This study examined the longitudinal associations between identity styles (informational, normative, diffuse-avoidant) and two aspects of self-esteem (level of self-esteem and contingent self-esteem) in 167 college students over 4 months. It was hypothesized that an informational style would be positively associated with level of self-esteem and negatively with contingent self-esteem, while a normative style would relate positively to both. A diffuse-avoidant style was predicted to negatively relate to level of self-esteem, with no clear prediction for contingent self-esteem. Results showed identity styles were predicted by contingent self-esteem, and contingent self-esteem predicted identity styles in different ways.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
I need 100 words response for each of the discussion postDiscu.docxsheronlewthwaite
I need 100 words response for each of the discussion post
Discussion Entry 1
The emerging adulthood stage is being studied in various ways now to include the lifespan theory and the resiliency theory. The lifespan development theory generally concentrates on the ontogenesis and the chronological mastery of skills, tasks, and abilities, while resiliency theory, in contrast, generally focuses the process of positive adaption when facing significant risk (Smith-Osborne, 2007). “Emerging adulthood is proposed as a new conception of development for the period from the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18-25” (Arnett, 2000, pg. 1). From my understanding, Arnett’s proposal is basically highlighting on the fact that there is a difference from “back in the day” to “current day” life experiences or achievements. “The reliance on traditional sociological markers that have served for over a century—stable job, independent domicile, financial self-sufficiency, marriage and children—is out of sync with the pace, direction, and even values of twenty-first-century life” (Gilmore, 2019, pg. 1). Arnett explains this by showing how the age of marriage has shifted and how childbirth age patterns has increased. The emerging adulthood phase is when an individual is acting independently in contradiction of social norms.
The first article dealt with homeless emerging adults and how the resiliency theory played a role in the case study. Young adults were interviewed, recruited, and analyzed to find four primary themes amongst the homeless young adults. Individual strengths, positive life perspectives, external social supports, and coping strategies are all themes that contributed to their resilience while living on the streets. Most emerging adults were facing multiple barriers while growing up and they were exposed to traumatizing events which cause most of them to flee their home/family. the resiliency theory reported how these individuals adapted to their new circumstances by learning how to find resources, establishing new relationships and who to trust, and developing a “street smart” skill (Thompson, Ryan, Montgomery, Lippman, Bender & Ferguson, 2016). This case study proposed that using a strength-based method would empower these individuals to use their resilient capabilities to build a self-efficient mentality that offers them a way out of homelessness. One major shortcoming of this study is that the recruits were from one specific city and were mainly Caucasian males. If the study would have been more worldwide, the results may have shown various results. Another factor that may hinder this type of research is that many homeless individuals develop mental health concerns and do not share the full extent of their situation which would alter the results as well. This study reflects how the cognitive and personality development does not always take place in a normal age range or in sequential order and human development rem ...
Attitudes toward suicide may influence the
treatment content and outcomes. Hence, this study aimed to
investigate how public attitudes toward suicide were influenced
by (1) their degree of idealism; and (2) their degree of
relativism. A questionnaire survey with Suicide Perception
Scale and Ethic Position Questionnaire was carried out on 50
male and 50 female participants (aged 21 and above) from
Klang Valley, Malaysia to obtain answer. The findings
supported both hypotheses, indicated that (1) higher idealism is
associated with lower level of acceptance toward suicide; and
(2) higher relativism is associated with higher level of
acceptance toward suicide. In sum, variations in public’s
attitude toward suicide were related to individual differences in
personal ethical ideologies and moral philosophies.
4-1 LL (200 words and one reference)Cognitive processes store insimisterchristen
4-1 LL (200 words and one reference)
Cognitive processes store information into the memory affects their judgement and behavior towards others from different backgrounds. When an individual is raised with different perspectives poured into them, they take on these perspectives and incorporate them into how they view life. According to Amodio (2014), prejudice stems from a mechanism of survival, built on cognitive systems that ‘structure’ the physical world, its function in modern society is complex and its effects are often causes damage. Many of these instances are not intentional, its more that it was how their brain was wired. The impact of culture on prejudice makes it common for individuals to normalize prejudice, because it was approved or promoted in their culture. According to Uhlmann (2013), Prejudices are often a way for a group of higher social status to explain and rationalize their privilege position in society. This is a main stance to consider with the gap of benefits and opportunities that are available to those of the minority (Or as they labeled). Once stereotypes and prejudice are formed, they become self perpetuating because they grow stronger inside the mind, similarly to the information we choose to study and gain insight on. The roots of prejudice can be found in the cognitive and emotional processes (Branscombe, 2016). By rewiring these processes, the root can be diminished.
4-1 KG (200 words and one reference)
A person's beliefs and expectations regarding a particular group constitute the cognitive component of the prejudicial attitude. The cognitive approach, (cognitive theory of prejudice), suggests that prejudice is a function of cognitive processes where stereotypic information about social groups, stored in memory, is automatically activated and affects people’s judgments and behavior toward target group members. An example of this is believing that a product marketed by a celebrity is more valuable. While people like to believe that they are rational and logical, the fact is that people are continually under the influence of cognitive biases. These biases distort thinking, influence beliefs, and sway the decisions and judgments people make daily. These biases happen because we can't evaluate every detail and event when forming thoughts and opinions. Because of this, we often rely on mental shortcuts that speed up our ability to make judgments, but sometimes lead to bias ( Saposnik, Redelmeier, Ruff & Tobler 2016). The psychological bases for prejudice are people's values, the ways they see themselves and others, their sense of social identity, and social norms that define who is included in or excluded from social groups. The cognitive dimensions of prejudice relate to issues such as stereotypes and beliefs about outgroup members. Stereotype measures involve the endorsement of negative stereotypes about members of the outgroup. The source of prejudices comes from social differences, conformity, frustration-aggr ...
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
I need 100 words response for each of the discussion postDiscu.docxsheronlewthwaite
I need 100 words response for each of the discussion post
Discussion Entry 1
The emerging adulthood stage is being studied in various ways now to include the lifespan theory and the resiliency theory. The lifespan development theory generally concentrates on the ontogenesis and the chronological mastery of skills, tasks, and abilities, while resiliency theory, in contrast, generally focuses the process of positive adaption when facing significant risk (Smith-Osborne, 2007). “Emerging adulthood is proposed as a new conception of development for the period from the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18-25” (Arnett, 2000, pg. 1). From my understanding, Arnett’s proposal is basically highlighting on the fact that there is a difference from “back in the day” to “current day” life experiences or achievements. “The reliance on traditional sociological markers that have served for over a century—stable job, independent domicile, financial self-sufficiency, marriage and children—is out of sync with the pace, direction, and even values of twenty-first-century life” (Gilmore, 2019, pg. 1). Arnett explains this by showing how the age of marriage has shifted and how childbirth age patterns has increased. The emerging adulthood phase is when an individual is acting independently in contradiction of social norms.
The first article dealt with homeless emerging adults and how the resiliency theory played a role in the case study. Young adults were interviewed, recruited, and analyzed to find four primary themes amongst the homeless young adults. Individual strengths, positive life perspectives, external social supports, and coping strategies are all themes that contributed to their resilience while living on the streets. Most emerging adults were facing multiple barriers while growing up and they were exposed to traumatizing events which cause most of them to flee their home/family. the resiliency theory reported how these individuals adapted to their new circumstances by learning how to find resources, establishing new relationships and who to trust, and developing a “street smart” skill (Thompson, Ryan, Montgomery, Lippman, Bender & Ferguson, 2016). This case study proposed that using a strength-based method would empower these individuals to use their resilient capabilities to build a self-efficient mentality that offers them a way out of homelessness. One major shortcoming of this study is that the recruits were from one specific city and were mainly Caucasian males. If the study would have been more worldwide, the results may have shown various results. Another factor that may hinder this type of research is that many homeless individuals develop mental health concerns and do not share the full extent of their situation which would alter the results as well. This study reflects how the cognitive and personality development does not always take place in a normal age range or in sequential order and human development rem ...
Attitudes toward suicide may influence the
treatment content and outcomes. Hence, this study aimed to
investigate how public attitudes toward suicide were influenced
by (1) their degree of idealism; and (2) their degree of
relativism. A questionnaire survey with Suicide Perception
Scale and Ethic Position Questionnaire was carried out on 50
male and 50 female participants (aged 21 and above) from
Klang Valley, Malaysia to obtain answer. The findings
supported both hypotheses, indicated that (1) higher idealism is
associated with lower level of acceptance toward suicide; and
(2) higher relativism is associated with higher level of
acceptance toward suicide. In sum, variations in public’s
attitude toward suicide were related to individual differences in
personal ethical ideologies and moral philosophies.
4-1 LL (200 words and one reference)Cognitive processes store insimisterchristen
4-1 LL (200 words and one reference)
Cognitive processes store information into the memory affects their judgement and behavior towards others from different backgrounds. When an individual is raised with different perspectives poured into them, they take on these perspectives and incorporate them into how they view life. According to Amodio (2014), prejudice stems from a mechanism of survival, built on cognitive systems that ‘structure’ the physical world, its function in modern society is complex and its effects are often causes damage. Many of these instances are not intentional, its more that it was how their brain was wired. The impact of culture on prejudice makes it common for individuals to normalize prejudice, because it was approved or promoted in their culture. According to Uhlmann (2013), Prejudices are often a way for a group of higher social status to explain and rationalize their privilege position in society. This is a main stance to consider with the gap of benefits and opportunities that are available to those of the minority (Or as they labeled). Once stereotypes and prejudice are formed, they become self perpetuating because they grow stronger inside the mind, similarly to the information we choose to study and gain insight on. The roots of prejudice can be found in the cognitive and emotional processes (Branscombe, 2016). By rewiring these processes, the root can be diminished.
4-1 KG (200 words and one reference)
A person's beliefs and expectations regarding a particular group constitute the cognitive component of the prejudicial attitude. The cognitive approach, (cognitive theory of prejudice), suggests that prejudice is a function of cognitive processes where stereotypic information about social groups, stored in memory, is automatically activated and affects people’s judgments and behavior toward target group members. An example of this is believing that a product marketed by a celebrity is more valuable. While people like to believe that they are rational and logical, the fact is that people are continually under the influence of cognitive biases. These biases distort thinking, influence beliefs, and sway the decisions and judgments people make daily. These biases happen because we can't evaluate every detail and event when forming thoughts and opinions. Because of this, we often rely on mental shortcuts that speed up our ability to make judgments, but sometimes lead to bias ( Saposnik, Redelmeier, Ruff & Tobler 2016). The psychological bases for prejudice are people's values, the ways they see themselves and others, their sense of social identity, and social norms that define who is included in or excluded from social groups. The cognitive dimensions of prejudice relate to issues such as stereotypes and beliefs about outgroup members. Stereotype measures involve the endorsement of negative stereotypes about members of the outgroup. The source of prejudices comes from social differences, conformity, frustration-aggr ...
Running head research proposal1research proposal8.docxjeanettehully
Running head: research proposal 1
research proposal 8
Impact of Personality on Individuals’ Self-Esteem
LaTonya Bethune
PSYCH 665
Professor Teresa Neal
December 16, 2019
Impact of Personality on Individuals’ Self-Esteem
There are various definitions of self-esteem as described by different authors in the field of psychological research. It can also be defined as the general or typical feeling that an individual has about himself in a certain context and time (Heimpel et al., 2006). Andreassen et al. (2017), stated that self-esteem is an individual’s sense of worth or the level at which an individual likes or values himself. Self-esteem is individuals’ personal evaluation regarding their capabilities, importance, value, or worth (Pizzolli & Strapparava, 2019). Personality refers to the consistent set of behaviors that form a person’s distinctive character. These behaviors have emotional and cognitive patterns that have unique characteristics. An individual’s self-esteem is largely determined by their inherent personality traits, which include extraversion, neuroticism, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (Pizzolli & Strapparava, 2019). Previous research has linked personality with self-esteem but didn’t establish the extent to which self-esteem is influenced by personality. This research seeks to establish how individual personality traits influence an individual’s self-esteem.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this research is to establish the relationship between personality and self-esteem and determine the extent to which personality traits can be used to predict an individual’s level of self-esteem. The personality traits, which include extraversion, neuroticism, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, are usually referred to as the Big Five and are described in the five personality traits model. Each trait individually affects an individual’s self-esteem, but the most dominant traits determine an individual’s level of self-esteem.
Significance of the Study
Understanding the relationship between personality and self-esteem is important because it would enable psychologists to establish the psychological outcomes associated with various personality traits which would be helpful in the prediction of outcomes such as personality disorders, job performance, divorce, and academic achievement. Also, personality traits determine the temperament level of an individual and their overall behavioral tendencies. For example, individuals with low temperament are likely to be negative about themselves, thus, have low self-esteem. The findings of this study would enable therapists to precisely predict the patient outcomes based on their personality traits and understand the type of therapy that would suit their personality. For instance, individuals with low self-esteem may not respond to therapeutic sessions that are offered in group sessions since they cannot actively participate in that context.
Lite ...
What Makes A Hero The Impact of Integrity onAdmiration and Inte.docxphilipnelson29183
What Makes A Hero? The Impact of Integrity on
Admiration and Interpersonal Judgment
Barry R. Schlenker,1 Michael F. Weigold,1 and
Kristine A. Schlenker2
1University of Florida
2Penn State University
ABSTRACT Principled and expedient ideologies affect self-regulation
and guide people along divergent ethical paths. A more principled ideology,
indicative of higher claimed integrity, involves a greater personal
commitment to ethical beliefs, standards, and self-schemas that facilitate
positive social activities and help resist the temptation of illicit activities.
Two studies showed that differences in reported integrity are related to
people’s preferences for and judgments of others. Those higher in integrity
spontaneously described their heroes as more principled, honest,
spiritual, and benevolently oriented toward others (Study 1). In addition,
integrity was related to people’s evaluations of characters who made
ethical or unethical career decisions (Study 2). The judgments of those
higher in integrity were greatly influenced by whether or not the decision
was ethical but were largely unaffected by the consequences (career
success or failure), whereas those lower in integrity were less influenced
by whether the decision was ethical and more influenced by the career
consequences.
Ethical dilemmas pit principles against expediency. Doing the right
thing is a basis for acts of heroism and laudable accomplishment but
often involves personal sacrifice. Doing the expedient thing is a basis
for acts of self-indulgence and opportunism but often at a cost
to others. How people resolve the tension between principles and
expediency tests an individual’s character and a society’s ability to
function effectively. Each path has a certain appeal—the principled
Correspondence concerning this article may be addressed to Barry R. Schlenker,
Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. E-mail:
[email protected]
Journal of Personality 76:2, April 2008
r 2008, Copyright the Authors
Journal compilation r 2008, Blackwell Publishing, Inc.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00488.x
path for its integrity and the expedient path for its profits. Informative
glimpses may be gained into the values, aspirations, and ideologies
of individuals and societies by examining whom they admire
and regard as a hero and what criteria they use to praise and condemn
others. The present studies examined individual differences in
whom people regard as their heroes, why they regard them as heroes,
and how they judge others based on how those others resolve
conflicts between principles and expediency.
Principled and Expedient Ideologies: Commitment to Integrity
An ethical ideology is an integrated system of beliefs, values,
standards, and self-definitions that define an individual’s orientation
toward matters of right and wrong or good and evil (Schlenker,
2007). It provides a moral schema for evaluating events and a moral
identity that describes one’s ethical charact.
Definition of Personality
Approaches to the study of personality
Personality and the Social Media
The role of Ethnicity and Gender in Personality
The Role of Culture in Shaping Personality
Methods of personality assessment
Working Models of Attachment and Reactions to Different Forms .docxericbrooks84875
Working Models of Attachment and Reactions to Different Forms of
Caregiving From Romantic Partners
Jeffry A. Simpson and Heike A. Winterheld
University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus
W. Steven Rholes
Texas A&M University
M. Minda Oriña
University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus
Inspired by attachment theory, the authors tested a series of theoretically derived predictions about
connections between attachment working models (attachment to one’s parents assessed by the Adult
Attachment Interview; M. Main & R. Goldwyn, 1994) and the effectiveness of specific types of
caregiving spontaneously displayed by dating partners during a stressful conflict-resolution discussion.
Each partner first completed the Adult Attachment Interview. One week later, each couple was
videotaped while they tried to resolve a current problem in their relationship. Trained observers then rated
each interaction for the degree to which (a) emotional, instrumental, and physical caregiving behaviors
were displayed; (b) care recipients appeared calmed by their partners’ caregiving attempts; and (c) each
partner appeared distressed during the discussion. Individuals who had more secure representations of
their parents were rated as being more calmed if/when their partners provided greater emotional care,
especially if they were rated as more distressed. Conversely, individuals who had more insecure
(dismissive) representations of their parents reacted more favorably to instrumental caregiving behaviors
from their partners, especially if they were more distressed. The broader theoretical implications of these
findings are discussed.
Keywords: attachment, caregiving, support, conflict
Although the beneficial effects of perceived social support have
been widely documented (Cohen & Willis, 1985), recent studies of
supportive transactions have shown that recipients of support often
do not benefit from social support or are sometimes worse off for
having received it (Bolger, Foster, Vinokur, & Ng, 1996; Bolger,
Zuckerman, & Kessler, 2000; Taylor, 2007; Westmaas & Jamner,
2006). Several explanations have been offered for this perplexing
finding, including that support givers may be unskilled, that re-
ceiving support may undermine self-esteem or make the recipient
feel indebted to the provider, or that the support received may be
the wrong kind delivered to the wrong person (Bolger et al., 2000;
Cohen & Willis, 1985; Taylor, 2007).
In the present study, we investigate a version of this latter
“matching” explanation. We hypothesize that personality charac-
teristics tied to perceptions of having received sensitive versus
insensitive care early in life might partially dictate what kind of
support from relationship partners in adulthood most effectively
calms people. Guided by attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969, 1973,
1980), we suggest that adults who have a secure attachment history
with their parents ought to benefit from emotional support pro-
vided by their current romantic.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIG 5 PERSONALITY TRAITS AND LIFE SATISFACTION OF AM...IAEME Publication
The study examines the relationship between the Big five personality traits of N CC female students and life satisfaction in Tiruchirappalli. This study consists of 208 female respondents, who had attended the Annual training camp in Tiruchirappalli. Finings revealed that the Big five personality traits explained about 30.1% of variance in life satisfaction. Among the Big Five traits, extra-version and neuroticism were found to be the strongest predictors of life satisfaction.
Attachment Security and Perceived Parental Psychological Control as Parameter...ijtsrd
The study examined attachment security and perceived parental psychological control as parameters of social value orientation among early adolescents. Participants for the study were 210 early adolescents who volunteered from NnamdiAzikiwe University High Awka. Participants’ age ranged from 11 to 15 years, with mean age of 13.26 years and standard deviation of 1.34. Three instruments were deployed for data collection secure domain of the attachment style questionnaire SDASQ by Van Oudenhoven, Hofstra, and Bakker 2003 , adopted version of psychological control domain of the parental control scale developed by Barber 1996 and social value orientation SVO developed by Schwartz 1994 . The study adopted correlation design and statistics appropriate for data analysis were correlation and multiple regression analysis enter method. Hypothesis one was confirmed and result showed that attachment security significantly and positively predicted social value orientation at B = .73 , P . 001. Hypothesis two result was not confirmed at B = .06, p .05. Hence, attachment security is a significant predictor of social value orientation. It was recommended that parents, teachers and care givers should ensure that they establish low anxiety type of relationship with their new born children in order to enhance low anxiety and low avoidance as this will help them at early adolescents to withstand peer pressure of during early adolescent. Nweke, Kingsley Onyibor | Dike Ibiwari Caroline | Dike, Adannia Amarachukwu | Umeaku Ndubuisi Nkemakonam "Attachment Security and Perceived Parental Psychological Control as Parameters of Social Value Orientation among Early Adolescents" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd42368.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comhumanities-and-the-arts/psychology/42368/attachment-security-and-perceived-parental-psychological-control-as-parameters-of-social-value-orientation-among-early-adolescents/nweke-kingsley-onyibor
Describe the characteristics of the main or central research questLinaCovington707
Describe the characteristics of the main or central research question in a qualitative study.
One of the characteristics of a qualitative research question focuses on a one-one-one interviews to understand the perspective of the underlying inquiry. A qualitative research question is based on being able to discover problems and opportunities from the perspective of the research respondents. Qualitative research question are open-ended in nature, which means that they are able to respond to questions without limitations. Besides, they are easily understood by respondents and do not need to clarify (Creswell & Poth, 2016).
State your proposed qualitative research question.
What is the experience of young, under the age of 25, entry level woman who are highly motivated to help with on an organization performance?
Describe the characteristics of the qualitative interview and the types of questions used in a qualitative interview.
Characteristics of qualitative research include data collection from the natural setting. The researcher takes an active role in collection of data from the participant’s right from their natural setting. The researcher collects data based on awareness of the underlying business context. The researchers must practice patience throughout the interview period. The researchers must be empathetic and can use multiple methods to collect data. The researchers design and develop the process, which means the process is not static and is subject to evolution over time. The researcher must also collaborate with the participants and maintain ethics throughout the process (Creswell & Poth, 2016).
Types of qualitative research questions include exploratory which seeks to understand something without influencing the results with preconceived notions. Another type of question is the predictive questions which seek to understand the outcome surrounding a topic. Interpretive questions that gathers feedback on a certain phenomenon without influencing the outcome.
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2016). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage publications.
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
Understand how kinds of temperament are associated with principles of reciprocal relationships and
goodness of �it.
Outline Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.
Articulate and evaluate the theoretical ideas of Marcia and Levinson.
Compare and contrast trait and type theories and how they each assess personality.
Outline the evidence for the emergence of self-awareness and summarize demographic differences in
self-esteem.
De�ine ethnic identity and understand how it in�luences identity development.
11Personality, the Self, and MoralDevelopment
iStock/Thinkstock
Distinguish among behaviors that are indicative of different stages of moral development.
Prologue
Try for a moment to describe a person without referring to physical characteristics. Words s ...
Conducting Culturally Sensitive Qualitative Research DEVIKADIBYA.docxdonnajames55
Conducting Culturally Sensitive Qualitative Research
DEVIKADIBYACHOUDHURI THE MULTICULTURAL GUIDELINES
One of the key elements of the American Psychological Association’s (APA, 2003) “Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists” is the notion of a cultural lens. The Multicultural Guidelines define culture as an embodiment of worldview, a complex of systems of values, beliefs, and resultant practices that shape the way individuals make meaning of the world. Using a visual metaphor, a cultural lens is then simply the field of vision that incorporates the landscape of culture. The Multicultural Guidelines invite psychologists to use a cultural lens, acknowledging the ways in which culture shapes their own lens, the multiple meanings that individuals may make about themselves and their contexts, and ways to be responsive and sensitive to such understandings of the world. Specifically, in terms of conducting research, Guideline 4 asks investigators to appreciate the importance of conducting culture-centered research and be sensitive to cultural issues regarding research focus, design, and methods. A cultural lens, by definition, is rooted in the subjective, the internal worldview view of a particular person from his or her particular location intheworld.Thissubjectivityofinternallyconstructedmeaning,asopposedtoapresumedexternallyobjectiverealitytrueforallpersonsin alltimesandcontexts,isthesociallyconstructedpositionofqualitative research.
OVERVIEW OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
The practice of qualitative inquiry covers a variety of research methods and approaches that operate from an interpretive paradigm, developing portrayals of a complex and dynamic reality (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992). Symbolic interactionism (Blumer, 1969), feminist inquiry (Olesen, 1994), grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) action research, case studies, and ethnographies are examples of the plethora of approaches constituting qualitative inquiry (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). Qualitative research strives to understand the epistemological nature of phenomena through the subjective experiences of the persons who are concerned with such phenomena. Essentially, it is the process of finding out what people think and feel impressionistically and narratively rather than quantifiably. As such, this methodology lends itself particularly well to understanding the experiences and worldviews of diverse persons. For instance, Gibson (2002) looked at the experience of African American grandmothers who were caregivers to grandchildren whose parents were not able to provide them with adequate care. This phenomenon of kinship care, culturally congruent in the African American community, needed a qualitative approach to explore a complex, sensitive, and contextually rich situation and capture the lived experience of this clinically significant group. Qualitative approaches are becoming increasingly popular as a methodology for con.
The two theories I am comparing and contrasting is the theory.docxtaishao1
The two theories I am comparing and contrasting is the theory of behaviorism and the sociocultural theory on cognitive development. The theory of behaviorism is made up of conditioning. According to Berk, behavior is dependent on the environment and it can be molded and shaped in the presence or absence of reinforcement and punishment. In the social cultural theory, behavior is dependent on the culture, customs, and traditions surrounding an individual (2014).
Similar strengths on cognitive development these theories share is that they both consider one’s environment as an important influence on learning. Both theories also place emphasis on adults influence on a child’s cognitive development. For example, with behaviorism, a parent can increase the wanted behavior with verbal praise or an edible reinforcement. In the social cultural perspective, parents or teachers exchanging knowledge to children influences their cognitive development. Both theories also believe cognitive development to occur throughout life. Similarly, both theories share a limited emphasis on an individual’s ability to shape their own cognitive development and achievement (Berk, 2014). According to McKee and Barber, (as cited by Aldwin, 2014), individuals cannot make their own conscious decisions if they are not aware of what effects them.
The social cultural theory is different from behaviorism because it includes culture and group interaction as an impact on development. Vygotsky introduced scaffolding, (as cited by Laureate Education, 2010), or assessing what an individual knows and building on that. The school system is a good example of scaffolding which has a great impact on cognitive development from childhood to adulthood. Teachers asses what you know and build on that each year. In contrast, behaviorism focuses on molding single specific behaviors.
Another difference is in their limitations. Behaviorism lacks explanation for other environmental influences different from punishment and reinforcement that might influence development. While the cultural theory might have more explanations, these explanations might include biases from researchers and the findings of one culture may not be consistent with findings in another culture (Berk, 2014).
References
Aldwin, C. M. (2014). Rethinking developmental science. Research in Human Development, 11(4), 247–254.
Berk, L. E. (2014). Development through the lifespan (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education
Laureate Education. (Producer). (2010a). Cognitive development theories [Video file]. Baltimore, MD: Author.
...
A Review Study on Spiritual Intelligence, Adolescence and Spiritual Intellig...Jonathan Dunnemann
This paper reviewed the articles about adolescence, its relation to spiritual intelligence and the related theories. The adolescence period is the best time to develop positive emotions and training skills, because adolescents are seeking to find their identity and their future personality at this period. Spiritual intelligence has a significant influence on the quality of life and it goes without saying that adolescence is a sensitive period which requires specific training to make a brighter future and be exposed to the difficulties. Spirituality can be viewed as a form of intelligence because it predicts functioning and adaptation and offers capabilities that enable people to solve
problems and attain goals. Conceiving spirituality as a sort of intelligence extends the psychologist’s conception of spirituality and allows its association with the rational cognitive processes like goal achievement and problem solving. Emotional intelligence allows us to judge in which situation we are involved and then to behave appropriately within it. Spiritual intelligence allows us to ask if we want to be in this particular situation in the
first place.
Analyze MVPIThe motives, values, and preferences inventory (MV.docxikirkton
Analyze MVPI
The motives, values, and preferences inventory (MVPI) is used to identify the motives and values most important to an individual. Understanding the personal values of the individuals who make up a team can be useful in understanding the team dynamics and help a manager build and sustain teamwork within the organization.
Refer to the 10 core values (listed below) evaluated on the MVPI.
Rank order the traits according to the value you assign to them, with 1 being the trait you value the most in a team member and 10 being the trait you value the least.
Explain the rationale for your ranking. Give an example of each trait drawn from your experience or observations.
MVPI Values
Recognition:
Desire for attention, approval, and praise
Power:
Desire for success, accomplishment, status, competition, and control
Hedonism:
Desire for fun, pleasure, and recreation
Altruism:
Concern about the welfare of others and contribution to a better society
Affiliation:
Desire for enjoyment of social interaction
Tradition:
Concern for established values of conduct
Security:
Desire for certainty, order, and predictability in employment and finance
Science:
quest for knowledge, research, technology, and data
Aesthetics:
need for self-expression, concern over look, feel, and design of work products
Commerce:
interest in money, profits, investment, and business opportunities
.
Analyze and interpret the following quotation The confrontation of.docxikirkton
Analyze and interpret the following quotation: “The confrontation of Western civilization with other peoples whose values were often dramatically opposed to the West’s…suggests that by the dawn of the twentieth century, the tradition and sense of centeredness that had defined indigenous cultures for hundreds, even thousands, of years was either threatened or in the process of being destroyed. Worldwide, non-Western cultures suddenly found that they were defined as outposts of new colonial empires developed by Europeans, resulting in the weakening of traditional cultural practices, political leadership, and social systems that had been in place for centuries.” (Sayre, 2013, pp. 410-411).
In the later nineteenth and early twentieth century, what would this “loss of centeredness” of culture have meant for a given cultural group? Select from among the non-Western cultural groups noted in the text (Native American, Chinese, Indian, Japanese, or African) and research the impact of Western or European cultures on that group.
What was the selected non-Western culture like prior to the late nineteenth century? How did it change as a result of European expansion? How is this change representative of what Sayre calls a “loss of centeredness?” Be sure to use specific examples and details.
Submit your findings in a 4-page essay in APA format.
.
More Related Content
Similar to Attending to the role of identity explorationin self-esteem.docx
Running head research proposal1research proposal8.docxjeanettehully
Running head: research proposal 1
research proposal 8
Impact of Personality on Individuals’ Self-Esteem
LaTonya Bethune
PSYCH 665
Professor Teresa Neal
December 16, 2019
Impact of Personality on Individuals’ Self-Esteem
There are various definitions of self-esteem as described by different authors in the field of psychological research. It can also be defined as the general or typical feeling that an individual has about himself in a certain context and time (Heimpel et al., 2006). Andreassen et al. (2017), stated that self-esteem is an individual’s sense of worth or the level at which an individual likes or values himself. Self-esteem is individuals’ personal evaluation regarding their capabilities, importance, value, or worth (Pizzolli & Strapparava, 2019). Personality refers to the consistent set of behaviors that form a person’s distinctive character. These behaviors have emotional and cognitive patterns that have unique characteristics. An individual’s self-esteem is largely determined by their inherent personality traits, which include extraversion, neuroticism, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (Pizzolli & Strapparava, 2019). Previous research has linked personality with self-esteem but didn’t establish the extent to which self-esteem is influenced by personality. This research seeks to establish how individual personality traits influence an individual’s self-esteem.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this research is to establish the relationship between personality and self-esteem and determine the extent to which personality traits can be used to predict an individual’s level of self-esteem. The personality traits, which include extraversion, neuroticism, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, are usually referred to as the Big Five and are described in the five personality traits model. Each trait individually affects an individual’s self-esteem, but the most dominant traits determine an individual’s level of self-esteem.
Significance of the Study
Understanding the relationship between personality and self-esteem is important because it would enable psychologists to establish the psychological outcomes associated with various personality traits which would be helpful in the prediction of outcomes such as personality disorders, job performance, divorce, and academic achievement. Also, personality traits determine the temperament level of an individual and their overall behavioral tendencies. For example, individuals with low temperament are likely to be negative about themselves, thus, have low self-esteem. The findings of this study would enable therapists to precisely predict the patient outcomes based on their personality traits and understand the type of therapy that would suit their personality. For instance, individuals with low self-esteem may not respond to therapeutic sessions that are offered in group sessions since they cannot actively participate in that context.
Lite ...
What Makes A Hero The Impact of Integrity onAdmiration and Inte.docxphilipnelson29183
What Makes A Hero? The Impact of Integrity on
Admiration and Interpersonal Judgment
Barry R. Schlenker,1 Michael F. Weigold,1 and
Kristine A. Schlenker2
1University of Florida
2Penn State University
ABSTRACT Principled and expedient ideologies affect self-regulation
and guide people along divergent ethical paths. A more principled ideology,
indicative of higher claimed integrity, involves a greater personal
commitment to ethical beliefs, standards, and self-schemas that facilitate
positive social activities and help resist the temptation of illicit activities.
Two studies showed that differences in reported integrity are related to
people’s preferences for and judgments of others. Those higher in integrity
spontaneously described their heroes as more principled, honest,
spiritual, and benevolently oriented toward others (Study 1). In addition,
integrity was related to people’s evaluations of characters who made
ethical or unethical career decisions (Study 2). The judgments of those
higher in integrity were greatly influenced by whether or not the decision
was ethical but were largely unaffected by the consequences (career
success or failure), whereas those lower in integrity were less influenced
by whether the decision was ethical and more influenced by the career
consequences.
Ethical dilemmas pit principles against expediency. Doing the right
thing is a basis for acts of heroism and laudable accomplishment but
often involves personal sacrifice. Doing the expedient thing is a basis
for acts of self-indulgence and opportunism but often at a cost
to others. How people resolve the tension between principles and
expediency tests an individual’s character and a society’s ability to
function effectively. Each path has a certain appeal—the principled
Correspondence concerning this article may be addressed to Barry R. Schlenker,
Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. E-mail:
[email protected]
Journal of Personality 76:2, April 2008
r 2008, Copyright the Authors
Journal compilation r 2008, Blackwell Publishing, Inc.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00488.x
path for its integrity and the expedient path for its profits. Informative
glimpses may be gained into the values, aspirations, and ideologies
of individuals and societies by examining whom they admire
and regard as a hero and what criteria they use to praise and condemn
others. The present studies examined individual differences in
whom people regard as their heroes, why they regard them as heroes,
and how they judge others based on how those others resolve
conflicts between principles and expediency.
Principled and Expedient Ideologies: Commitment to Integrity
An ethical ideology is an integrated system of beliefs, values,
standards, and self-definitions that define an individual’s orientation
toward matters of right and wrong or good and evil (Schlenker,
2007). It provides a moral schema for evaluating events and a moral
identity that describes one’s ethical charact.
Definition of Personality
Approaches to the study of personality
Personality and the Social Media
The role of Ethnicity and Gender in Personality
The Role of Culture in Shaping Personality
Methods of personality assessment
Working Models of Attachment and Reactions to Different Forms .docxericbrooks84875
Working Models of Attachment and Reactions to Different Forms of
Caregiving From Romantic Partners
Jeffry A. Simpson and Heike A. Winterheld
University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus
W. Steven Rholes
Texas A&M University
M. Minda Oriña
University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus
Inspired by attachment theory, the authors tested a series of theoretically derived predictions about
connections between attachment working models (attachment to one’s parents assessed by the Adult
Attachment Interview; M. Main & R. Goldwyn, 1994) and the effectiveness of specific types of
caregiving spontaneously displayed by dating partners during a stressful conflict-resolution discussion.
Each partner first completed the Adult Attachment Interview. One week later, each couple was
videotaped while they tried to resolve a current problem in their relationship. Trained observers then rated
each interaction for the degree to which (a) emotional, instrumental, and physical caregiving behaviors
were displayed; (b) care recipients appeared calmed by their partners’ caregiving attempts; and (c) each
partner appeared distressed during the discussion. Individuals who had more secure representations of
their parents were rated as being more calmed if/when their partners provided greater emotional care,
especially if they were rated as more distressed. Conversely, individuals who had more insecure
(dismissive) representations of their parents reacted more favorably to instrumental caregiving behaviors
from their partners, especially if they were more distressed. The broader theoretical implications of these
findings are discussed.
Keywords: attachment, caregiving, support, conflict
Although the beneficial effects of perceived social support have
been widely documented (Cohen & Willis, 1985), recent studies of
supportive transactions have shown that recipients of support often
do not benefit from social support or are sometimes worse off for
having received it (Bolger, Foster, Vinokur, & Ng, 1996; Bolger,
Zuckerman, & Kessler, 2000; Taylor, 2007; Westmaas & Jamner,
2006). Several explanations have been offered for this perplexing
finding, including that support givers may be unskilled, that re-
ceiving support may undermine self-esteem or make the recipient
feel indebted to the provider, or that the support received may be
the wrong kind delivered to the wrong person (Bolger et al., 2000;
Cohen & Willis, 1985; Taylor, 2007).
In the present study, we investigate a version of this latter
“matching” explanation. We hypothesize that personality charac-
teristics tied to perceptions of having received sensitive versus
insensitive care early in life might partially dictate what kind of
support from relationship partners in adulthood most effectively
calms people. Guided by attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969, 1973,
1980), we suggest that adults who have a secure attachment history
with their parents ought to benefit from emotional support pro-
vided by their current romantic.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIG 5 PERSONALITY TRAITS AND LIFE SATISFACTION OF AM...IAEME Publication
The study examines the relationship between the Big five personality traits of N CC female students and life satisfaction in Tiruchirappalli. This study consists of 208 female respondents, who had attended the Annual training camp in Tiruchirappalli. Finings revealed that the Big five personality traits explained about 30.1% of variance in life satisfaction. Among the Big Five traits, extra-version and neuroticism were found to be the strongest predictors of life satisfaction.
Attachment Security and Perceived Parental Psychological Control as Parameter...ijtsrd
The study examined attachment security and perceived parental psychological control as parameters of social value orientation among early adolescents. Participants for the study were 210 early adolescents who volunteered from NnamdiAzikiwe University High Awka. Participants’ age ranged from 11 to 15 years, with mean age of 13.26 years and standard deviation of 1.34. Three instruments were deployed for data collection secure domain of the attachment style questionnaire SDASQ by Van Oudenhoven, Hofstra, and Bakker 2003 , adopted version of psychological control domain of the parental control scale developed by Barber 1996 and social value orientation SVO developed by Schwartz 1994 . The study adopted correlation design and statistics appropriate for data analysis were correlation and multiple regression analysis enter method. Hypothesis one was confirmed and result showed that attachment security significantly and positively predicted social value orientation at B = .73 , P . 001. Hypothesis two result was not confirmed at B = .06, p .05. Hence, attachment security is a significant predictor of social value orientation. It was recommended that parents, teachers and care givers should ensure that they establish low anxiety type of relationship with their new born children in order to enhance low anxiety and low avoidance as this will help them at early adolescents to withstand peer pressure of during early adolescent. Nweke, Kingsley Onyibor | Dike Ibiwari Caroline | Dike, Adannia Amarachukwu | Umeaku Ndubuisi Nkemakonam "Attachment Security and Perceived Parental Psychological Control as Parameters of Social Value Orientation among Early Adolescents" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd42368.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comhumanities-and-the-arts/psychology/42368/attachment-security-and-perceived-parental-psychological-control-as-parameters-of-social-value-orientation-among-early-adolescents/nweke-kingsley-onyibor
Describe the characteristics of the main or central research questLinaCovington707
Describe the characteristics of the main or central research question in a qualitative study.
One of the characteristics of a qualitative research question focuses on a one-one-one interviews to understand the perspective of the underlying inquiry. A qualitative research question is based on being able to discover problems and opportunities from the perspective of the research respondents. Qualitative research question are open-ended in nature, which means that they are able to respond to questions without limitations. Besides, they are easily understood by respondents and do not need to clarify (Creswell & Poth, 2016).
State your proposed qualitative research question.
What is the experience of young, under the age of 25, entry level woman who are highly motivated to help with on an organization performance?
Describe the characteristics of the qualitative interview and the types of questions used in a qualitative interview.
Characteristics of qualitative research include data collection from the natural setting. The researcher takes an active role in collection of data from the participant’s right from their natural setting. The researcher collects data based on awareness of the underlying business context. The researchers must practice patience throughout the interview period. The researchers must be empathetic and can use multiple methods to collect data. The researchers design and develop the process, which means the process is not static and is subject to evolution over time. The researcher must also collaborate with the participants and maintain ethics throughout the process (Creswell & Poth, 2016).
Types of qualitative research questions include exploratory which seeks to understand something without influencing the results with preconceived notions. Another type of question is the predictive questions which seek to understand the outcome surrounding a topic. Interpretive questions that gathers feedback on a certain phenomenon without influencing the outcome.
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2016). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage publications.
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
Understand how kinds of temperament are associated with principles of reciprocal relationships and
goodness of �it.
Outline Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.
Articulate and evaluate the theoretical ideas of Marcia and Levinson.
Compare and contrast trait and type theories and how they each assess personality.
Outline the evidence for the emergence of self-awareness and summarize demographic differences in
self-esteem.
De�ine ethnic identity and understand how it in�luences identity development.
11Personality, the Self, and MoralDevelopment
iStock/Thinkstock
Distinguish among behaviors that are indicative of different stages of moral development.
Prologue
Try for a moment to describe a person without referring to physical characteristics. Words s ...
Conducting Culturally Sensitive Qualitative Research DEVIKADIBYA.docxdonnajames55
Conducting Culturally Sensitive Qualitative Research
DEVIKADIBYACHOUDHURI THE MULTICULTURAL GUIDELINES
One of the key elements of the American Psychological Association’s (APA, 2003) “Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists” is the notion of a cultural lens. The Multicultural Guidelines define culture as an embodiment of worldview, a complex of systems of values, beliefs, and resultant practices that shape the way individuals make meaning of the world. Using a visual metaphor, a cultural lens is then simply the field of vision that incorporates the landscape of culture. The Multicultural Guidelines invite psychologists to use a cultural lens, acknowledging the ways in which culture shapes their own lens, the multiple meanings that individuals may make about themselves and their contexts, and ways to be responsive and sensitive to such understandings of the world. Specifically, in terms of conducting research, Guideline 4 asks investigators to appreciate the importance of conducting culture-centered research and be sensitive to cultural issues regarding research focus, design, and methods. A cultural lens, by definition, is rooted in the subjective, the internal worldview view of a particular person from his or her particular location intheworld.Thissubjectivityofinternallyconstructedmeaning,asopposedtoapresumedexternallyobjectiverealitytrueforallpersonsin alltimesandcontexts,isthesociallyconstructedpositionofqualitative research.
OVERVIEW OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
The practice of qualitative inquiry covers a variety of research methods and approaches that operate from an interpretive paradigm, developing portrayals of a complex and dynamic reality (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992). Symbolic interactionism (Blumer, 1969), feminist inquiry (Olesen, 1994), grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) action research, case studies, and ethnographies are examples of the plethora of approaches constituting qualitative inquiry (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). Qualitative research strives to understand the epistemological nature of phenomena through the subjective experiences of the persons who are concerned with such phenomena. Essentially, it is the process of finding out what people think and feel impressionistically and narratively rather than quantifiably. As such, this methodology lends itself particularly well to understanding the experiences and worldviews of diverse persons. For instance, Gibson (2002) looked at the experience of African American grandmothers who were caregivers to grandchildren whose parents were not able to provide them with adequate care. This phenomenon of kinship care, culturally congruent in the African American community, needed a qualitative approach to explore a complex, sensitive, and contextually rich situation and capture the lived experience of this clinically significant group. Qualitative approaches are becoming increasingly popular as a methodology for con.
The two theories I am comparing and contrasting is the theory.docxtaishao1
The two theories I am comparing and contrasting is the theory of behaviorism and the sociocultural theory on cognitive development. The theory of behaviorism is made up of conditioning. According to Berk, behavior is dependent on the environment and it can be molded and shaped in the presence or absence of reinforcement and punishment. In the social cultural theory, behavior is dependent on the culture, customs, and traditions surrounding an individual (2014).
Similar strengths on cognitive development these theories share is that they both consider one’s environment as an important influence on learning. Both theories also place emphasis on adults influence on a child’s cognitive development. For example, with behaviorism, a parent can increase the wanted behavior with verbal praise or an edible reinforcement. In the social cultural perspective, parents or teachers exchanging knowledge to children influences their cognitive development. Both theories also believe cognitive development to occur throughout life. Similarly, both theories share a limited emphasis on an individual’s ability to shape their own cognitive development and achievement (Berk, 2014). According to McKee and Barber, (as cited by Aldwin, 2014), individuals cannot make their own conscious decisions if they are not aware of what effects them.
The social cultural theory is different from behaviorism because it includes culture and group interaction as an impact on development. Vygotsky introduced scaffolding, (as cited by Laureate Education, 2010), or assessing what an individual knows and building on that. The school system is a good example of scaffolding which has a great impact on cognitive development from childhood to adulthood. Teachers asses what you know and build on that each year. In contrast, behaviorism focuses on molding single specific behaviors.
Another difference is in their limitations. Behaviorism lacks explanation for other environmental influences different from punishment and reinforcement that might influence development. While the cultural theory might have more explanations, these explanations might include biases from researchers and the findings of one culture may not be consistent with findings in another culture (Berk, 2014).
References
Aldwin, C. M. (2014). Rethinking developmental science. Research in Human Development, 11(4), 247–254.
Berk, L. E. (2014). Development through the lifespan (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education
Laureate Education. (Producer). (2010a). Cognitive development theories [Video file]. Baltimore, MD: Author.
...
A Review Study on Spiritual Intelligence, Adolescence and Spiritual Intellig...Jonathan Dunnemann
This paper reviewed the articles about adolescence, its relation to spiritual intelligence and the related theories. The adolescence period is the best time to develop positive emotions and training skills, because adolescents are seeking to find their identity and their future personality at this period. Spiritual intelligence has a significant influence on the quality of life and it goes without saying that adolescence is a sensitive period which requires specific training to make a brighter future and be exposed to the difficulties. Spirituality can be viewed as a form of intelligence because it predicts functioning and adaptation and offers capabilities that enable people to solve
problems and attain goals. Conceiving spirituality as a sort of intelligence extends the psychologist’s conception of spirituality and allows its association with the rational cognitive processes like goal achievement and problem solving. Emotional intelligence allows us to judge in which situation we are involved and then to behave appropriately within it. Spiritual intelligence allows us to ask if we want to be in this particular situation in the
first place.
Similar to Attending to the role of identity explorationin self-esteem.docx (20)
Analyze MVPIThe motives, values, and preferences inventory (MV.docxikirkton
Analyze MVPI
The motives, values, and preferences inventory (MVPI) is used to identify the motives and values most important to an individual. Understanding the personal values of the individuals who make up a team can be useful in understanding the team dynamics and help a manager build and sustain teamwork within the organization.
Refer to the 10 core values (listed below) evaluated on the MVPI.
Rank order the traits according to the value you assign to them, with 1 being the trait you value the most in a team member and 10 being the trait you value the least.
Explain the rationale for your ranking. Give an example of each trait drawn from your experience or observations.
MVPI Values
Recognition:
Desire for attention, approval, and praise
Power:
Desire for success, accomplishment, status, competition, and control
Hedonism:
Desire for fun, pleasure, and recreation
Altruism:
Concern about the welfare of others and contribution to a better society
Affiliation:
Desire for enjoyment of social interaction
Tradition:
Concern for established values of conduct
Security:
Desire for certainty, order, and predictability in employment and finance
Science:
quest for knowledge, research, technology, and data
Aesthetics:
need for self-expression, concern over look, feel, and design of work products
Commerce:
interest in money, profits, investment, and business opportunities
.
Analyze and interpret the following quotation The confrontation of.docxikirkton
Analyze and interpret the following quotation: “The confrontation of Western civilization with other peoples whose values were often dramatically opposed to the West’s…suggests that by the dawn of the twentieth century, the tradition and sense of centeredness that had defined indigenous cultures for hundreds, even thousands, of years was either threatened or in the process of being destroyed. Worldwide, non-Western cultures suddenly found that they were defined as outposts of new colonial empires developed by Europeans, resulting in the weakening of traditional cultural practices, political leadership, and social systems that had been in place for centuries.” (Sayre, 2013, pp. 410-411).
In the later nineteenth and early twentieth century, what would this “loss of centeredness” of culture have meant for a given cultural group? Select from among the non-Western cultural groups noted in the text (Native American, Chinese, Indian, Japanese, or African) and research the impact of Western or European cultures on that group.
What was the selected non-Western culture like prior to the late nineteenth century? How did it change as a result of European expansion? How is this change representative of what Sayre calls a “loss of centeredness?” Be sure to use specific examples and details.
Submit your findings in a 4-page essay in APA format.
.
Analyze and prepare a critique of the following situationMary h.docxikirkton
Analyze and prepare a critique of the following situation:
Mary has worked for Bob for two years. About 6 months ago, Bob asked Mary out to dinner. They had a good time together and agreed that they had some real interests in common outside of work. The pair dated for two months. Mary initially liked Bob, but he was beginning to get annoying. He called her all the time, was very pushy about her seeing him, and wanted to control all aspects of her life; both at work and at home. Mary decided to call it off. When she told Bob that she did not want to see him personally anymore, he went crazy on her. He told her she would be sorry and that he would see to it that she regretted it. Bob began to make life miserable for Mary at work. She suddenly started to get poor performance evaluations after two years of exemplary reviews. Even the managers above Bob were beginning to make comments about her poor attitude. Mary decided it was time to act. She was worried she would be fired, all because Bob wanted her to continue to date him. She loved her job and knew she did quality work. She made an appointment with the HR manager.
Using the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1991, discuss the type of sexual harassment Mary thinks she is experiencing. What are the obligations of the HR manager once Mary reports this? Discuss the likelihood that Bob would be found guilty of sexually harassing Mary. If the HR manager investigates and finds Mary is telling the truth, what should s/he do to handle the situation so that the company is not found complicit by the EEOC if further complaint is made? If found in Mary's favor, what options does the HR manager have to remedy the situation?
.
Analyze the anthropological film Jero A Balinese Trance Seance made.docxikirkton
Analyze the anthropological film Jero: A Balinese Trance Seance made by Linda Connor, Patsy Asch and Timothy Asch. Choose two or three significant concepts covered in our readings and lectures to analyze the film (cultural relativism, visual imperialism). You will need to explore these concepts in a thorough manner, select your anthropological concepts to best serve your thesis statement and interest in the film.
Think about the approach to the subject matter. How do the filmmakers construct the culture they present? What is the significance of this film? Who is Jero and why is she featured in this film? What did you learn? What questions are raised by this film? What is left unanswered?
Do the filmmakers privilege their own culture or do they employ cultural relativism? Can you see how the shift in anthropology, from studying the "native" may have impacted the filmmakers approach Could they have been more effective in their approach? Describe how? What worked well and why? What are some ethical implications that you see raised in this film?
These questions serve as guideline for you but you should choose specific concepts that you find interesting to explore how ethnicity and culture are presented in this film.
Hi, can you please make use of the terms "cultural baggage" and "politics of representation" in the essay
.
analyze and synthesize the financial reports of an organization of t.docxikirkton
analyze and synthesize the financial reports of an organization of their choice and present their findings in a PowerPoint presentation (with completed Notes section providing details of analysis and synthesis of information to presented points. You must also provide a separate document of exhibits of financial reports analyzed for the Presentation).
Projects will include:
Organization overview
Financial statements analysis
Analysis of cash flow
Stock performance analysis
Cost of capital or required return on investment
Value of the organization: book value, common stock value
Discussion of appropriate organizational development options with the inclusion of general risk and return scenarios from a management perspective
.
Analyze financial statements using financial ratios.• .docxikirkton
Analyze financial statements using financial ratios.
•
Analyze and evaluate cash flows over time.
•
Use technology and information resources to research issues in financial management.
•
Write clearly and concisely about financial management using proper writing mechanics.
This project requires that you conduct a financial analysis of two, comparable organizations. You
may select any organizations that produce publicly available financial statements employing IFRS
or U.S. GAAP (both companies must follow the same GAAP). Let your professor know which two
companies you plan to study before the end of Week 2, as your selection must be approved. The
professor reserves the right to limit the number of students comparing the same two
organizations.
Assignment:
1. Carefully review the annual reports for both organizations. Comment on what approach
each company has taken in reporting to its shareholders.
(This requirement is purposely
broad to give you the freedom to talk about anything that comes under the broad title of
“reporting to shareholders”).
2. Prepare a ratio analysis for both companies including a trend analysis for three years.
Comment on the significance of the ratios for each company (do they indicate that things
are all right, do they suggest that problems exist, or is it likely that problems will occur in
the future?). Comment specifically on the similarities and differences among the ratios
calculated for both companies and comparison to any benchmark.
3.
Prepare an analysis of the cash flow statements for both companies.
4. List and discuss the importance of the two most significant accounting policies adopted
by the two organizations (you should select the same two policies for both organizations).
Explain the options selected by both companies and comment on any differences that
you see. Explain what other policies the organizations could have selected and state why
you think they selected one policy over another.
5. Provide the URL’s for each company’s Annual Report.
Your assignment should adhere to these guidelines:
•
Write in a logical, well-organized conventional business style. Use Times New Roman
font size 12 or similar, double space, and leave ample white space per page.
•
All references must follow JWMI style guide and works must be cited appropriately.
Check with your professor for any additional instructions on citations.
•
On the first page or in a header, include the title of the assignment, the student’s name,
the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. Reference pages are not included in
the assignment page length.
•
Faculty members have discretion to penalize for assignments that do not follow these
guidelines. Check with your individual professor if you feel the assignment r
much longer or shorter treatment than recommended.
The two companies are: Walm.
Analyze and prepare a critique of the following situationMary has.docxikirkton
Analyze and prepare a critique of the following situation:
Mary has worked for Bob for two years. About 6 months ago, Bob asked Mary out to dinner. They had a good time together and agreed that they had some real interests in common outside of work. The pair dated for two months. Mary initially liked Bob, but he was beginning to get annoying. He called her all the time, was very pushy about her seeing him, and wanted to control all aspects of her life; both at work and at home. Mary decided to call it off. When she told Bob that she did not want to see him personally anymore, he went crazy on her. He told her she would be sorry and that he would see to it that she regretted it. Bob began to make life miserable for Mary at work. She suddenly started to get poor performance evaluations after two years of exemplary reviews. Even the managers above Bob were beginning to make comments about her poor attitude. Mary decided it was time to act. She was worried she would be fired, all because Bob wanted her to continue to date him. She loved her job and knew she did quality work. She made an appointment with the HR manager.
Using the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1991, discuss the type of sexual harassment Mary thinks she is experiencing. What are the obligations of the HR manager once Mary reports this? Discuss the likelihood that Bob would be found guilty of sexually harassing Mary. If the HR manager investigates and finds Mary is telling the truth, what should s/he do to handle the situation so that the company is not found complicit by the EEOC if further complaint is made? If found in Mary's favor, what options does the HR manager have to remedy the situation?
Site references in APA format
.
Analyze Alternative Exchange Rate RegimesThere are several argum.docxikirkton
Analyze Alternative Exchange Rate Regimes
There are several arguments for and against the alternative exchange rate regimes. Prepare a 2- to 4-page paper presenting both sides of the argument. In your paper:
List and explain the advantages of the flexible exchange rate regime.
Criticize the flexible exchange rate regime from the viewpoint of the proponents of the fixed exchange rate regime.
Refute the above criticism from the viewpoint of the proponents of the flexible exchange rate regime.
Discuss the impact the increased volatility in interest and foreign exchange rates has on global institutions.
Assignment 3 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Listed and explained the advantages of the flexible exchange rate regime.
24
Criticized the flexible exchange rate regime from the viewpoint of the proponents of the fixed exchange rate regime.
24
Refuted the above criticism from the viewpoint of the proponents of the flexible exchange rate regime.
20
Discussed the impact the increased volatility in interest and foreign exchange rates has on global institutions.
20
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
12
Total:
100
.
Analyze and evaluate the different leadership theories and behavior .docxikirkton
Analyze and evaluate the different leadership theories and behavior approaches, including the Tuckman four stages of group development model.
Evaluate the importance of the internal environmental factors that include the cultural, language, political, and technological differences.
Apply the necessary steps to overcome the identified challenges with the different sources of power that must be taken into account.
Deliverable Length:
4-5 Body Pages
.
Analytical essay report about polio 1ِ- An introductory paragraph .docxikirkton
Analytical essay report about polio
1ِ- An introductory paragraph
2 - A background paragraph that includes factual and historical information about polio
3 - three body paragraph that explain the epidemic and illustrate its significance
4- A concluding paragraph
5- An end of text reference page with reference for all source referred to as you wrote your report
.
Analysis Essay 1DUE Feb 23, 2014 1155 PMGrade DetailsGrade.docxikirkton
Analysis Essay 1
DUE: Feb 23, 2014 11:55 PM
Grade Details
Grade
N/A
Gradebook Comments
None
Assignment Details
Open Date
Feb 3, 2014 12:05 AM
Graded?
Yes
Points Possible
100.0
Resubmissions Allowed?
No
Attachments checked for originality?
Yes
.
AnalogíasComplete the analogies. Follow the model.Modelomuer.docxikirkton
Analogías
Complete the analogies. Follow the model.
Modelo
muerte : morir :: nacimiento :
nacer
muerte : nacimiento :: divorciarse de : [removed]
pareja : amor :: amigos : [removed]
tener una cita : salir con :: separarse de : [removed]
juntos : separados :: divertirse : [removed]
estudiar : graduarse :: niñez : [removed]
Completar
Complete the conversations. Make any necessary changes. Two words will not be used.
cambiar
edad
pastel
regalar
relajarse
romper
—¿Piensas [removed] de trabajo?
—Sí, estoy buscando algo más interesante.
—De postre vamos a servir [removed].
—¡Qué rico!
—¿Qué hacen ustedes en las fiestas?
— Bailamos, comemos, hablamos y en general [removed].
—¿Qué le vas a [removed] a tu padre en Navidad?
— Unos discos compactos. Le encanta la música andina.
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Analyze symbolism in Jane Eyre from a Feminist point of view. Exa.docxikirkton
Analyze symbolism in Jane Eyre from a Feminist point of view.
Examples:
patriarchy
oppressed women
silence from women
4 pages paper
MLA format
Please include original source citations (Jane Eyre book)
Include in text citations from 3 specific secondary sources (sources attached)
.
An important part of research is finding sources that can be trusted.docxikirkton
An important part of research is finding sources that can be trusted.
(1) Comment on why you think it is important to scrutinize your sources to find out if they are credible or not? This can apply to our personal life as well as our academic and business life?
Can you think of an example, in every day life, where it was very important for you to trust your source? Or if not, what are some general areas of life
where you think it is especially important to trust information?
.
An incomplete Punnett square There are three possible phenotypes fo.docxikirkton
An incomplete Punnett square: There are three possible phenotypes for wing color in the species of Moon moth. Some of these moths have a red wings, others have yellow wings and some have orange wings. What type of inheritance is illustrated by the species of moth? What are the genotypes that coincide with the three phenotypes given? In a cross between two orange winged moths that produced 100 offspring how many of the offspring will be a yellow? ALSO DRAW OUT PUNNETT SQUARE!!
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An expanded version of the accounting equation could be A + .docxikirkton
An expanded version of the accounting equation could be:
A + Rev = L + OE - Exp
A - L = Paid-in Capital - Rev - Exp
A = L + Paid-in Capital + Beginning Retained Earnings + Rev - Exp
A = L + Paid-in Capital - Rev + Exp
In the seller's records, the sale of merchandise on account would:
Increase assets and increase expenses.
Increase assets and decrease liabilities.
Increase assets and increase paid-in capital.
Increase assets and decrease revenues.
In the buyer's records, the purchase of merchandise on account would:
Increase assets and increase expenses.
Increase assets and increase liabilities.
Increase liabilities and increase paid-in capital.
Have no effect on total assets.
A debit entry will:
Decrease an asset account.
Increase a liability account.
Increase paid-in capital.
Increase an expense account.
A credit entry will:
Increase an asset account.
Increase a liability account.
Decrease paid-in capital.
Increase an expense account.
A credit entry to an account will:
Always decrease the account balance.
Always increase the account balance.
Increase the balance of a revenue account.
Increase the balance of an expense account.
A debit entry to an account will:
Always decrease the account balance.
Always increase the account balance.
Increase the balance of a revenue account.
Increase the balance of an expense account.
Sage, Inc. has 20 employees who each earn $100 per day and are paid every Friday. The end of the accounting period is on a Wednesday. How much wages should the firm accrue at the end of the period?
$2,000.
$1,000.
$0.
$6,000.
Which of the following is not one of the 5 questions of transaction analysis?
What's going on?
Which accounts are affected?
Is this an accrual?
Does the balance sheet balance?
Does my analysis make sense?
The effect of an adjustment is:
To correct an entry that was not in balance.
To increase the accuracy of the financial statements.
To record transactions not previously recorded.
To close the books.
A journal entry recording an accrual:
Results in a better matching of revenues and expenses.
Will involve a debit or credit to cash.
Will affect balance sheet accounts only.
Will most likely include a debit to a liability account
Wisdom Co. has a note payable to its bank. An adjustment is likely to be required on Wisdom's books at the end of every month that the loan is outstanding to record the:
Amount of interest paid during the month.
Amount of total interest to be paid when the note is paid off.
Amount of principal payable at the maturity date of the note.
Accrued interest expense for the month.
The accounting concept/principle being applied when an adjustment is made is usually:
matching revenue and expense.
consistency.
original cost.
materia.
An Evolving IndustryHow are the Internet and other technologies cu.docxikirkton
An Evolving Industry
How are the Internet and other technologies currently affecting the ways in which movies are produced, distributed, and exhibited? Are the changes having an impact on the quality or depth of the films? Provide specific examples as you explain your point of view.
Your initial post should be at least 150 words in length. Support your claims with examples from required material(s) and/or other scholarly resources, and properly cite any references
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An essay addressing the definition or resemblance concerning categor.docxikirkton
An essay addressing the definition or resemblance concerning categorical placement or criteria-match reasoning. The Term is Inner Peace. This is going to be a rough draft only. APA format
3-5 pages;
3-5 scholarly sources. I would like to address inner peace as the state of living in harmoney with the enviroment, restrained from war and living peacefully. I woud like to tie into figures like Mandela and Ghandi as examples of people that have attained it.
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How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
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Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
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http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
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Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Attending to the role of identity explorationin self-esteem.docx
1. Attending to the role of identity exploration
in self-esteem: Longitudinal associations
between identity styles and two features
of self-esteem
Bart Soenens,
1
Michael D. Berzonsky,
2
and Dennis R. Papini
3
Abstract
Although research suggests an interplay between identity
development and self-esteem, most studies focused on the role
of identity
commitment and measured only level of self-esteem. This study
examined longitudinal associations between Berzonsky’s (2011)
styles
of identity exploration and two distinct features of self-esteem:
level of self-esteem and contingent self-esteem. Participants
were 167
college students (mean age ¼ 19 years; 66% female) who
completed questionnaires tapping into identity styles and
features of self-
esteem at two measurement waves separated by a 4-month
interval. Both information-oriented and normative styles were
found to
be predicted by contingent self-esteem. Follow-up analyses
demonstrated that the content of contingent self-esteem
2. predicting both
identity styles was different. A diffuse-avoidant identity style
was predicted mainly by low levels of self-esteem. Although we
also
observed some effects of identity styles on the self-esteem
variables, the self-esteem variables had overall a more
consistent influence
on the identity styles than the other way around.
Keywords
contingent self-esteem, identity, identity style, late adolescence,
self-esteem
Erikson (1968) recognized that how adolescents and young
adults
negotiate identity conflicts and form a sense of identity has
impor-
tant repercussions for their personality development. Given that
self-esteem has long been considered a key feature of healthy
per-
sonality development (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs,
2003), considerable research has addressed associations
between
features of identity formation and self-esteem.
Marcia’s (1980) identity-status paradigm has been the basis for
much research on identity and self-esteem. Marcia (1980)
concluded
3. that adolescents in both the achieved (high commitment and
exp-
loration) and foreclosed (high commitment and low exploration)
sta-
tuses scored higher on self-esteem than adolescents in the
moratorium
(low commitment and high exploration) and diffusion (low
commit-
ment and exploration) statuses. More recent reviews (e.g.,
Luyckx
et al., 2013; Meeus, Iedema, Helsen, & Vollebergh, 1999)
indicate
that youth with achieved and foreclosed statuses have the
highest lev-
els of self-esteem and well-being, whereas those with a
moratorium
status reported the lowest levels. Meeus et al. (1999) concluded
that
positive well-being (including self-esteem) depends almost
exclu-
sively on the degree to which youth have formed identity
commit-
ments whereas identity exploration in the absence of
commitment
4. (i.e., moratorium status) is injurious to well-being and self-
esteem.
Herein we aim to address two shortcomings in research on iden-
tity and self-esteem. First, research has focused too narrowly on
the
amount or quantity of identity exploration. A more
differentiated
view on individual differences in the process of identity
exploration
might reveal important new insights. We therefore relied on
Ber-
zonsky’s (2011) social-cognitive model of identity processing
styles. Second, research has focused too narrowly on the level
or amount of positive self-esteem. In a recent, multidimensional
account of self-esteem, Heppner and Kernis (2011) argued that
it
is important to distinguish between levels of self-esteem and the
degree to which self-esteem is secure (versus insecure and
defen-
sive). The relevance of this distinction to identity research was
noted by Kroger and Marcia (2011). Few studies, however, have
examined associations between identity and both aspects of
5. self-
esteem simultaneously. In the present study, insecure self-
esteem
was conceptualized as contingent self-esteem. Associations
between two features of self-esteem (level of self-esteem and
con-
tingent self-esteem) and identity styles will be examined in a
short-
term longitudinal study.
Berzonsky’s identity style model
According to Berzonsky (2011), people have different identity
pro-
cessing styles and vary in how they deal with identity conflicts
and
how they process identity-relevant information. Individuals with
an
informational style engage in an open, systematic examination
of
identity options, by reflecting thoroughly about their likely
implica-
tions before forming commitments. When confronted with new
and
possibly self-discrepant information, they process it in a
6. relatively
flexible, unbiased fashion. Individuals with a normative style do
not
1
Ghent University, Belgium
2
Department of Psychology, State University of New York at
Cortland,
USA
3 College of Arts and Sciences, South Dakota State University,
USA
Corresponding author:
Bart Soenens, Ghent University, Henri Dunantlaan 2, Ghent
9000, Belgium.
Email: [email protected]
International Journal of
Behavioral Development
1–11
ª The Author(s) 2015
Reprints and permissions:
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DOI: 10.1177/0165025415602560
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engage in an intentional personal exploration of values and
options,
but instead internalize and rely primarily on norms and
prescrip-
tions of significant others. When confronted with new identity-
relevant information, they tend to assimilate it into already
existing
and rigidly held self-views. They easily experience discrepant
information as potentially threatening and are likely to distort,
ignore or simply dismiss self-discrepant information.
Individuals
with a diffuse-avoidant style tend to procrastinate personal
decision-making until situational demands pressure them to do
so. They hold relatively weak, unstable self-views. When
required
to react to information about potentially undesirable identity-
relevant options, they readily make temporary behavioral or
verbal
8. accommodations that are specific to the situations that prompted
them, which reinforces the uncertainty of their commitments.
Abundant research indicates that these identity styles relate
differentially to both the content of individuals’ identity and
their
way of coping with identity-relevant conflicts. Adolescents with
an informational style rely on active problem-solving strategies;
define themselves mainly in terms of personal attributes such as
personal values and goals; and possess intrinsic goals such as
self-development and community contribution (e.g., Berzonsky,
Cieciuch, Duriez, & Soenens, 2011; Berzonsky, Macek, &
Nurmi,
2003; Duriez, Luyckx, Soenens, & Berzonsky, 2012; Soenens,
Duriez, & Goossens, 2005). Adolescents with a normative style
score
high on need for closure, prejudice, and right-wing social-
political
views; define themselves mainly in terms of collective self-
attributes such as religion and nationality; and value goals
reflecting
conformity and conservatism (e.g., Berzonsky et al., 2003;
9. Duriez
et al., 2012; Soenens et al., 2005). Adolescents with a diffuse-
avoidant style define themselves mainly in terms of variable
social
attributes such as popularity and reputation and they value
hedonism
(Berzonsky et al., 2011, 2003; Soenens & Vansteenkiste, 2011).
A diffuse-avoidant style is related to a variety of maladaptive
and
counterproductive coping strategies including avoidant coping,
procrastination, and self-handicapping (e.g., Berzonsky, 2011)
A number of studies have addressed associations between the
identity styles and global level of self-esteem (Beaumont &
Zukano-
vic, 2005; Crocetti, Rubini, Berzonsky, & Meeus, 2009;
Passmore,
Fogarty, Bourke, & Baker-Evans, 2005; Phillips & Pittman,
2007;
Soenens, Berzonsky, Dunkel, Papini, & Vansteenkiste, 2011).
These
studies have shown rather consistently that self-esteem is
related posi-
10. tively to an informational style but negatively to a diffuse-
avoidant
style. Most studies also showed positive associations between a
nor-
mative style and global self-esteem, although some studies have
shown non-significant associations (e.g., Crocetti et al., 2009).
In stud-
ies where individuals are categorized according to their
predominant
identity style, the level of global self-esteem of individuals with
a nor-
mative style is indistinguishable from that of their informational
coun-
terparts. This is surprising because the informational and
normative
styles involve qualitatively different dynamics in terms of
information
processing, coping, and goal adoption. One possible explanation
is
that although they have similar levels of self-esteem, they differ
in
terms of the security of their self-esteem. To evaluate this
possibility,
it is important to also take into account the (in)security of self-
11. esteem.
Differentiating between level of self-esteem and
contingent self-esteem
It is difficult to proffer a single, consensually agreed upon
defini-
tion of self-esteem, which is a multidimensional construct that
comprises adaptive and maladaptive aspects (Heppner & Kernis,
2011). A distinction between individuals’ level of global self-
esteem and the degree to which self-esteem is fragile (versus
rel-
atively more secure) has gained prominence (Deci & Ryan,
1995;
Kernis & Paradise, 2002). Level of self-esteem, frequently
assessed with the Rosenberg (1965) scale, indicates whether
peo-
ple have a low or high sense of their overall self-worth.
Although
high scores on this scale typically indicate healthy adjustment,
it
has been argued that there may also be associated costs,
including
aggression and defensiveness (Baumeister, Smart, & Boden,
12. 1996). Fragile self-esteem (Kernis & Paradise, 2002) has been
proposed as a means to disentangle healthy from more defensive
forms of high self-esteem.
In the current study, we measured contingent self-esteem
which, according to Heppner and Kernis (2011), represents the
core of fragile self-esteem. Because people high on contingent
self-esteem hinge their self-worth on achieving socially-
prescribed or self-imposed standards, they are sensitive to
evalua-
tion. Thus, their feelings of self-worth will vary depending on
whether or not they meet their standards. Research has shown
that
levels of global self-esteem and contingent self-esteem are dis-
tinct constructs. For instance, Kernis, Lakey, and Heppner
(2008) found moderate negative associations between the
Contin-
gent Self-Esteem Scale (CSS: Paradise & Kernis, 1999) and lev-
els of global self-esteem as measured by the Rosenberg (1965)
scale. Kernis et al. (2008) also found that individuals who
scored
13. high on both types of self-esteem were high in verbal defensive-
ness, suggesting they engaged in defensive maneuvers to main-
tain their self-worth.
Identity styles, level of global self-esteem, and
contingent self-esteem
We hypothesized that each of the three identity styles would
dis-
play a differentiated pattern of associations with measures of
global and contingent self-esteem. First, given that an informa-
tional style is associated with personal exploration and well-
integrated, autonomously-regulated commitments (Berzonsky,
2011; Soenens et al., 2011; Soenens & Vansteenkiste, 2011),
we hypothesized that an informational style would be associated
negatively with contingent self-esteem and positively with level
of self-esteem. Second, as discussed above individuals with
high
normative style scores have been found to have high self-
esteem.
However, given that their commitments are based on the goals
and values of significant others and that they are close-minded
14. and engage in maladaptive defensive maneuvers (Berzonsky,
2011; Soenens et al., 2005), we hypothesized that a normative
style would relate positively to both global and contingent
self-esteem. Third, because individuals with high diffuse-
avoidant scores have weak, unstable commitments (Berzonsky
& Ferrari, 2009), we hypothesized that a diffuse-avoidant style
would be related negatively to level of global self-esteem. It is
unclear, however, how diffuse-avoidance would relate to contin-
gent self-esteem. Because contingent self-esteem is dependent
on
enduring standards, which diffuse-avoiders lack, there may be
no
reliable association. However, because people who score high
on
diffuse-avoidance are sensitive to social cues of success, there
may
be a positive relationship. Consequently, we did not advance
spe-
cific predictions about associations between the diffuse-
avoidant
style and contingent self-esteem.
15. 2 International Journal of Behavioral Development
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The present study
We evaluated associations between the three identity styles with
measures of both global and contingent self-esteem with a two-
wave longitudinal design, which enabled us to examine the
direc-
tion of these associations. Although our reasoning thus far
implies that identity styles may affect features of self-esteem, it
is possible that these features may be predictive of variation in
the adoption of identity styles or that the relationships may be
reciprocal. For instance, a diffuse-avoidant style may not only
lead to lower levels of global self-esteem and security, it may
also
represent a consequence of the insecurity linked to low global
self-esteem. Likewise, a normative identity style may not only
lead to contingent self-worth: Adopting normative standards
may
16. represent a defensive response to perceived threats associated
with contingent self-esteem.
Because commitment predicts level of global self-esteem (e.g.,
Luyckx et al., 2013), we controlled for individuals’ strength of
identity commitment. We also examined the role of gender
because
there is some evidence for mean-level gender differences in
some
study variables. For instance, males have been found to score
higher
on a diffuse-avoidant style (Berzonsky, 2011) and level of self-
esteem (Kling, Hyde, Showers, & Buswell, 1999) than females.
Most research, however, indicates that structural associations
between identity styles and other variables are similar across
gender
(Berzonsky, 2011).
The conceptual model guiding this study is displayed graphi-
cally in Figure 1. The two measurement waves of this
longitudinal
study were separated by a 4-month interval. Although this is a
rel-
17. atively short interval, our sample consisted mainly of freshman,
university students undergoing the stressful transition to
university.
Therefore, this time period represented a meaningful interval
for
examining change and stability in identity and self-esteem.
Method
Participants and procedure
Participants were undergraduate students enrolled in
introductory
psychology at a large southern university in Tennessee, USA.
The
course meets a general education requirement and includes stu-
dents representative of freshman from all of the university’s
col-
leges and majors. At T1, 246 students participated. Three of
these 246 students were older than 30 years of age and excluded
from the study because they cannot be considered late adoles-
cents/emerging adults. Of the remaining 243 students, 167
(69%) participated at both T1 and at T2 and constituted the
focal
18. sample of this study. This sample was 66% female with an age
range from 18 to 26 years (M ¼ 19.21, SD ¼ 2.38). The
majority
of the participants self-identified as Caucasian (71%), 16% as
African American, 5% as Hispanic, Latino, or Mexican
American,
4% as Asian American, and 4% self-identified as other. Of the
par-
ticipants, 138 (83%) were freshmen students, 22 were sopho-
mores, 5 were juniors, and 2 were seniors.
Approval for the study was obtained from the Institutional
Review Board and participants received extra course credit.
Participants responded on a scantron sheet to a written survey
containing questions relevant to the study measures and demo-
graphic information.
A logistic regression analysis was performed to test if sample
attrition (dummy coded as drop-out ¼ 0 and retention ¼ 1) was
predicted by age, gender (dummy coded as male ¼ 1 and female
¼ 2), and all study variables at Time 1 (T1). Neither age nor
gender
in Step 1 predicted attrition, �2(2) ¼ 4.90, p ¼ .09. The study
vari-
ables on Step 2 did add to the multivariate prediction of
retention,
�2(6) ¼ 13.96, p ¼ .03. However, only level of self-esteem
uniquely predicted attrition (OR ¼ 2.06, p ¼ .003): Students
who
19. participated at both waves had significantly higher levels of
self-
esteem at the onset of the study (M ¼ 3.30; SD ¼ 0.60)
compared
to those who dropped out (M ¼ 3.02; SD ¼ 0.64). Nonetheless,
a
direct comparison of the correlation matrices of the study
variables
at T1 revealed no significant differences between students who
par-
ticipated twice and students who participated only at T1, �
2
(21) ¼
23.82; p ¼ 0.31.
Measures
Identity-processing styles. Participants were administered the
most
recent version of the Identity Style Inventory (ISI-5), which was
revised and validated by Berzonsky et al. (2013). Berzonsky and
colleagues (2013) established the internal structure of the scales
(via exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses) as well as
their validity. Items are rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1
(not at all like me) to 5 (very much like me). Sample items
include: ‘I handle problems in my life by actively reflecting on
20. them’ for the 9-item informational scale (coefficient alpha was
.73 at Time 1; .74; at Time 2); ‘I think it is better to adopt a
firm
set of beliefs than to be open-minded,’ for the 9-item normative
scale (coefficient alpha was .71 at Time 1; .77; at Time 2); and
‘Who I am changes from situation to situation,’ for the 9-item
diffuse-avoidant scale (coefficient alpha was .83 at Time 1;
.88; at Time 2).
Global self-esteem. Level of global self-esteem was assessed
with
the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES: Rosenberg, 1965). The
RSES contains 10 items that participants responded to on a
4-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly
agree). A sample item is: ‘At times I think I am no good at all’
(reverse scored). Coefficient alpha was .87 at Time 1 and .86 at
Time 2.
Contingent self-esteem. Contingent self-esteem was measured
with
the 15-item Contingent Self-esteem Scale (CSS) developed by
Paradise and Kernis (1999). A sample item is: ‘An important
mea-
21. sure of my worth is how competently I perform.’ Items were
rated
on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (very
much
like me). Evidence for the convergent validity of scores on the
scale
is provided by Heppner and Kernis (2011; see also Kernis et al.,
2008). Alpha coefficient was .79 at both Times 1 and 2.
Strength of identity commitment. The commitment scale from
the
ISI-5 (Berzonsky et al., 2013) was used to measure the
participants’
strength of identity commitment. Participants rated the nine
items
(e.g., ‘I know basically what I believe and don’t believe’) on a
5-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (very much
like
me). Data relevant to the reliability and convergent validity of
scores on the scale is provided in Berzonsky et al. (2013).
Alpha
coefficients in the current study were .80 and .81 at Times 1 &
2,
respectively.
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Results
Descriptive statistics and correlations
Means and standard deviations are shown in Table 1. To
examine
gender and age differences, we performed a MANOVA with
gender
as a fixed factor, with age as a covariate and with each of the
study
variables as the dependent variables. Whereas gender had a
signif-
icant multivariate effect on the study variables, Wilk’s Lambda
¼
0.78; F(12, 143) ¼ 3.35, p < .001, age did not, Wilk’s Lambda
¼
0.93; F(12, 143) ¼ 0.89, p ¼ .56. Univariate ANOVAs showed
that
gender was related to a diffuse-avoidant style at T1, F(1, 154) ¼
10.67; p < .001; �2 ¼ .07, and T2, F(1, 154) ¼ 7.65; p < .001;
�2 ¼ .05, to strength of commitment at T1, F(1, 154) ¼ 9.65;
p < .001; �
23. 2 ¼ .06) and T2, F (1, 154) ¼ 28.62; p < .001;
�2 ¼ .16, and to self-esteem at T2, F(1, 154) ¼ 7.95; p < .001;
�2 ¼ .05. At both T1 and T2, female participants scored lower
on
a diffuse-avoidant style (M ¼ 2.01; SD ¼ 0.73 and M ¼ 2.08;
SD
¼ 0.75, respectively) than male participants (M ¼ 2.44; SD ¼
0.70 and M ¼ 2.44; SD ¼ 0.88, respectively). Also, at both
waves
females scored higher on strength of commitment (M ¼ 4.17;
SD ¼
0.65 and M ¼ 4.22; SD ¼ 0.59, respectively) than males (M ¼
3.78;
SD ¼ 0.68 and M ¼ 3.68; SD ¼ 0.60, respectively). At T2 only
and unexpectedly, female participants scored higher on self-
esteem (M ¼ 3.39; SD ¼0.53) than male participants (M ¼ 3.11;
SD ¼ 0.68). Given these findings, it was decided to statistically
control for gender in the main analyses.
The correlations in Table 1 show that each of the constructs
displayed significant stability from T1 to T2. While the rank-
order stability of most constructs was moderate to high (i.e., in
the
range between .50 and .70; Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000) and
comparable with stability coefficients obtained in previous
research (e.g., Duriez et al., 2012; Luyckx, Lens, Smits, &
Goos-
sens, 2010), the stability of an informational style was lower
24. com-
pared to coefficients obtained in previous longitudinal studies.
1
An information-oriented style at T1 was related positively to
com-
mitment and level of self-esteem both at T1 and T2. It was unre-
lated to contingent self-esteem within each of the waves. A
normative style at T1 was related positively to commitment and
level of self-esteem at T1 only. It was related positively to
contin-
gent self-esteem at both T1 and T2. A diffuse-avoidant style at
T1
Time 2Time 1
Information-oriented style
Normative style
Diffuse-avoidant style
Commitment
Level of self-esteem
Contingent self-esteem
Information-oriented style
25. Normative style
Diffuse-avoidant style
Commitment
Level of self-esteem
Contingent self-esteem
Figure 1. Conceptual model guiding the study hypotheses.
Note. Full lines represent stability coefficients. Dotted lines
represent cross-lagged effects of the identity styles on the self-
esteem variable. Dashed lines
represent cross-lagged effects of the self-esteem variables on
the identity styles.
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was related negatively to commitment and level of self-esteem
at
both T1 and T2. It was related positively to contingent self-
esteem
at both T1 and T2.
Primary analyses
26. Structural equation modeling (SEM) with latent variables was
used
to examine the main hypotheses. Analysis of the covariance
matrices was conducted using LISREL 8.54 (Jöreskog &
Sörbom,
1996) and solutions were generated using maximum-likelihood
estimation. Each of the constructs was modeled as a latent
factor
with three indicators, that is, three randomly computed parcels
(Marsh, Hau, Balla, & Grayson, 1998). To control for gender,
each
of the indicators was regressed on gender and the
unstandardized
residuals of these regression analyses were used as indicators
for
the latent variables.
Data screening of the indicator variables indicated partial
non-normality (i.e., skewness and kurtosis) at the univariate and
multivariate level. Therefore, in all models we used the
asymptotic
covariance matrix between the indicators as input and inspected
the
27. Satorra-Bentler Scaled chi-square (SBS-�2, Satorra & Bentler,
1994). To evaluate model goodness of fit, the Comparative Fit
Index (CFI) and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
(RMSEA) were selected. According to Hu and Bentler (1999),
combined cut-off values close to .95 for CFI and .06 for
RMSEA
indicate adequate model fit. SEM-modeling proceeded in two
steps.
First, we evaluated the quality of the measurement model (i.e.,
the
relations between indicators and latent constructs) and we tested
the
assumption of longitudinal invariance through Confirmatory
Factor
Analysis (CFA). We only tested for weak invariance (i.e., invar-
iance of the factor loadings across waves) and not for stronger
forms of invariance (e.g., scalar invariance) because we did not
intend to perform a mean-level comparison of the latent
constructs
between waves. Second, having established an appropriately
fitting
measurement model, we estimated structural models testing the
28. hypothesized relations between the latent variables.
Measurement model. The measurement model included 12 latent
variables (information-oriented style, normative style, diffuse-
avoidant style, commitment, level of self-esteem, and
contingent
self-esteem, with each of these variables being assessed twice)
and
36 indicators. In an initial estimation of the measurement
model,
the loadings of the indicators were allowed to vary between the
two
measurement points. Also, the measurement errors of the same
indicators at different measurement points were allowed to
covary
(Burkholder & Harlow, 2003). This model showed adequate fit
to
the data, SBS-�
2
(510) ¼ 709.24, p < .001; CFI ¼ 0.97; RMSEA
¼ .05. Next, a model was estimated in which the factor loadings
were set equivalent across the two measurement points, SBS-
�
2
(528) ¼ 731.78, p < .001; CFI ¼ 0.97; RMSEA ¼ .05. The fit
29. of this model was not significantly worse compared to the
model
with freely varying factor loadings, �SBS-�2(18) ¼ 22.71,
p ¼ .20; �CFI ¼ .002; �RMSEA < .001, indicating that the
mea-
surement model was equivalent across measurement waves.
More-
over, all constrained factor loadings were highly significant
(p < .001), ranging from .51 to .95 (mean lambda ¼ .77). In
sum,
evidence was obtained for a reliable and longitudinally
invariant
measurement model.
Structural model. The structural model tested was a full cross-
lagged model including (a) autoregressive effects (i.e., stability
coefficients) for all constructs, (b) within-time correlations
between
all variables, and (c) cross-lagged paths between the identity
styles
and the self-esteem variables and vice versa. In order not to
exam-
ine our hypotheses in an overly conservative fashion, we
initially
tested a structural model without strength of commitment
included.
30. As shown in Table 1, there were moderate to strong correlations
between commitment and the other study variables. By
controlling
for the variance shared between commitment and the other study
variables already in the initial models, meaningful associations
among the study variables could remain undetected. The initial
model without commitment had an adequate fit, SBS-�2(363) ¼
491.43, p < .001; CFI ¼ 0.97; RMSEA ¼ .05. The coefficients
of
this model are provided in Table 2 (left column). As can be
seen,
an information-oriented style did not predict changes in the
self-
esteem variables. Yet, increases in an information-oriented style
were predicted by high contingent self-esteem at T1. The model
also showed reciprocal associations between a normative style
and
contingent self-esteem. A normative style at T1 predicted
increases
in contingent self-esteem and contingent self-esteem at T1
Table 1. Means, standard deviations, and correlations among
study variables.
31. Variable 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
1. Gender
2. Informational style T1 .15
3. Normative style T1 .07 .17*
4. Diffuse-avoidant style T1 �.28** �.27** .07
5. Commitment T1 .30** .27** .21** �.63**
6. Level of self-esteem T1 .19* .29** .18* �.42** .44**
7. Contingent self-esteem T1 .05 .12 .27** .34** �.15* �.24**
8. Informational style T2 .09 .34** .00 �.17* .21** .14 .16*
9. Normative style T2 �.02 .12 .63** .19* .07 .04 .30** .03
10. Diffuse-avoidant style T2 �.20** �.22** .14 .53** �.40**
�.40** .16* �.28** .36**
11. Commitment T2 .42** .17* .13 �.39** .55** .50** �.07
.27** �.02 �.64**
12. Level of self-esteem T2 .26** .18* .05 �.28** .35** .61**
�.18* .13 �.08 �.44** .61**
13. Contingent self-esteem T2 �.03 .05 .22** .33** �.13
�.24** .67** .14 .26** .24** �.16* �.32**
M – 3.82 3.00 2.16 4.01 3.30 3.11 3.83 3.08 2.23 4.02 3.28 3.10
SD – 0.57 0.59 0.76 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.56 0.63 0.83 0.67 0.59
0.56
Note. Gender was coded as follows: 1 ¼ male, 2 ¼ female. The
potential range of all other variables is between 1 and 5.
Analyses are based on 167 participants. Due to
missing values on some of the variables, the ns varied between
165 and 167. *p � .05; **p < .01.
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predicted increases in a normative style. Finally, a diffuse-
avoidant
style did not predict changes in the self-esteem variables. Yet,
increases in a diffuse-avoidant style were predicted by low self-
esteem at T1.
Next, we estimated a second model in which we controlled for
strength of commitment by allowing commitment and the
identity
styles to be correlated within each of the waves and by
including
cross-lagged paths from commitment to the self-esteem
variables
(and vice versa). This model yielded adequate fit, SBS-�2(536)
¼
757.76, p < .001; CFI ¼ 0.97; RMSEA ¼ .05. Results were gen-
erally similar to the findings obtained in the model without
com-
mitment, with the following exceptions: (a) the path from a
normative style to increases in contingent self-esteem was no
lon-
33. ger significant, (b) a significant path showed up between a
norma-
tive style at T1 and decreases in level of self-esteem, and (c) a
significant path showed up between a diffuse-avoidant style and
increases in contingent self-esteem. Although not central to the
present study’s hypotheses, this model also showed that level of
self-esteem predicted increases in commitment (but not the
other
way around).
Moderation by gender. To examine whether gender plays a mod-
erating role in the structural associations between the study
vari-
ables, we performed a multigroup analysis. This multigroup
analysis was performed with manifest variables rather than with
latent variables because the number of parameters to be esti-
mated in a multigroup model with latent variables exceeded the
number of participants, resulting in a non-converging solution.
Specifically, we compared a constrained model (in which asso-
ciations between the variables were equivalent across gender)
and an unconstrained model (in which associations were esti-
34. mated freely and were allowed to vary by gender). The uncon-
strained model did not have a better fit than the constrained
model, �X2(22) ¼ 22.71, p ¼ .42; �CFI < .001; �RMSEA <
.001, showing that gender did not moderate the structural asso-
ciations in the model.
Ancillary analyses
Whereas we anticipated that contingent self-esteem would
predict
increases in a normative style, we did not expect that it would
also
predict increases in an information-oriented style. To gain
insight in
this unexpected finding, we performed a number of exploratory
additional analyses. Inspection of the items from the contingent
self-esteem scale revealed that some items reflected the extent
to
which self-esteem depends on social standards and expectations
regarding physical attractiveness (e.g., ‘My overall feelings
about
myself are heavily influenced by what I believe other people are
saying or thinking about me’) whereas other items reflected the
35. extent to which self-esteem depends on personal standards (e.g.,
‘A big determinant of how much I like myself is how well I
perform
up to the standards that I have set for myself’). This distinction
seemed potentially relevant for the distinction between the
information-oriented and normative styles because it has been
argued and found that individuals high on an information-
oriented style attach importance to personal attributes to define
their identity and that individuals high on a normative style
attach
importance to expectations and standards endorsed by close
others
or even at the societal level (such as physical attractiveness)
(e.g.,
Table 2. Path coefficients in the longitudinal structural model
estimating stability and cross-lagged paths from T1 to T2.
Without control for commitment With control for commitment
Stability coefficients between T1 and T2
Information-oriented .28 [.14, .43]*** .30 [.15, .45]***
Normative .65 [.48, .83]*** .66 [.49, .83]***
Diffuse-avoidant .54 [.35, .74]*** .57 [.40, .74]***
37. .12]
Level of self-esteem -> Diffuse-avoidant �.21 [�.36, �.06]**
�.20 [�.35, �.05]**
Level of self-esteem -> Commitment .32 [.17, .47]***
Note. Coefficients shown are unstandardized coefficients.
Coefficients between brackets are lower and upper values of
95% confidence intervals. Analyses are based on
165 participants. þp < .10; *p � .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
6 International Journal of Behavioral Development
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Berzonsky, 2011). Because a diffuse-avoidant identity style also
had a longitudinal effect on contingent self-esteem (although
only
when controlling for commitment; see Table 2), we also
explored
associations between a diffuse-avoidant style and the two types
of contingent self-esteem. It was expected that a diffuse-
avoidant
style would relate primarily to self-esteem contingent upon
social
expectations because individuals with a diffuse-avoidant style
are
38. said to direct their behavior and identity choices on the basis of
external and situational demands (Berzonsky, 2011).
We created separate scores for social contingent self-esteem (7
items; Cronbach’s alpha ¼ .80 at T1 and .82 at T2) and personal
contingent self-esteem (3 items; Cronbach’s alpha ¼ .56 at T1
and
.63 at T2).
2
Clearly, the modest reliability of the personal contin-
gent self-esteem scale had to do with the small number of items
included. All items had item-total correlations > .30. Then we
com-
puted correlations between these two new subscales and the
identity
styles. A differentiated pattern of associations emerged, with an
information-oriented style being related exclusively to personal
contingent self-esteem. An information-oriented style at T1 was
related positively to personal contingent self-esteem at T1 and
T2
(r ¼ .32; p < .001 and r ¼ .25; p < .001, respectively).
Similarly,
an information-oriented style at T2 was related positively to
per-
39. sonal contingent self-esteem at T1 and T2 (r ¼ .25; p < .001 and
r ¼ .38; p < .001, respectively). None of the correlations
between
an information-oriented style and social contingent self-esteem
reached significance (all ps > .05). A normative style was
related almost exclusively to social contingent self-esteem. A
normative style at T1 was related positively to social contingent
self-esteem at T1 and T2 (r ¼ .29; p < .001 and r ¼ .25; p <
.001, respectively). Similarly, a normative style at T2 was
related positively to social contingent self-esteem at T1 and
T2 (r ¼ .37; p < .001 and r ¼ .36; p < .001, respectively). None
of the correlations between a normative style and personal
contin-
gent self-esteem reached significance, with one exception, that
is, a
correlation between normative style T2 and personal contingent
self-esteem T1 (r ¼ .25; p < .001). Finally, a diffuse-avoidant
style
was related exclusively to social contingent self-esteem. A
diffuse-avoidant style at T1 was related positively to social
contin-
gent self-esteem at T1 and T2 (r ¼ .37; p < .001 and r ¼ .36; p
<
.001, respectively). Similarly, a diffuse-avoidant style at T2
40. was related positively to social contingent self-esteem at T1 and
T2 (r ¼ .25; p < .001 and r ¼ .40; p < .001, respectively). None
of the
correlations between a diffuse-avoidant style and personal
contingent
self-esteem reached significance.
Overall, these exploratory ancillary analyses suggest that, while
an information-oriented style is related uniquely to personal
contin-
gent self-esteem, a normative style and a diffuse-avoidant style
are
related primarily to social contingent self-esteem.
Discussion
Research on identity and self-esteem has focused primarily on
the
role of identity commitment at the expense of self-exploration.
This longitudinal study aimed to examine dynamics of identity
exploration, as operationalized by Berzonsky’s (2011) model of
identity processing styles, and differences in the fragility and
level of self-esteem. Each of the three identity styles was
related
41. to a relatively unique and in some cases unexpected pattern of
longitudinal associations with level of self-esteem and
contingent
self-esteem.
Self-esteem and an informational identity style
Consistent with previous studies (e.g., Beaumont & Zukanovic,
2005; Crocetti et al., 2009), at the cross-sectional level we
found
positive associations between an informational style and level
of
self-esteem. Contrary to prediction, at the longitudinal level
informational-style scores did not significantly predict changes
in
level of self-esteem. However, we found a marginally
significant
effect of level of self-esteem on increases in informational
scores,
which was not affected by strength of commitment. Although
this
finding should be interpreted with caution, it may suggest that
the
more people feel self-worthy, the more likely they are to
possess the
42. confidence and personal resources to engage deliberately in a
thor-
ough exploration of identity-relevant information. If this
finding is
reliable, it suggests that associations between an informational
style
and self-esteem may need to be interpreted in a different
direction
than is usually done in cross-sectional studies.
Unexpectedly, an informational style was predicted by changes
in contingent self-esteem. Although this finding was not
hypothe-
sized, it does comport with previous research suggesting that an
informational style may not always be autonomous regulated but
may also reflect controlled functioning. For instance, Soenens
et al. (2011) found that an informational style was associated
with
both autonomous and controlled reasons for adopting identity
com-
mitments. The current findings are consistent with this finding
because contingent self-esteem represents a controlled type of
func-
43. tioning (Deci & Ryan, 1995).
A more detailed analysis of the association between contingent
self-esteem and an informational style revealed that the
association
was driven uniquely by items reflecting self-esteem contingent
upon personal standards. In contrast, a normative style was
related
mainly to items reflecting self-esteem contingent upon social
stan-
dards. People high on social contingent self-esteem may be rela-
tively more alienated from personally endorsed preferences and
values (e.g., Crocker & Knight, 2005). Accordingly, this finding
suggests that the personal type of contingent self-esteem
associated
with an informational style may be relatively more benign and
per-
haps adaptive than the social type of contingent self-esteem
associ-
ated with a normative style. The association between personal
contingent self-esteem and an informational style indicates that
a
44. mentally effortful evaluation of identity-relevant options may
be
driven by a desire to achieve and maintain feelings of self-
worth
by accomplishing personal goals. The negative affect
experienced
when their performance fails to meet their personal standards
might
reflect an adaptive type of guilt that motivates efforts to resolve
the problem (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996). Indeed, Lutwak,
Ferrari, and Cheek (1998) found that an informational style was
positively associated with adaptive guilt as measured by the
Test
of Self-Conscious Affect, which is positively associated with
empa-
thy, perspective taking, and informed, constructive efforts to
engage in corrective actions (Tangney, Wagner, Hill-Barlow,
Marschall, & Gramzow, 1996).
Alternatively, the failure to meet personal standards may trig-
ger needs other than enhancing self-esteem. For example, a
num-
ber of personality theories (e.g., Kelly, 1955; Epstein, 1990)
45. postulate that people have a need to maintain a coherent and
per-
sonally meaningful conceptual system about themselves and the
world within which they live. Actions that violate or fall short
of personal standards may create a state of cognitive dissonance
that prompts open, informed efforts to resolve the problem or
accommodate and revise self-views. Hence, the items about
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personal standards on the Paradise and Kernis (1999) measure
may reflect concerns about self-evaluation that prompt informed
efforts to resolve self-contradictions and obtain a more accurate
understanding of oneself, rather than self-enhancement. Given
the
exploratory nature of these findings, additional research is
needed
to replicate and examine in greater detail the meaning of this
46. association.
Self-esteem and the normative identity style
The hypothesized associations between a normative style and
con-
tingent self-esteem were largely confirmed. Although we
initially
found evidence for reciprocal associations across time between
a
normative style and contingent self-esteem, the path from a nor-
mative style to contingent self-esteem was no longer significant
when the effect of commitment was controlled. The adoption of
normative standards in a relatively automatic fashion may be an
effort to cope with uncertainty provoked by fragile, contingent
self-esteem. Consequently, individuals with high normative
scores may easily be threatened by feedback signaling failure to
achieve these standards or by information calling into question
the
value of the standards (Kernis et al., 2008). The finding that
adoption of a normative style might be driven by contingent
self-esteem may explain why a normative style has been found
47. to relate to defensiveness and rigidity, confirmation-biased rea-
soning, intolerance for ambiguity, need for closure, reality-
distorting defense mechanisms, and prejudice and right-wing
authoritarianism (Berzonsky, 2011; Soenens et al., 2005). These
correlates of a normative style can perhaps be understood as
attempts to protect underlying fragile feelings of self-worth.
Research has shown that self-esteem contingent on external and
social standards is detrimental to goal pursuit, social
adjustment,
and personal well-being (e.g., Crocker & Knight, 2005; Park &
Crocker, 2008). Indeed, evidence indicates that a normative
style
is related to social maladjustment, as manifested in low
empathy
(Soenens et al., 2005) and low levels of interpersonal intimacy
(Berzonsky & Kuk, 2005). Interestingly, cross-sectional
research
shows that individuals high on a normative style typically fare
rel-
atively well in terms of personal well-being (Berzonsky, 2011).
Possibly, the vulnerability of individuals with a normative style
48. is
visible only when they are confronted with setbacks or threats
to
their belief system.
Also, it could be the case that the well-being costs associated
with social contingent self-esteem and a normative style only
show
up across time. For example, a normative style was found to
predict
decreases in level of self-esteem, although this finding occurred
only when controlling for commitment. Although individuals
high
on a normative style report average or even high levels of self-
worth at any given point in time (e.g., Beaumont & Zukanovic,
2005), they appear to experience decreases in levels of self-
esteem across time. It is interesting to note that this effect
showed
up only after controlling for the variance shared between a
norma-
tive style and commitment, suggesting that the self-esteem of
peo-
ple with high normative scores is buttressed by the
49. commitments
they have internalized. When a normative style is stripped of its
main strength (i.e., high levels of commitment), the underlying
vul-
nerability comes to the surface. Research is needed to further
exam-
ine the possibility that a normative style only has a well-being
cost
across time and under conditions where previously held commit-
ments are challenged.
Self-esteem and the diffuse-avoidant identity style
We had predicted associations between a diffuse-avoidant style
and low levels of self-esteem. The findings confirmed these
neg-
ative associations both at the cross-sectional and longitudinal
level. Surprisingly, the longitudinal analyses showed that low
lev-
els of self-esteem were predictive of diffuse-avoidant scores but
not the other way around. These findings suggest that the
adoption
of a diffuse-avoidant style may be rooted in a lack of
confidence
50. and a limited appreciation for one’s value as a person. The more
unworthy people feel about themselves, the more they appear to
increasingly procrastinate and avoid actively dealing with
identity-relevant conflicts and decisions. Instead, they are likely
to let their direction in life depend on situational cues (such as
hedonic pleasure; Berzonsky et al., 2011).
We did not formulate a strong hypothesis about the association
between a diffuse-avoidant style and contingent self-esteem.
Indi-
viduals with high diffuse-avoidant style scores are
hypersensitive
to external (social) demands and incentives and their self-worth
may be contingent on the attainment of those standards.
However,
their standards and commitments might be too weak and
precarious
to provide a solid foundation on which they can base their self-
esteem. Testifying to the complexity of this association, an
associ-
ation between a diffuse-avoidant style and contingent self-
esteem
51. only was found when the lack of (and possibly volatility of
commit-
ments) was held constant. To the extent that people have
average
and at least moderately stable levels of commitment, the
adoption
of a diffuse-avoidant style would give rise to contingent self-
worth. Follow-up analyses showed that a diffuse-avoidant style
is
related primarily to self-esteem that is contingent upon the
attain-
ment of social and external standards. This finding is consistent
with the notion that individuals with a diffuse-avoidant style are
highly sensitive to external demands and incentives (Berzonsky,
2011). Future research including a more direct assessment of
com-
mitment stability may examine whether a diffuse-avoidant style
is
only related to contingent self-esteem when identity
commitments
are at least moderately stable.
Gender differences
52. Because there were mean-level gender differences on some of
the
variables being investigated, we conducted a multigroup
analysis
to evaluate the possibility that gender moderated the structural
rela-
tionships between the variables. The analysis revealed the
relation-
ships were not moderated by gender. This finding is consistent
with
previous research on identity processing styles (see Berzonsky,
2011). For instance, Berzonsky and Cieciuch (2014)
investigated
relationships between identity styles, identity commitment, and
six
dimensions of psychological well-being (i.e., autonomy, life
pur-
pose, mastery, personal growth, positive relations with others,
and
self-acceptance). The pattern of structural relationships was not
moderated by the gender of the participants. Consequently, it
appears as associations between identity styles, identity
commit-
53. ment, and measures of well-being may be similar for male and
female participants.
Limitations
A first limitation was the relatively small sample, which may
have
limited the statistical power to detect significant effects. A
number
of theoretically expected associations were only marginally
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significant, suggesting that they might become significant in
larger
samples. The limited sample size also prevented us from
examining
in greater depth differences and similarities in the cross-lagged
effects between freshmen students and non-freshmen students.
3
Second, we cannot generalize the current findings to samples
that
54. are more heterogeneous in terms of socio-economic background,
educational level, and ethnicity. Research on identity styles and
self-esteem needs to be conducted on larger, more
representative,
and more diverse samples before generalizable conclusions can
be made and before practical recommendations can be
formulated.
Third, although the longitudinal design of the study was a
strength,
future longitudinal research, including more than 2 waves of
assess-
ment with longer intervals between waves, may enable
researchers
to better examine reciprocal dynamics and long-term effects of
identity styles and self-esteem. This would be important also to
obtain a more dynamic picture of the interplay between identity
commitment and exploration processes which, in the current
study, were examined in a relatively static fashion because of
the
2-wave design. Fourth, the drop-out analyses showed that the
par-
55. ticipants scored higher on self-esteem than the dropouts at T1.
Because participants had relatively high levels of self-esteem to
begin with, there may have been less room for change in self-
esteem in our sample. As such, the selective nature of the
subsam-
ple of individuals who participated twice may have led to an
underestimation of the effects involved in level of self-esteem.
Fifth, all study variables were measured through self-report.
Although this approach is logical given that all study variables
reflect intra-individual preferences and experiences, it would be
interesting to corroborate our findings using other sources of
information such as peer or parent reports of self-esteem.
Finally,
the ancillary analyses performed on the contingent self-esteem
scale were explorative in nature and need to be replicated in
future
studies. Preferably those studies will use more elaborated mea-
sures of contingent self-esteem tapping into various domains
and
facets of the construct.
56. Conclusion
Testifying to the importance of identity exploration in dynamics
of self-esteem, this study showed that each of Berzonsky’s iden-
tity styles was related to a different pattern of associations with
global and contingent self-esteem, even when controlling for
com-
mitment. Overall, we found more evidence for effects of self-
esteem variables on identity styles than for effects in the
opposite
direction. This is interesting because most cross-sectional
studies
to date have modeled identity styles as predictors of self-
esteem.
The current findings suggest that, by late adolescence–early
adult-
hood, features of self-esteem have become relatively more
stable
than identity styles and are influencing identity styles rather
than
being influenced by them. Importantly, these findings do not
imply that a similar direction of effects would also be obtained
in earlier developmental periods. For instance, during early ado-
57. lescence, a developmental period where identity styles are
already
relevant for psychosocial adjustment (Berzonsky, Branje, &
Meeus, 2007), self-esteem might be relatively more susceptible
to change (Wigfield, Eccles, Mac Iver, Reuman, & Midgley,
1991) and might be affected more strongly by identity styles
com-
pared to late adolescence. Future longitudinal research is
needed
to confirm the present findings and to extend these findings to
other developmental periods.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.
Notes
1. To gain more insight in the low stability of an information-
oriented style, we examined whether the stability coefficient
of this style depended on participants’ grade level at university.
If, as argued in the introduction, freshmen students experience
58. most changes and challenges because they are in a phase of
tran-
sition, one might expect the stability in an information-oriented
style to be lowest among freshmen students. Consistent with
this
reasoning, we found that the stability of an information-oriented
style in the subsample of freshmen (n ¼ 138, r ¼ .32) was
some-
what lower than in the subsample of the other students (sopho-
mores, juniors, and seniors, n ¼ 29, r ¼ .42). It should be
noted, however, that this difference was not statistically signif-
icant, which is probably due to the small sample size of the
non-freshmen group.
2. This distinction was supported by a Principal Components
Anal-
ysis, the results of which can be obtained from the authors upon
request.
3. Although the lack of statistical power did not allow us to
com-
pare the full cross-lagged model between freshmen and non-
freshmen, we performed a number of additional analyses to
59. examine the degree of equivalence between both subsamples.
First, we examined the rank-order stability of all study variables
in both subsamples. While there was a tendency for most rank-
order stability coefficients to be lower in the freshmen sample
(compared to the non-freshmen sample), the difference was sig-
nificant only for a diffuse-avoidant identity style, which was
more stable in the non-freshmen sample compared to the fresh-
men sample. Second, we addressed the degree of equivalence
between both subsamples by examining potential differences
in mean-level change in each of the study variables. A repeated
measures MANOVA with time as a within-subjects IV and with
subsample as a between-subjects IV and moderator of the effect
of time showed that neither time, Wilks’ Lambda ¼ 0.99,
F(6, 157) ¼ 0.40, p ¼ .88, nor subsample, Wilks’ Lambda ¼
0.94, F(6, 157) ¼ 1.60, p ¼ .15, nor the interaction between
time
and subsample, Wilks’ Lambda ¼ 0.96, F(6, 157) ¼ 1.02,
p ¼ .42, had an overall multivariate effect. In a final analysis,
we directly compared the correlation matrices of all study vari-
ables at both time points between the two subsamples. This
anal-
ysis showed that both correlation matrices were not statistically
60. different, �2(78) ¼ 82.22; p ¼ 0.35. Together, these additional
analyses suggest that there were some differences between both
subsamples, with the study variables being somewhat more open
to change during the freshman year. However, these differences
were relatively small and overall the analyses provided more
evidence for similarities than for differences between the two
subsamples.
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