedies could not reach and opened up the grotesque magic of
Zombie films to a much wider audience.
RESEARCH POINT: What films do you know that either challenge the narrative structure of a
Beginning/Middle/End or change & mix the conventions of a well established genre?

14. Other appeals
The following list covers other reasons why we continue to engage with the media. Some are
specific to a particular form of media...
Interactivity - Making choices of where to go or what to consume is no longer simply the domain
of the video game or surfing the net. The 21st Century has seen massive changes across all platforms
of media. Using the ‘Red Button’ we can now interact with our TV. Video games allow us to fully
explore & even build worlds without being tied to a narrative, and with the rise of Web 2.0 and sites
such as YouTube, Wikipedia & FaceBook we are now creating and building the internet every
second of everyday - this is the true interactivity we were promised we have truly moved from
audience member to user.
Intertextuality - When one text refers to another. Either in a subtle way or in an explicit way. The
appeal of this is to remind us of texts we like and admire or to give us a pat on the back for being so
clever and seeing the connection. Watch the Simpsons - see how many other TV shows, cartoons,
songs, films, comic books, video games are referenced.
Nostalgia - Nostalgia is often triggered by something reminding the individual of an event or item
from their past. The resulting emotion can vary from happiness to sorrow. The term of "feeling
nostalgic" is more commonly used to describe pleasurable emotions associated with and/or a longing
to go back to a particular period of time. Knowing this, Media texts will often try to capitalise on it.
How many adverts try to make you think about when you were younger? How much do you smile
when you discuss your favourite childhood TV programmes?
Elite persons/Box office draw - Our tabloid obsession with celebrity may feel a bit overwhelming
and a bit tiresome, but it’s nothing new. Since movie stars first graced the silver screen, the mass
audience has tried to bathe in their crazy light. We idolise them, we dress like them, we go to see
their movies and watch their TV shows. If they’re endorsing a product or on the front of a magazine
we’ll buy it. We love people who are famous - what’s important though, what we must consider
when analysing an elite person - is what they represent to us. Just being famous will not be enough
for the examiner - you must be able to accurately say what it is about that elite person that makes
that media text appealing.
Mode of Address - This is specific to Magazines and is the connection or bond that is created
between the magazine and its reader. A magazine may do this through the main image or the use of
language. For example a magazine aimed at a niche market might use specialist terminology to entice
a reader. A magazine aimed at a mass market might refer to celebrities by their first name or use
colloquialisms in a manner you might if you were around friends. The magazine wants to be your
friend and the way that it tries to achieve this is through the mode of address.
Unique Selling Point (USP) - We all like something a bit different or a bit special. Sometimes we
just want something for free! USPs can range from exclusive interviews to free CDs. Whatever it is
that sets their media text apart from the others has the potential to stand out to the audience and
appeal to them more than a competitor.
But now for the reason we’re all here...

15. Sample Answer & Mark Scheme
Referring to your own detailed examples, discuss how different media texts can appeal
to audiences.
The media’s appeal to an audience can vary according to the different types of audience as well as
the different types of media. A video game such as ‘Grand Theft Auto: Vice City’ (GTA) will be
appealing for some reasons that are unique to video games, and others that are more traditional and
found in other types of media.
A key element of GTA’s appeal is the interactivity and control that a player has throughout the
game. Deciding where the main character, Tommy Vercetti, goes in the city and the activities he
engages in. This interactivity with other characters and also control over the narrative provides the
player with autonomy over the game and may be an appeal of the game.
This control over the narrative is also appealing as it challenges many of the narrative conventions
that we grow accustomed to as a child watching films and TV, and reading comic books. Traditional
forms of media – even early forms of video games use linear narratives to work their way through a
story, however Open World (or Sandbox) games like GTA are non-linear and allow the player to
decide which thread of the narrative they play next. Challenging narrative conventions that are so
engrained in most people’s understanding of narratives may be an appeal to those who want to
explore and discover.
Video games have grown more complex over the years and many of the target audience will have
been players for many years, in this sense it could be argued that GTA offers players a sense of
nostalgia for the games they played in the past and the excitement of trying to beat the game and
fulfil a sense of achievement. This sense of nostalgia is heightened in GTA: Vice City as much of the
mise-en-scene is based around 1980s American culture which will be familiar to those playing.
Added to this are intertextual references to films such as Scarface, Carlito’s Way and, of course, TV
series Miami Vice. These references not only act as an appeal but also as a reward for those that
recognise them.
There are other needs potentially fulfilled by a game like GTA, it may be argued that the violent acts
that can be initiated by the player such as fighting, stealing cars or using weapons could fulfil a need
to aggress – however it is far more likely that engaging in these acts is used as a way of escaping
from our own normal lives as outlined in the Uses and Gratifications model.
This use of the media for escapism is prevalent across all different types, but perhaps none more so
than film. The cinema has been a place for audiences to fantasise about a different life in a different
place with different people for more than a hundred years. Last year saw the release of Avatar which
transported its audience onto the planet Pandora. The use of CGI and new Motion Capture 3D
filming meant that the world of Pandora’s strange wildlife and plant life felt like a real place and also
offered audiences new aesthetic sensations in film.
Apart from its technical wizardry, Avatar’s success could also be put down to how conventional it is.
An audience’s narrative expectations of a traditional Hollywood film are entirely fulfilled by a linear
structure and characters which fit the narrative functions of Propp’s character types perfectly – the
Hero, Princess, Villain, Helper, Mentor and Princess’ father all playing out their role in line with
what an audience expects.

16. Avatar is now the highest grossing film of all time and prior to the film’s release there was so much
expectation that the release of the film became an ‘event’ that everyone was talking about. This was
not only for the breakthroughs in special effects but because of the director James Cameron who
had not made a film for many years. In this respect a reason why people are continuing to see the
movie goes back to the Uses and Gratifications model and the need to socially interact. Avatar is a
film that we can talk about and discuss with others, whilst at the same time Cameron himself was a
draw to the box office an elite person that appealed because of the other films he has made such as
Titanic and The Terminator.
Using elite persons to appeal to audiences is much more prevalent in the magazine industry,
particularly music magazines such as Q. Front covers often have main images of successful rock stars
photographed in fashionable clothing and with expensive equipment that appeals to the audiences
desire for to aspire to certain lifestyles.
A magazine’s most prominent appeal will be through its Mode of Address. This is the way that a
magazine will communicate with its target audience. This can be through the subject matter of the
coverlines which may offer the audience Personal Identity through a shared interest or it may be in
the language it uses to directly make an audience feel as though they are part of a specific group.
Referring to audiences as: ‘collectors’ fulfils their need for affiliation and to be part of a group of
people with shared interests and understanding. A commonality amongst all music magazines is that
they provide the audience with information through interviews, gig listings and so on. However the
competition is so fierce that magazines often find themselves having to offer more and more unique
selling points (USPs) in order for their magazine to be chosen ahead of the rest. Promises of:
‘Excusive Interviews’ and self proclaimed: ‘Special Issues’ often adorn the front of magazines in the
hope that they might keep or expand their existing audience.

17. Part 3: Audience Responses
One of the big questions (Question 2c or Question 3) could be based on audience responses and
could be phrased in some of the following ways:
• How does the same media text attract a range of different audience responses? Refer to your own
detailed examples.
• In what ways do different audiences respond differently to the same media text? Refer to your
own detailed examples.
• How do media texts construct and position audiences? Refer to your own detailed examples?
These questions are slightly different - however they deal with the same key audience theories.
What are known as reception studies and in particular Stuart Hall’s Encoding/Decoding theory.
Stuart Hall’s Encoding/Decoding Theory
This theory was a reaction against various media effects theories such as the hypodermic
syringe model and the inoculation model which have been repeatedly dismissed for assuming the
audience is passive and unable to use the media.
Stuart Hall considers audiences as not only active but also a group of individuals rather than an
undifferentiated mass, and developed the encoding/decoding theory. This model was based on the
view that meaning is the result of a communication process.
Readings of texts are dependent on who the audience is, and what their social position is, because
this influences their interpretation of the denotative codes.
When the text is created, the producers encode a meaning, which they intend. This is the reading
likely to be made by the target audience, as they would be most likely to share and accept the text’s
ideology. This is the preferred reading.
However, some people whose social position takes them outside the text’s specific target audience,
may be more active in questioning the representations in the text. If they generally accept the
preferred reading, but challenge a few aspects, then this is a negotiated reading.
If their values and attitudes are very different or even in opposition to the target audience, they are
unlikely to accept much, if any of the preferred reading, making instead an oppositional reading.
In a nutshell, a media text will force an audience member to take one of these positions...
Preferred: The reader shares the text’s ‘codes’ (its meaning, system of values, attitudes,
beliefs and assumptions) and fully accepts the text’s ‘preferred reading’.
Negotiated: The reader partly shares the text’s code and broadly accepts the preferred
reading, but modifies it in a way which reflects their position and interests.
Oppositional: The reader does not share the text’s code and rejects the preferred
reading, bringing to bear an alternative frame of interpretation.

18. Applying Encoding/Decoding
Hollyoaks is a soap opera. It is broadcast daily at 18.00 on Channel 4 and an omnibus repeats all of
the episodes on Channel 4’s: T4 Sunday. It is about the lives of teens and young adults that live in a
small village next to the city of Chester.
It typically centres on themes of
difficulties surrounding young adult
life, but occasionally has fairly extreme
plots involving murder, kidnap, death
and family betrayal.
The target audience reflects the age
and interests (if not necessarily the
lifestyles) of the main characters in the
soap.
Any audience to Hollyoaks will be in one of three positions based on their reading of the text.
Preferred: The target audience would accept the assumptions and beliefs shared by the soap. That
being a teen or young adult is as tough as it is fun.
They would accept that relationships both sexual
and platonic are central to life at this age and that
if the wrong decisions are made then this can
cause disastrous consequences. The preferred
reading would be to accept that whilst life is for
living - tragedy can be just around the corner and
that you should live for the moment. However,
there would also be an understanding that if you
let your instincts take over to the point where
you betray those close to you, then something
bad will almost certainly happen in your life.
Negotiated: Some audience members could still watch regularly or even avidly and still not accept
the dominant reading of the text. Instead they may see the soap as unrealistic and even superficial.
Accepting that the characters are nothing more than two dimensional vehicles for convoluted
storylines - however this audience may love the thrill and suspense of the plot lines and enjoy the
twists and turns that the narrative takes. They may suspend their disbelief at the wooden acting and
unbelievable dialogue in order to enjoy the levels of action and sex appeal that isn’t offered by other
soaps.
Oppositional: Occasional audience members may
entirely reject the ideologies and messages of the series.
They may take the position that Hollyoaks promotes an
unrealistic and irresponsible view of life for young people,
that the constant arguments lies and infidelities represent
young people as vain, materialistic and selfish. The
oppositional reading may also reject the attempts at
creating over elaborate dramatic situations as out of place
for a soap opera which is traditionally supposed to
represent reality and a ‘slice of life’.

19. Factors which affect which reading of a text we have.
The position we take on a text depends on who we are - that is the entire point of the model, it
assumes that we are active individuals. So it is important to consider exactly what factors can
determine whether we have a Preferred, Negotiated or Oppositional reading.
Different audiences will respond to the same text differently according to:
Gender - the relationships between the audience and text according to gender are complex. Men
and women will respond to certain media texts in different ways. Certain research has shown that
women prefer television programmes like soap operas that deal with narratives concerned with
relationships and have strong female characters. Men, on the hand, apparently prefer more factual
programmes related to news and current affairs. However, there are obvious problems with such
RESEARCH POINT: Choose another show that you know well - provide all 3 readings...
Preferred:
Oppositional:
Negotiated:

20. research as it is generalised and the men/women asked may respond in a way they think their
questioner expects. It is commonly accepted that men too watch soap operas and similar dramas
like The Bill. It is also easy to say that women would respond to ‘lads’ mags like Nuts and Zoo in a
disapproving way - but how then to account for the women who send in their photographs to be
published in these magazines?
Situated Culture - This concerns how our ‘situation’ - our daily lives, routines and relationships -
can affect how we respond to media texts; where we are and who we are with has an effect upon
our media consumption. Watching a film surrounded by friends or family will be a different viewing
experience to one where you view a film alone. This response will change again if you are watching
the film at home or at the cinema.
Cultural Experience - this is how our culture - our upbringing, experiences and beliefs - affect our
response to a text. This also relates to how our understanding and our view of the world are
shaped by our media experience. We may have never visited New York but our media consumption
of film and television programmes have constructed a view for us. We may never have been in
hospital but we feel knowledgeable about a range of medical procedures because our viewing habits
include Holby City and ER.
RESEARCH POINT: Think of three texts that may be read differently because of the factors
outlined above. Describe the effect it may have on the reading.
Gender:
Situated Culture:
Cultural Experience:

21. Our old friend: The Uses & Gratifications Model
Because reception studies are based on the theory that an audience is active rather than passive, it is
possible to argue that a response we have to the media is to use it in a way that benefits us.
Luckily we already have a theory that covers those particular basis - here it is again, just in case you
weren’t paying attention the first time...
1. Information: we want to find out about society and the world. This would fit the news and
documentaries which both give us a sense that we are learning about the world.
2. Personal Identity: we may watch the television in order to look for models for our behaviour.
So, for example, we may identify with characters that we see in a soap. The characters help us to
decide what feel about ourselves and if we agree with their actions and they succeed we feel better
about ourselves – think of the warm feeling you get when you favourite character triumphs at the
end of a programme.
3. Social Interaction: we use the media in order to find out more about the circumstances of
other people. Watching a show helps us to empathise and sympathise with the lives of others so
that we may even end up thinking of the characters in programme as friends even though we might
feel a bit sad admitting it! At the same time television may help us to get on with our real friends as
we are able to talk about the media with them.
4. Entertainment/Escapism: sometimes we simply use the media for enjoyment or relaxation.
Can Media Effects be considered a Response?
For many years audience theories revolved around a series of Effects theories. Models such as the
Hypodermic Syringe which suggests that someone will copy what they see in the media or the
Inoculation model which suggests that simply seeing lots of violence makes an audience more
accepting of violence and therefore more likely to carry out violent attacks. These have both been
dismissed as too simplistic and with treating the audience as a bunch of identical brain dead passive
zombies!
However, the media is such a pervasive part of our lives, it informs so much of our communication
and our understanding of the world that it may be naive to suggest it has no effect whatsoever.
These effects may be more subtle and difficult to detect. Furthermore these effects may be positive
and negative.
Cultivation Theory & Moral Panics
The cultivation theory or cultural effects model suggests that having certain ideologies reinforced by
the media over and over again can reinforce our own ideologies. This may go some way to explain
how successful some Moral Panics are at demonising and alienating certain groups within society.
It does, of course, rely upon many of the aforementioned factors that can affect how we read a text.
The Sleeper Curve
Stephen Johnson’s book: ‘Everything Bad is Good for You’ argues that there are many benefits from
engaging with the media; from a more sophisticated reading of narratives to a more empathetic
understanding of human emotion and group dynamics. Check your notes for more information.

22. Sample Answers & Examiners Comments
How does the same media text attract a range of different audience responses? Refer
to your own detailed examples.
The Uses and Gratifications model dictates that there are 4 reasons why somebody would consume
a text. These are; personal identification, information, entertainment and social interaction.
Therefore responses to a text will be based upon these appeals. It could be argued that interactivity
can be added which explains why people may watch shows such as Britain’s Got Talent on ITV. This
show appeals on several levels, firstly on a purely entertainment basis, a viewer might want to escape
from life and enjoy watching a programme. Secondly, somebody may want to vote for their favourite
contestant. As voting costs money it gains the response of loyalty towards a programme as the
viewer has made an investment in it. Social interaction is especially applicable to Britain’s Got Talent
as it has been a major talking point between friends and in the media with youtube hits like Susan
Boyle. Therefore a media text can gain multiple responses as it fulfils multiple needs.
A text may also gain altering responses as it is viewed by different audience types who have had
different experiences and cultural influences. Referring to the ABC model a programme such as
Skins, E4, will get different responses from different groups. At an extreme level, group E, students
may appreciate Skins for its gritty reality where representations of youths can often be accurate, a
change of pace from programmes such as The OC, or Gossip Girl which focus on the rich and
privileged. This means that the response of students may be sympathetic with characters that they
recognise. On the other hand, Group A, for example lawyers may be shocked by the explicit
content of Skins, especially the illegal activities such as drug taking.
On the theme of personal experiences, age can play a large part in the response to a text. This is
highlighted in the Russell Brand and Jonathon Ross fiasco that ensued after they prank called Andrew
Sachs. The Radio show was very popular amongst youths and from this audience the response to
that particular episode was that it was amusing as ever. In complete contrast, a group of what
seemed like elder people, who heard the episode, were shocked by its content, declaring it
unacceptable in many of the newspapers, slating the BBC.
The cartoon Family Guy plays up to making tongue in cheek remarks and the primary audience enjoy
these remarks however they could easily be interpreted as offensive. This is shown in the teasing of
disabled police officer Joe. The preferred reading to these remarks would be to laugh at the
ignorance of the characters offending his disability. However, such remarks may receive a different
response, that of offence from the oppositional reading. In this case a text can be interpreted in
multiple ways which creates different responses from the audience, some may agree with those of
the producers and some may not.
Culture affects audience responses and different ideologies are in place in different cultures.
Hegemony says that the bourgeoisie create a common sense amongst people and this will influence
their responses. Films are especially at risk to this effect as they are viewed all over the world. A film
like James Bond may be successfully received in western countries however viewed negatively in the
east and in countries like Russia or in South America as citizens from these countries are shown to
be criminals and drug barons. This enforces a ridiculous common sense that foreigners shouldn’t be
trusted.
26/30
This answer was an actual exam response that scored very highly - the page below has the
examiners comments...

23. Examiners comments:
A sophisticated understanding of audiences issues linked to current thinking. Confident.
The student initially discusses the Uses and Gratification model which isn’t entirely relevant in this
answer but successfully manages to link these ideas to directly answering the question so scores
marks. Earlier analysis regarding different readings could have been linked more closely to Hall’s
preferred and oppositional readings but the candidate does make this link later in the answer. A
number of examples is used (Britain’s Got Talent, Skins, Radio, Family Guy and James Bond)
reflecting some range (TV, Radio and Film). The student’s reference to recent events such as
‘Sachsgate’ and Susan Boyle suggest the student is aware of contemporary media issues. The last
paragraph enabled the student to show off their knowledge of hegemony and dominant ideology and
the student has been awarded highly for this.
Part 4: and finally...
Some last few thoughts and some good advice:
• Read the question thoroughly,
know what you are being asked to
do!
• Know the theories well, use this
booklet to find texts and apply the
theories - using them over and
over is the only real way to know
them.
• Choose your examples before you
go into the exam - you know
roughly what the questions will be
- save time in the exam by deciding
which texts you are going to write
about before you even get in
there...
• ....better still, have a decent answer
prepared before you do the exam.
Writing your own answer for both
an audience response question and
an audience appeal question is
great revision and will save you
huge amounts of time in the exam.
• May the Force be with You!