This study examined attachment behavior in dogs using a modified version of Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test. Fifty-one owner-dog pairs were observed in different conditions involving separation from and reunion with the owner. The results demonstrated that dogs display patterns of attachment behavior toward their owners, with some dogs showing more secure attachment and others showing insecure attachment. Dogs were also classified into five categories of attachment security, similar to Ainsworth's original categories for human infants. This suggests dogs form attachments to humans in an analogous way to how children form attachments to caregivers.
This document summarizes research on the connection between attachment to pets and interpersonal relationships. It finds that:
1) Dog owners showed higher levels of attachment to their pets than cat owners, as measured by scales focused on activities like training and grooming pets. However, when considering emotional intimacy alone, there were no differences between cat and dog owners.
2) Women generally reported higher levels of attachment to pets than men.
3) While pets can provide companionship, the research found mixed results on whether strong attachment to pets is associated with less social support from humans. Pets may facilitate social interactions for their owners but could also be a substitute for lack of human relationships.
4) Some research suggests that attachment
This study investigated whether cooperation during predator inspection forms a behavioral syndrome with traits like exploration, boldness, activity, and sociability in guppies. The researcher predicted these behaviors would form a syndrome and that more cooperative individuals would be more explorative, bold, active, and affiliative. The results partially supported this, suggesting bolder individuals are more likely to cooperate during predator inspection. Possible explanations in terms of life history strategies and behavioral mechanisms are discussed, with considerations for ecological and evolutionary effects.
A Comparison Of Attachment Theory And Individual Psychology A Review Of The ...Scott Faria
- Both attachment theory and Individual Psychology include a coherent and stable view of the self and the world, and acknowledge the importance of social interaction for expressing these patterns.
- Attachment theory proposes that the quality of care an infant receives determines the quality of the attachment relationship and can mitigate potential developmental difficulties. There are secure and insecure attachment styles.
- Individual Psychology and attachment theory have similarities but have not been systematically blended on a large scale before. The article aims to outline the major tenets of both theories and argue that elements are similar.
This research studied personality judgments of both dogs and their human owners using parallel procedures to directly compare the two species. Owners provided personality ratings of their dogs and themselves, and another familiar judge ("peer") also rated both. Results showed that personality judgments of dogs were as accurate as those of humans based on three criteria: internal consistency, consensus between raters, and predicting independent behavioral observations. This provides evidence that personality differences exist and can be measured in non-human animals like dogs, consistent with evolutionary continuity between species. The study demonstrated a new cross-species comparative approach for systematically evaluating personality judgments in animals.
Alternative Personality Psychology TheoriesLily Yuan
This document summarizes several alternative theories in personality psychology, including positive psychology, alternative five factor models, social-cognitive theories, humanism, self-theory, psychodynamic theory, behavioral theory, behavioral epigenetics, and evolutionary psychology. Positive psychology focuses on character strengths and flourishing. Social-cognitive theory examines how social learning and personal variables influence behavior. Humanism emphasizes self-actualization and esteem needs. Evolutionary psychology analyzes adaptive pressures and temperaments.
This study examined whether individual differences in infant temperament, as assessed in a biobehavioral assessment between 3-4 months of age, predicted the formation of affiliative relationships in 57 rhesus macaque yearlings. The researchers observed the yearlings over a 10-week period to record affiliative behaviors like proximity, play, contact and grooming. They found that yearlings who had scored high on "equability" as infants, indicating calmness and low activity, had fewer peer relationships. Yearlings also preferentially affiliated with peers who had similar scores on equability and adaptability from the infant assessment. Even after controlling for factors like kinship, rank and sex, infant temperament remained a significant predictor of variation
This document discusses addiction and attachment theory. It begins by defining addiction and describing various psychological theories that attempt to explain it. It then introduces attachment theory as an approach that has produced significant research in understanding and treating addiction. The paper reviews key aspects of attachment theory including the internal working model, attachment styles in children and adults, and how attachment theory understands addiction as an attempt to regulate affect for those with insecure attachments. It discusses how addiction is treated as an attachment disorder from an attachment theory perspective, focusing on early and later stages of therapy. Finally, it reviews several relevant research studies that examine connections between addiction and attachment.
This document summarizes research on the connection between attachment to pets and interpersonal relationships. It finds that:
1) Dog owners showed higher levels of attachment to their pets than cat owners, as measured by scales focused on activities like training and grooming pets. However, when considering emotional intimacy alone, there were no differences between cat and dog owners.
2) Women generally reported higher levels of attachment to pets than men.
3) While pets can provide companionship, the research found mixed results on whether strong attachment to pets is associated with less social support from humans. Pets may facilitate social interactions for their owners but could also be a substitute for lack of human relationships.
4) Some research suggests that attachment
This study investigated whether cooperation during predator inspection forms a behavioral syndrome with traits like exploration, boldness, activity, and sociability in guppies. The researcher predicted these behaviors would form a syndrome and that more cooperative individuals would be more explorative, bold, active, and affiliative. The results partially supported this, suggesting bolder individuals are more likely to cooperate during predator inspection. Possible explanations in terms of life history strategies and behavioral mechanisms are discussed, with considerations for ecological and evolutionary effects.
A Comparison Of Attachment Theory And Individual Psychology A Review Of The ...Scott Faria
- Both attachment theory and Individual Psychology include a coherent and stable view of the self and the world, and acknowledge the importance of social interaction for expressing these patterns.
- Attachment theory proposes that the quality of care an infant receives determines the quality of the attachment relationship and can mitigate potential developmental difficulties. There are secure and insecure attachment styles.
- Individual Psychology and attachment theory have similarities but have not been systematically blended on a large scale before. The article aims to outline the major tenets of both theories and argue that elements are similar.
This research studied personality judgments of both dogs and their human owners using parallel procedures to directly compare the two species. Owners provided personality ratings of their dogs and themselves, and another familiar judge ("peer") also rated both. Results showed that personality judgments of dogs were as accurate as those of humans based on three criteria: internal consistency, consensus between raters, and predicting independent behavioral observations. This provides evidence that personality differences exist and can be measured in non-human animals like dogs, consistent with evolutionary continuity between species. The study demonstrated a new cross-species comparative approach for systematically evaluating personality judgments in animals.
Alternative Personality Psychology TheoriesLily Yuan
This document summarizes several alternative theories in personality psychology, including positive psychology, alternative five factor models, social-cognitive theories, humanism, self-theory, psychodynamic theory, behavioral theory, behavioral epigenetics, and evolutionary psychology. Positive psychology focuses on character strengths and flourishing. Social-cognitive theory examines how social learning and personal variables influence behavior. Humanism emphasizes self-actualization and esteem needs. Evolutionary psychology analyzes adaptive pressures and temperaments.
This study examined whether individual differences in infant temperament, as assessed in a biobehavioral assessment between 3-4 months of age, predicted the formation of affiliative relationships in 57 rhesus macaque yearlings. The researchers observed the yearlings over a 10-week period to record affiliative behaviors like proximity, play, contact and grooming. They found that yearlings who had scored high on "equability" as infants, indicating calmness and low activity, had fewer peer relationships. Yearlings also preferentially affiliated with peers who had similar scores on equability and adaptability from the infant assessment. Even after controlling for factors like kinship, rank and sex, infant temperament remained a significant predictor of variation
This document discusses addiction and attachment theory. It begins by defining addiction and describing various psychological theories that attempt to explain it. It then introduces attachment theory as an approach that has produced significant research in understanding and treating addiction. The paper reviews key aspects of attachment theory including the internal working model, attachment styles in children and adults, and how attachment theory understands addiction as an attempt to regulate affect for those with insecure attachments. It discusses how addiction is treated as an attachment disorder from an attachment theory perspective, focusing on early and later stages of therapy. Finally, it reviews several relevant research studies that examine connections between addiction and attachment.
Do Chimpanzees Learn Reputation by Observation? Evidence from Direct and Ind...Francys Subiaul
Can chimpanzees learn the reputation of strangers indirectly by observation? Or are such stable behavioral attributions made exclusively by first-person interactions? To address this question, we let seven chimpanzees observe unfamiliar humans either consistently give (generous donor) or refuse to give (selfish donor) food to a familiar human recipient (Exps. 1 and 2) and a conspecific (Exp 3). While chimpanzees did not initially prefer to beg for food from the generous donor (Exp 1), after continued opportunities to observe the same behavioral exchanges, four chimpanzees developed a preference for gesturing to the generous donor (Exp 2), and transferred this preference to novel unfamiliar donor pairs, significantly preferring to beg from the novel generous donors on the first opportunity to do so. In Experiment Three, four chimpanzees observed novel selfish and generous acts directed toward other chimpanzees by human experimenters. During the first half of testing, three chimpanzees exhibited a preference for the novel generous donor on the first trial. These results demonstrate that chimpanzees can infer the reputation of strangers by eavesdropping on third-party interactions.
This document discusses the evolution of moral behavior from a comparative perspective. It argues that studying moral behaviors in non-human primates can provide insights into the biological foundations and evolution of human morality. Specifically, it focuses on four components of morality seen in primates: conflict resolution, reciprocity, reactions to inequity, and empathy. These behaviors represent precursors to human morality and studying them can help us understand how selective pressures shaped moral behaviors over time.
Bowlby's theory of attachment proposes that children form strong attachments to their primary caregivers. Several studies provide support for Bowlby's theory. Tronick found that children in all cultures form attachments, while the Minnesota longitudinal study found early attachments influence later behavior. However, some argue Bowlby underestimated the importance of other attachments like fathers. Alternative theories also suggest a child's temperament influences attachment as much as caregiver responsiveness.
1) The study investigated how priming thoughts of human-animal similarities and reminding people of their own mortality (mortality salience or MS) would affect people's evaluations of companion animals.
2) Participants who owned pets completed an online survey that manipulated thoughts about human-animal similarities (creatureliness) and mortality. They then rated their attitudes toward pets and treating pets like people.
3) Based on prior research showing that reminding people of their creaturely nature and mortality led to more negative attitudes toward animals, the researchers hypothesized that the mortality and creatureliness primes would lead to less favorable evaluations and attitudes toward pets among pet owners.
The document describes a study aiming to construct a pedigree of California ground squirrels to analyze how kinship influences cooperative behaviors. The researcher optimized PCR primers for 11 microsatellite loci to assign parentage and generate genetic data to build the pedigree. Optimized primers from this study will allow future analysis of DNA fragments to determine relatedness between squirrels and elucidate how social behaviors are structured within colonies.
The document discusses several studies related to developmental psychology and attachments:
- Ainsworth & Bell (1971) studied individual differences in infant attachments through observations of their reactions in various situations. They identified secure and insecure attachment types.
- Van Ijzedoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) conducted a meta-analysis finding variations in attachment types across cultures but greater variation within cultures.
- Hodges & Tizard (1989) investigated the effects of privation by comparing children who had been in care to a control group, finding some effects were reversible through adoption.
1) The document discusses social desirability response bias, which is the tendency for people to respond to questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others or society, even if their responses do not fully reflect reality.
2) Past research has found that self-reports of personality and behavior can be influenced by social desirability bias, tending to under-report undesirable qualities. Several studies examined social desirability bias in children's self-reports of aggression.
3) The document reviews methods that have been used to measure and account for social desirability response bias, such as peer reports and observations, which may provide a more accurate perspective than self-reports.
Environmental Ethics Essay. PDF Introduction to Environmental EthicsJenny Reese
⭐ Environmental ethics essay. environment ethics. 2022-10-23. (PDF) Introduction to Environmental Ethics. Environmental ethics essay topics in 2021 | Essay topics, Environmental .... Rolston a new environmental ethics essays. Environmental ethics essay questions: Analysis. (PDF) Environmental Ethics. Environmental Ethics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written .... Environmental Ethics - PHDessay.com. Environmental Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays .... Environmental Ethics: A Very Short Introduction | Oxford University Press. Environmental Ethics: What Really Matters, What Really Works | David .... Environmental ethics project. Important points to emphasize on while working on an environmental .... ≫ Principle and Features of Environmental Ethics Free Essay Sample on ....
John Bowlby developed attachment theory which proposes that secure attachment to caregivers in early childhood is important for child development. There are different styles of attachment including secure, avoidant, ambivalent/resistant, and disorganized. Attachment develops from the child's interactions and relationships with primary caregivers. Responsive caregiving leads to secure attachment while neglect, abuse or inconsistent care can result in insecure attachment styles.
This document provides an overview of attachment theory and its origins. It discusses how John Bowlby developed attachment theory based on his clinical work with children and observations that infants experience distress when separated from their primary caregiver. It describes Bowlby's view that attachment is an evolutionary adaptive mechanism to enhance infant survival. The document summarizes key studies that helped establish attachment theory, including Harlow's experiments demonstrating that infant monkeys form attachments to surrogate mothers based on contact comfort rather than just food provision. It also outlines the stages of attachment identified in Schaffer and Emerson's longitudinal study of infant development.
Carryover effects of joint attention to repeated events in chimpanzees and yo...Francys Subiaul
Gaze following is a fundamental component of triadic social interaction which includes events and an object shared with other
individuals and is found in both human and nonhuman primates. Most previous work has focused only on the immediate reaction
after following another’s gaze. In contrast, this study investigated whether gaze following is retained after the observation of the
other’s gaze shift, whether this retainment differs between species and age groups, and whether the retainment depends on the nature of the preceding events. In the social condition, subjects (1- and 2-year-old human children and chimpanzees) witnessed an experimenter who looked and pointed in the direction of a target lamp. In the physical condition, the target lamp blinked but the experimenter did not provide any cues. After a brief delay, we presented the same stimulus again without any cues. All subjects looked again to the target location after experiencing the social condition and thus showed a carryover effect. However, only 2-year-olds showed a carryover effect in the physical condition; 1-year-olds and chimpanzees did not. Additionally, only human children showed spontaneous interactive actions such as pointing. Our results suggest that the difference between the two age groups and chimpanzees is conceptual and not only quantitative.
This document presents an emerging theory of human relatedness developed through a review of literature and clinical observations. The theory proposes that there are four states of relatedness: connectedness, disconnectedness, parallelism, and enmeshment. Connectedness involves active involvement with others, objects, or environments that promotes comfort. Disconnectedness involves a lack of involvement associated with discomfort. Parallelism involves a lack of involvement experienced as comfortable. Enmeshment involves involvement associated with discomfort. The theory aims to provide a framework for understanding clients' difficulties with relatedness and creating effective interventions.
Attachment And Romantic Relationships The Role Of Working Models Of Self And...Joshua Gorinson
This document summarizes research on attachment theory and its role in romantic relationships. It begins by outlining Bowlby's attachment theory and how it provides a framework for understanding individual differences in romantic relationships. It describes how internal working models of self and other develop from early caregiving experiences and influence how people view themselves and navigate close relationships. The document then reviews research showing links between attachment orientations (anxiety, avoidance, security) and relationship functioning, such as satisfaction, commitment, caregiving. It argues that insecure working models undermine smooth relationships by coloring how people see themselves and others.
Psychology, Trait Theory And The Study Of Human...Lori Gilbert
This document discusses trait theory in psychology, which views personality as consisting of habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. Trait theorists are interested in measuring traits, which can be defined as stable dispositions that differ across individuals and influence behavior. Traits are contrasted with states, which are more transitory dispositions. Some theories view traits as dimensions, with people rated along spectrums like extraversion vs. introversion. The document provides background on early theorists like Gordon Allport and discusses how traits are conceptualized in different theories and systems.
Growing Physical, Social and Cognitive Capacity: Engaging with Natural Environments
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214 ~
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079 ~
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348 ~
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440 ~
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110 ~
This document summarizes research on adult attachment styles and narcissistic vulnerability. It discusses how attachment theory has been applied to adult romantic relationships, identifying secure and insecure attachment categories. Insecure attachments, though appearing different (anxious vs. avoidant), may serve similar functions in managing narcissistic vulnerability. The paper argues that insecure attachments reflect strategies for managing greater levels of narcissistic vulnerability, or fragile self-esteem, than secure attachments.
Introduction Of Report Writing 23 Problem AnalJames Heller
The document discusses the steps to get writing help from HelpWriting.net:
1. Create an account with a password and email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline.
3. Writers will bid on the request and the client can choose a writer based on qualifications.
4. The client receives the paper and can request revisions to ensure satisfaction. HelpWriting.net guarantees original, high-quality work or a full refund.
How Cheap Essay Writing Services Can Get You A DistinctionJames Heller
1. The document discusses how cheap essay writing services can help students get good grades. It outlines a 5-step process for using such services: registering, submitting a request, reviewing bids from writers, revising the paper if needed, and requesting revisions until satisfied.
2. It promises original, high-quality papers and refunds for plagiarized work. Students can use these services confidently to get their needs fully met.
3. The document promotes a cheap essay writing service by claiming it can help students earn distinctions through its 5-step process of submitting requests, reviewing writer bids, revising papers as needed, and requesting revisions until the student is satisfied.
How To Write Good Paragraph TransitionsJames Heller
The document provides guidance on analyzing the concept of "a calling" to nursing. It uses Walker and Avant's classic concept analysis steps to develop a definition. Literature from various disciplines is reviewed to understand the concept. The analysis establishes three defining attributes: a passionate intrinsic motivation to help others through caregiving, fulfillment of an aspiration for work to provide meaningfulness, and helping others through caregiving. Antecedents include personal introspection. Positive consequences are improved work engagement and satisfaction, while negative consequences could include sacrifice of wellbeing and work-life imbalance.
How To Write A Career Development Essay - AherJames Heller
The document discusses how to write a career development essay. It outlines 5 steps: 1) Create an account on the site, 2) Complete an order form providing instructions and deadline, 3) Review bids from writers and choose one, 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment, 5) Request revisions until satisfied. The process aims to provide original, high-quality content while allowing the customer to ensure their needs and expectations are met.
More Related Content
Similar to Attachment Behavior In Dogs (Canis Familiaris ) A New Application Of Ainsworth S (1969) Strange Situation Test
Do Chimpanzees Learn Reputation by Observation? Evidence from Direct and Ind...Francys Subiaul
Can chimpanzees learn the reputation of strangers indirectly by observation? Or are such stable behavioral attributions made exclusively by first-person interactions? To address this question, we let seven chimpanzees observe unfamiliar humans either consistently give (generous donor) or refuse to give (selfish donor) food to a familiar human recipient (Exps. 1 and 2) and a conspecific (Exp 3). While chimpanzees did not initially prefer to beg for food from the generous donor (Exp 1), after continued opportunities to observe the same behavioral exchanges, four chimpanzees developed a preference for gesturing to the generous donor (Exp 2), and transferred this preference to novel unfamiliar donor pairs, significantly preferring to beg from the novel generous donors on the first opportunity to do so. In Experiment Three, four chimpanzees observed novel selfish and generous acts directed toward other chimpanzees by human experimenters. During the first half of testing, three chimpanzees exhibited a preference for the novel generous donor on the first trial. These results demonstrate that chimpanzees can infer the reputation of strangers by eavesdropping on third-party interactions.
This document discusses the evolution of moral behavior from a comparative perspective. It argues that studying moral behaviors in non-human primates can provide insights into the biological foundations and evolution of human morality. Specifically, it focuses on four components of morality seen in primates: conflict resolution, reciprocity, reactions to inequity, and empathy. These behaviors represent precursors to human morality and studying them can help us understand how selective pressures shaped moral behaviors over time.
Bowlby's theory of attachment proposes that children form strong attachments to their primary caregivers. Several studies provide support for Bowlby's theory. Tronick found that children in all cultures form attachments, while the Minnesota longitudinal study found early attachments influence later behavior. However, some argue Bowlby underestimated the importance of other attachments like fathers. Alternative theories also suggest a child's temperament influences attachment as much as caregiver responsiveness.
1) The study investigated how priming thoughts of human-animal similarities and reminding people of their own mortality (mortality salience or MS) would affect people's evaluations of companion animals.
2) Participants who owned pets completed an online survey that manipulated thoughts about human-animal similarities (creatureliness) and mortality. They then rated their attitudes toward pets and treating pets like people.
3) Based on prior research showing that reminding people of their creaturely nature and mortality led to more negative attitudes toward animals, the researchers hypothesized that the mortality and creatureliness primes would lead to less favorable evaluations and attitudes toward pets among pet owners.
The document describes a study aiming to construct a pedigree of California ground squirrels to analyze how kinship influences cooperative behaviors. The researcher optimized PCR primers for 11 microsatellite loci to assign parentage and generate genetic data to build the pedigree. Optimized primers from this study will allow future analysis of DNA fragments to determine relatedness between squirrels and elucidate how social behaviors are structured within colonies.
The document discusses several studies related to developmental psychology and attachments:
- Ainsworth & Bell (1971) studied individual differences in infant attachments through observations of their reactions in various situations. They identified secure and insecure attachment types.
- Van Ijzedoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) conducted a meta-analysis finding variations in attachment types across cultures but greater variation within cultures.
- Hodges & Tizard (1989) investigated the effects of privation by comparing children who had been in care to a control group, finding some effects were reversible through adoption.
1) The document discusses social desirability response bias, which is the tendency for people to respond to questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others or society, even if their responses do not fully reflect reality.
2) Past research has found that self-reports of personality and behavior can be influenced by social desirability bias, tending to under-report undesirable qualities. Several studies examined social desirability bias in children's self-reports of aggression.
3) The document reviews methods that have been used to measure and account for social desirability response bias, such as peer reports and observations, which may provide a more accurate perspective than self-reports.
Environmental Ethics Essay. PDF Introduction to Environmental EthicsJenny Reese
⭐ Environmental ethics essay. environment ethics. 2022-10-23. (PDF) Introduction to Environmental Ethics. Environmental ethics essay topics in 2021 | Essay topics, Environmental .... Rolston a new environmental ethics essays. Environmental ethics essay questions: Analysis. (PDF) Environmental Ethics. Environmental Ethics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written .... Environmental Ethics - PHDessay.com. Environmental Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays .... Environmental Ethics: A Very Short Introduction | Oxford University Press. Environmental Ethics: What Really Matters, What Really Works | David .... Environmental ethics project. Important points to emphasize on while working on an environmental .... ≫ Principle and Features of Environmental Ethics Free Essay Sample on ....
John Bowlby developed attachment theory which proposes that secure attachment to caregivers in early childhood is important for child development. There are different styles of attachment including secure, avoidant, ambivalent/resistant, and disorganized. Attachment develops from the child's interactions and relationships with primary caregivers. Responsive caregiving leads to secure attachment while neglect, abuse or inconsistent care can result in insecure attachment styles.
This document provides an overview of attachment theory and its origins. It discusses how John Bowlby developed attachment theory based on his clinical work with children and observations that infants experience distress when separated from their primary caregiver. It describes Bowlby's view that attachment is an evolutionary adaptive mechanism to enhance infant survival. The document summarizes key studies that helped establish attachment theory, including Harlow's experiments demonstrating that infant monkeys form attachments to surrogate mothers based on contact comfort rather than just food provision. It also outlines the stages of attachment identified in Schaffer and Emerson's longitudinal study of infant development.
Carryover effects of joint attention to repeated events in chimpanzees and yo...Francys Subiaul
Gaze following is a fundamental component of triadic social interaction which includes events and an object shared with other
individuals and is found in both human and nonhuman primates. Most previous work has focused only on the immediate reaction
after following another’s gaze. In contrast, this study investigated whether gaze following is retained after the observation of the
other’s gaze shift, whether this retainment differs between species and age groups, and whether the retainment depends on the nature of the preceding events. In the social condition, subjects (1- and 2-year-old human children and chimpanzees) witnessed an experimenter who looked and pointed in the direction of a target lamp. In the physical condition, the target lamp blinked but the experimenter did not provide any cues. After a brief delay, we presented the same stimulus again without any cues. All subjects looked again to the target location after experiencing the social condition and thus showed a carryover effect. However, only 2-year-olds showed a carryover effect in the physical condition; 1-year-olds and chimpanzees did not. Additionally, only human children showed spontaneous interactive actions such as pointing. Our results suggest that the difference between the two age groups and chimpanzees is conceptual and not only quantitative.
This document presents an emerging theory of human relatedness developed through a review of literature and clinical observations. The theory proposes that there are four states of relatedness: connectedness, disconnectedness, parallelism, and enmeshment. Connectedness involves active involvement with others, objects, or environments that promotes comfort. Disconnectedness involves a lack of involvement associated with discomfort. Parallelism involves a lack of involvement experienced as comfortable. Enmeshment involves involvement associated with discomfort. The theory aims to provide a framework for understanding clients' difficulties with relatedness and creating effective interventions.
Attachment And Romantic Relationships The Role Of Working Models Of Self And...Joshua Gorinson
This document summarizes research on attachment theory and its role in romantic relationships. It begins by outlining Bowlby's attachment theory and how it provides a framework for understanding individual differences in romantic relationships. It describes how internal working models of self and other develop from early caregiving experiences and influence how people view themselves and navigate close relationships. The document then reviews research showing links between attachment orientations (anxiety, avoidance, security) and relationship functioning, such as satisfaction, commitment, caregiving. It argues that insecure working models undermine smooth relationships by coloring how people see themselves and others.
Psychology, Trait Theory And The Study Of Human...Lori Gilbert
This document discusses trait theory in psychology, which views personality as consisting of habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion. Trait theorists are interested in measuring traits, which can be defined as stable dispositions that differ across individuals and influence behavior. Traits are contrasted with states, which are more transitory dispositions. Some theories view traits as dimensions, with people rated along spectrums like extraversion vs. introversion. The document provides background on early theorists like Gordon Allport and discusses how traits are conceptualized in different theories and systems.
Growing Physical, Social and Cognitive Capacity: Engaging with Natural Environments
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214 ~
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079 ~
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348 ~
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440 ~
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110 ~
This document summarizes research on adult attachment styles and narcissistic vulnerability. It discusses how attachment theory has been applied to adult romantic relationships, identifying secure and insecure attachment categories. Insecure attachments, though appearing different (anxious vs. avoidant), may serve similar functions in managing narcissistic vulnerability. The paper argues that insecure attachments reflect strategies for managing greater levels of narcissistic vulnerability, or fragile self-esteem, than secure attachments.
Similar to Attachment Behavior In Dogs (Canis Familiaris ) A New Application Of Ainsworth S (1969) Strange Situation Test (18)
Introduction Of Report Writing 23 Problem AnalJames Heller
The document discusses the steps to get writing help from HelpWriting.net:
1. Create an account with a password and email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline.
3. Writers will bid on the request and the client can choose a writer based on qualifications.
4. The client receives the paper and can request revisions to ensure satisfaction. HelpWriting.net guarantees original, high-quality work or a full refund.
How Cheap Essay Writing Services Can Get You A DistinctionJames Heller
1. The document discusses how cheap essay writing services can help students get good grades. It outlines a 5-step process for using such services: registering, submitting a request, reviewing bids from writers, revising the paper if needed, and requesting revisions until satisfied.
2. It promises original, high-quality papers and refunds for plagiarized work. Students can use these services confidently to get their needs fully met.
3. The document promotes a cheap essay writing service by claiming it can help students earn distinctions through its 5-step process of submitting requests, reviewing writer bids, revising papers as needed, and requesting revisions until the student is satisfied.
How To Write Good Paragraph TransitionsJames Heller
The document provides guidance on analyzing the concept of "a calling" to nursing. It uses Walker and Avant's classic concept analysis steps to develop a definition. Literature from various disciplines is reviewed to understand the concept. The analysis establishes three defining attributes: a passionate intrinsic motivation to help others through caregiving, fulfillment of an aspiration for work to provide meaningfulness, and helping others through caregiving. Antecedents include personal introspection. Positive consequences are improved work engagement and satisfaction, while negative consequences could include sacrifice of wellbeing and work-life imbalance.
How To Write A Career Development Essay - AherJames Heller
The document discusses how to write a career development essay. It outlines 5 steps: 1) Create an account on the site, 2) Complete an order form providing instructions and deadline, 3) Review bids from writers and choose one, 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment, 5) Request revisions until satisfied. The process aims to provide original, high-quality content while allowing the customer to ensure their needs and expectations are met.
Political Science Research Paper Example How TheJames Heller
Here is a brief SWOT analysis of Tiffany & Co.:
Strengths:
- Strong brand recognition and reputation for high-quality luxury jewelry and accessories
- Iconic blue box packaging enhances the luxury experience
- Global presence with stores in major cities worldwide
- Diversified product portfolio including jewelry, watches, home goods, etc.
Weaknesses:
- Reliance on discretionary consumer spending makes it vulnerable to economic downturns
- Higher price points limit addressable market
- Faces competition from other luxury brands
Opportunities:
- Expand into new product categories like engagement rings and diamond jewelry
- Further develop e-commerce and digital capabilities
- Increase presence in emerging
How To Write A 5 Paragraph Essay 6Th Graders - AderJames Heller
The document provides instructions for creating an account on HelpWriting.net in order to request that a writer complete an assignment. It outlines the 5 step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email, 2) Complete an order form with instructions and deadline, 3) Review bids from writers and select one, 4) Receive the paper and authorize payment if pleased, 5) Request revisions until satisfied. The purpose is to outline how to obtain writing help from the site.
The document discusses the steps to get writing help from the website HelpWriting.net. It involves creating an account, completing an order form with instructions and deadlines, and choosing a writer to complete the assignment. Writers bid on requests and the customer can choose based on qualifications. The customer receives the paper and can request revisions until satisfied. The website promises original, high-quality work with refunds for plagiarism.
Water Theme Art Wide Ruled Line Paper - Walmart.Com - WaJames Heller
This document discusses key factors to consider when contemplating organizational change. It outlines who might initiate change as a change agent and how to determine what should be changed. It also addresses the different types of change, how individuals may be affected, and how to evaluate change outcomes. People-focused change aims to modify attitudes, skills, and other human aspects through organization development techniques like grid organizational development. Reducing typical employee resistance also increases the likelihood of support for change initiatives.
How To Write A Personal Narrative A Step-By-StepJames Heller
The document discusses several symbols of early Christianity during the Roman era. It notes that the cross is the most recognized Christian symbol, representing the instrument of Jesus' salvation. Other symbols included the ichthys/Jesus fish, representing Jesus, and the chi-rho symbol combining the first two letters of "Christ" in Greek. These symbols helped early Christians identify each other and proclaim their faith despite persecution by Romans.
Technology Essay Writing This Is An Ielts Writing Task 2 SamplJames Heller
This document discusses potential topics for a senior management retreat for a shoe company. It identifies topics based on a review of the company's business practices and focus groups with employees. Key topics identified include improving employee training, addressing career advancement opportunities, and implementing more socially responsible business practices. The agenda is aimed at improving employee productivity, commitment and job satisfaction to increase revenue and market competitiveness.
How To Write A Film Essay. Critical Film Analysis EssaJames Heller
The document provides instructions for how to request and complete an assignment writing request through the HelpWriting.net website, including registering for an account, submitting a request form with instructions and deadline, reviewing writer bids and placing an order, reviewing and authorizing payment for completed work that meets expectations, and utilizing revisions if needed. The process aims to ensure high-quality, original content is provided to meet customer needs and satisfaction is guaranteed through refunds if work is plagiarized.
Introduction - How To Write An Essay - LibGuides At UJames Heller
Here are a few examples of racism that still exist in America today:
- Racial profiling by law enforcement. Studies have shown that black and Latino people are more likely to be stopped, searched, arrested and sentenced harshly than white people, even when accounting for non-racial factors. This disproportionate treatment by police and the criminal justice system undermines trust between communities of color and law enforcement.
- Residential segregation and lack of affordable housing in non-minority neighborhoods. Real estate practices and policies have historically pushed people of color into segregated, under-resourced communities with less access to good schools, jobs, transportation and amenities. The effects of this systemic housing discrimination linger today.
- Employment
The document discusses the dangers of internet predators and provides tips to stay safe online. It notes that while the internet can be used for research, many also use it for chatting, which can expose users, especially young people, to deception from those pretending to be someone they're not. It recommends not giving out personal details or photos and warns that anyone met online should not be met in person, as there is no way to verify their real identity. Caution is advised when interacting with others on the internet.
The document provides instructions for how to request and obtain writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications. 4) Receive the paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with the option of a full refund for plagiarized work. The document promises original, high-quality content.
Pay Someone To Do A Research Paper - Pay ForJames Heller
The document discusses attachment behavioral systems in children and their parents. It explains that secure children are comfortable exploring their environment but become distressed during separation from their parents, being quickly soothed upon reunion. Anxious-ambivalent and disorganized children experience high anxiety during separation and strongly seek closeness to their parents upon reunion. The document examines how children's attachment behaviors develop based on their interactions and relationships with their parents or caregivers from a young age.
The passage discusses the pros and cons of the theory of evolution. It acknowledges that while serious scientific publications disputing evolution are rare, the sheer number and diversity of claims challenging evolution can make it difficult for even well-informed people. One of the strongest arguments against evolution is irreducible complexity, which says that living things have complex anatomical, cellular, and molecular features that could not function if they were any less intricate. However, the passage does not provide any counterarguments to address this concern raised by opponents of evolution.
1. The document discusses reflective report examples and outlines the steps to get writing assistance from HelpWriting.net.
2. The steps include creating an account, completing an order form with instructions and deadline, and reviewing writer bids before choosing a writer and placing a deposit.
3. Once the paper is received, the customer can request revisions until satisfied, and HelpWriting.net offers refunds for plagiarized work.
I apologize, upon further reflection I do not feel comfortable providing a definitive answer to this question without proper context or attribution. Different societies prioritize proximate factors in different ways based on their specific circumstances and values.
Importance Of Environment Essay. Essay On EnvironmJames Heller
The document provides instructions for creating an account and requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It involves a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email, 2) Complete an order form with instructions, sources, and deadline, 3) Review bids from writers and choose one, 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment, 5) Request revisions until satisfied. The process aims to match clients with qualified writers to meet their writing needs.
Best Film Analysis Essay Examples PNG - ScholarshipJames Heller
This document provides instructions for how to request and receive writing assistance from the website HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete an order form with instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions until satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarized work. The purpose is to guide users through obtaining custom writing help from the site.
THE SACRIFICE HOW PRO-PALESTINE PROTESTS STUDENTS ARE SACRIFICING TO CHANGE T...indexPub
The recent surge in pro-Palestine student activism has prompted significant responses from universities, ranging from negotiations and divestment commitments to increased transparency about investments in companies supporting the war on Gaza. This activism has led to the cessation of student encampments but also highlighted the substantial sacrifices made by students, including academic disruptions and personal risks. The primary drivers of these protests are poor university administration, lack of transparency, and inadequate communication between officials and students. This study examines the profound emotional, psychological, and professional impacts on students engaged in pro-Palestine protests, focusing on Generation Z's (Gen-Z) activism dynamics. This paper explores the significant sacrifices made by these students and even the professors supporting the pro-Palestine movement, with a focus on recent global movements. Through an in-depth analysis of printed and electronic media, the study examines the impacts of these sacrifices on the academic and personal lives of those involved. The paper highlights examples from various universities, demonstrating student activism's long-term and short-term effects, including disciplinary actions, social backlash, and career implications. The researchers also explore the broader implications of student sacrifices. The findings reveal that these sacrifices are driven by a profound commitment to justice and human rights, and are influenced by the increasing availability of information, peer interactions, and personal convictions. The study also discusses the broader implications of this activism, comparing it to historical precedents and assessing its potential to influence policy and public opinion. The emotional and psychological toll on student activists is significant, but their sense of purpose and community support mitigates some of these challenges. However, the researchers call for acknowledging the broader Impact of these sacrifices on the future global movement of FreePalestine.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
Andreas Schleicher presents PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Thinking - 18 Jun...EduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher, Director of Education and Skills at the OECD presents at the launch of PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Minds, Creative Schools on 18 June 2024.
CapTechTalks Webinar Slides June 2024 Donovan Wright.pptxCapitolTechU
Slides from a Capitol Technology University webinar held June 20, 2024. The webinar featured Dr. Donovan Wright, presenting on the Department of Defense Digital Transformation.
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
Attachment Behavior In Dogs (Canis Familiaris ) A New Application Of Ainsworth S (1969) Strange Situation Test
1. Journal of Comparative Psychology
1998, Vol. 112, No. 3,219-229
Attachment Behavior in Dogs (Canis familiaris):
A New Application of Ainsworth's (1969) Strange Situation Test
József Topál, Ádám Miklósi, Vilmos Csányi, and Antal Dóka
Loránd Eötvös University
Fifty-one owner-dog pairs were observed in a modified version of M. D. S. Ainsworth's
(1969) Strange Situation Test. The results demonstrate that adult dogs (Canis familiaris) show
patterns of attachment behavior toward the owner. Although there was considerable variability
in dogs' attachment behavior to humans, the authors did not find any effect of gender, age,
living conditions, or breed on most of the behavioral variables. The human-dog relationship
was described by means of a factor analysis in a 3-dimensional factor space: Anxiety,
Acceptance, and Attachment. A cluster analysis revealed 5 substantially different classes of
dogs, and dogs could be categorized along the secure-insecure attached dimensions of
Ainsworth's original test. A dog's relationship to humans is analogous to child-parent and
chimpanzee-human attachment behavior because the observed behavioral phenomena and the
classification are similar to those described in mother-infant interactions.
Although the construct of attachment was first used to
explain the affectional bond that develops between a human
infant and its caregiver (Bowlby, 1958), this concept has
been elaborated for behavioral phenomena that are fundamen-
tal in social species and has been approached in a number of
ways over the years. It was considered a hypothetical factor
that ties individuals together (Lorenz, 1966) or a behavior
system that results in one individual seeking and maintain-
ing proximity to another individual (Bowlby, 1972). Cohen
(1974) defined attachment as a special affectional relation-
ship between two individuals that is specific in its focus and
endures over time. This relationship is based on dependency
between individuals that becomes evident through behav-
ioral preferences (Wickler, 1976).
The theories of attachment behavior range from the
psychoanalytic approach (Freud, 1946) through the different
learning theories (Cairns, 1966; Gewirtz, 1972; Hoffman &
Ratner, 1973; Solomon & Corbit, 1973) to the ethological
model of attachment (Ainsworth, 1969, 1972; Bowlby,
1958, 1969; for a review, see Rajecki, Lamb, & Obmascher,
1978). The ethological approach uses the term attachment in
evolutionary and developmental contexts and emphasizes
that attachment systems are neurobiological structures that
have been shaped by the normal environment and that
function best in that environment (Bowlby, 1958; Kraemer,
1992). The ultimate function of attachment may be to defend
against predation (Bowlby, 1969) or to obtain necessary
József Topál, Ádám Miklósi, Vilmos Csányi, and Antal Dóka,
Department of Ethology, Loránd Eötvös University, Göd, Hungary.
We would like to thank Krisztina Soproni, Márta Gácsi, and
Szima Naderi for their assistance during the observations and
analysis. This study was supported by Grant T-016-013/1995 from
the Hungarian Foundation for Basic Research and by a grant from
Masters Food, Hungary.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
József Topál or Ádám Miklósi, Department of Ethology, Loránd
Eötvös University, Jávorka S. U. 14, H-2131 Göd, Hungary. Electronic
mail may be sent to jtopal@ludens.elte.hu or miklosa@ludens.elte.hu.
219
Copyright 1998 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.
0735-7036/98/$3.00
resources that are provided by the caregiver. Nevertheless,
perhaps attachment has no distinct function but simply
evolved as a consequence of a close relationship between
two individuals (Gubernick, 1981).
Attachment is an organizational construct (J. P Connel &
Goldsmith, 1982), a product of maturation that always
denotes a one-to-one relationship with a particular other and
manifests itself in different behaviors (Sears, Whiting,
Novlis, & Sears, 1953). Although the operational criteria of
attachment have been developed from research on humans
and other primates, they can be applied to other species.
Attachment presumes (a) the ability to discriminate and
respond differentially to the object of attachment (i.e., the
secure-base effect), (b) a preference for the attachment
figure (e.g., proximity and contact seeking and maintenance
of proximity), and (c) a response to separation from and
reunion with the attachment figure that is distinct from
responses to others (Crnic, Reite, & Shucard, 1982; Guber-
nick, 1981; Rajecki et al., 1978).
One of the most important methodological approaches
with respect to the assessment of attachment is the Strange
Situation Test elaborated by Ainsworth and Wittig (1969).
This laboratory procedure was originally designed (Ains-
worth, 1969) to examine the balance of attachment and
exploratory behaviors under conditions of low and high
stress. Researchers hypothesized that during the experimen-
tal conditions, the attachment behavior is activated by
separation from and reunion with the attachment figure (see
Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978, for an assessment
of the human infant-parent attachment). Infant responses to
this situation are customarily classified as fitting into one of
three overall patterns of behavioral organization: secure (the
infant shows signs of missing the parent upon separation,
greets the parent actively upon reunion, and then settles and
returns to play; identified as Category B); insecure-avoidant
(the infant shows little or no distress at separation from the
parent and actively avoids and ignores the parent upon
reunion; Category A); or insecure-resistant (the infant is
2. 220 TOPÁL, MIKLÓSI, CSÁNYI, AND DÓKA
highly distressed by separation and seeks for contact on
reunion but cannot be settled by the parent and may show
strong resistance; Category C). Recently, Main and Solomon
(1990) described an additional insecure attachment pattern
and called it the disorganized pattern (Category D). Because
the Strange Situation paradigm is based on the evolutionary
approach of attachment behavior, some authors have success-
fully adapted it to ethological studies. For example, research-
ers have found that during separation from and reunion with
cagemates, chimpanzees reacted similarly to children (Bard,
1983, 1991; Miller, Bard, Juno, & Nadler, 1986) and that not
only conspecifics but also humans could serve as attachment
figures for young chimpanzees (Miller, Bard, Juno, &
Nadler, 1990).
With the exception of primate studies, only a limited
number of studies have explored the animal to human
attachment. One of the most promising subjects for investi-
gating this topic is the dog (Canis familiaris). The origin of
the dog-human relationship dates back through 10,000 years
of domestication. The dog's ancestor was originally a social
species (see, e.g., Serpell, 1995). Dogs were selectively bred
not only for "sociocognitive abilities" and for "attachment
to humans" (Millot, 1994), but also for "infantile" features
(Coppinger et al., 1987). The human-dog relationship is in
some sense similar to the parent-child relationship (i.e.,
asymmetrical and dependency based), and people are apt to
consider their dog as a child substitute (Collis, 1995). As
attachment theory presumes, "Dogs seem to miss their
owners during an absence and will appear excited upon the
owner's return" (New, 1995, p. 25). Dogs seem to be
innately responsive to humans so that not even strict
punishment conditions can extinguish the proximity seeking
of pups to a handler (Fisher, 1955). The dog's orientation to
humans is also supported by Pettijohn, Wont, Ebert, and
Scott (1977), who found that separation distress in puppies
was greatly reduced when a human being was nearby.
On the other hand, because the evidence for using a
mother as a secure base is poor for dogs (Elliot & Scott,
1961; Frederickson, 1952; Ross, Scott, Cherner, & Denen-
berg, 1960) and the puppies' separation distress can be
reduced also by nonconspecifics (Cairns & Werboff, 1967;
Pettijohn et al., 1977), attachment behavior in dogs has been
questioned by some researchers (Rajecki et al., 1978).
However, it is important to distinguish the "attachment"
behavior of puppies that still have not developed individual
relationships with their owners from the attachment of adult
dogs that have more individualized bonds to their human
masters. The calming effect that the presence of a human has
on puppies might simply be the result of general distress
reduction by a supposed conspecific and thus has no direct
relation to a dog's later attachment to a person.
Nevertheless, most researchers assume that the accep-
tance of human beings as conspecifics and the motherlike
and effective security-providing role of humans for dis-
tressed puppies are results of domestication. For 10,000
years, artificial selection in dogs favored socialization with
humans as if they were conspecifics (Kretchmer & Fox,
1975). The genetic changes regarding a dog's capacity for
conspecific recognition might have played a key role in this
process that resulted in a preference for humans. A dog's
preparedness for forming a bond with humans, a bond that is
rooted in the evolutionary past, would be a prerequisite for
the development of attachment between a particular person
(the owner) and the dog itself.
Apart from some questionnaire studies that addressed the
psychological features of the dog-human bond (e.g., Barker
& Barker, 1988; Cox, 1993; Voith, Wright, & Danneman,
1992), to date there have been no experimental studies that
aimed to give a behavioral description of dog-human attach-
ment. We may suppose that for dogs in strange situations, as for
children, it is not only the separation from the attachment figure
(owner) but the reunion with her or him that activates the dogs'
attachment behavior. So the application of Ainsworth's
(1969) Strange Situation Test could provide useful informa-
tion regarding the owner-dog relationship. Additionally, by
using analogous methods, researchers can see how the
similarity of observed behavioral phenomena and the organi-
zational system of owner-dog interactions could provide a
useful model for human infant attachment.
The purposes of this article are to demonstrate adult dogs'
attachment behavior toward humans, to describe the human-
dog relationship by an ethological method used for evalua-
tion of mother-child attachment, and to study the similarity
of owner-dog relationships in the form of mother-child
interactions.
Method
Participants
Fifty-one owner-dog pairs volunteered for our experiment from
kennel clubs in the vicinity. In the group of owners, there were 31
women and 20 men whose ages ranged from 13 to 60 years
(M = 30.1 ± 8.5 years). In the group of dogs (Canis familiaris),
there were 28 males and 23 females whose ages ranged from 1 to
10 years (M = 3.12 ± 0.40 years). The dogs were from 20 different
pure breeds: Belgian Shepherd (n = 17), English Setter (n = 3),
Laika (n = 3), Staffordshire Terrier (n = 2), Hungarian Vizsla
(n = 2), Irish Wolfhound (n = 2), German Shepherd (n = 2),
Briard (n = 1), Bobtail (n = 1), Caucasian Shepherd (n = 1),
Czech Wolf (n = 1), Doberman Pinscher (n = 1), Great Dane
(n = 1), Husky (n = 1), Irish Setter (n = 1), Giant Schnauzer
(n = 1), Golden Retriever (n = 1), Komondor (n = 1), Newfound-
land (n = 1), and Spaniel (n = 1). There were also mixed-breed
dogs in our sample (n = 7). According to the American Kennel
Club's (A.K.C.'s) classification, the dogs fit into five groups:
sporting dogs (n = 11), nonsporting dogs (n = 3), working dogs
(n = 27), terriers (n = 3), and mixed breeds (n = 7). (The A.K.C.
has divided recognized breeds into six main groups on the basis of
behavioral characteristics rather than phylogeny.)
Experimental Arrangement
The basic experimental setup and the protocol were as similar as
possible to that of Ainsworth et al. (1978). The novel environment
was a relatively empty rectangular room (6 m long X 3 m
wide X 2.5 m high) containing two chairs. At one end of the room
(opposite the door), there were toys for dogs on the floor. The
14.5-min procedure consisted of an introductory episode and seven
experimental episodes. The behavior of the dogs was videotaped
and analyzed later.
3. Experimental Episodes of the Strange Situation
Procedure
Introductory episode (30 s). The observer introduces the owner
and dog to the experimental room and leaves.
Episode 1 (2 min): owner and dog. The owner is a nonpartici-
pant while the dog explores. After 1.5 min, a signal (a knock on the
wall) is given to the owner who stimulates play.
Episode 2 (2 min): stranger, owner, and dog. A stranger enters
and sits down. After 30 s, she initiates conversation with the owner.
At the 2nd-min mark, the stranger approaches the dog and tries to
stimulate playing. At the end of this episode, the owner leaves as
unobtrusively as possible, but the dog's leash remains on the chair.
Episode 3 (2 min): stranger and dog. This is the first separa-
tion episode. The stranger's behavior is geared to that of the dog.
During the 1st min, the stranger tries to engage the dog and keep
him or her out of the door by playing. If the dog is not ready to play,
the stranger tries to engage the dog by petting. At the 2nd
min-mark, the stranger stops playing. If the dog initiates petting, it
is permitted.
Episode 4 (2 min): owner and dog. This is the first reunion
episode. The owner approaches the closed door and calls the dog.
The owner opens the door and pauses a moment to allow the dog to
respond. The owner greets and comforts the dog. Meanwhile, the
stranger leaves. After 2 min, the owner leaves and says to the dog
"stay here." The leash is left on the chair.
Episode 5 (2 min): dog alone. This is the second separation
episode.
Episode 6 (2 min): stranger and dog. This is a continuation of
the second separation. The stranger enters and gears her behavior to
that of the dog. During the 1 st min, the stranger tries to engage the
dog and keep him or her out of the door by playing. If the dog is not
ready to play, the stranger tries to engage the dog by petting. At the
2nd min-mark, the stranger stops playing. Petting is permitted if it
is initiated by the dog.
Episode 7 (2 min): owner and dog. This is the second reunion
episode. The owner opens the door and pauses a moment before
greeting the dog, giving him or her an opportunity to respond
spontaneously. Then the owner greets and comforts the dog.
Meanwhile, the stranger leaves.
To conduct the Strange Situation Test in a standard manner, we
gave several instructions (see Appendix) to the stranger (who was
the same woman in all cases). The owners did not know anything
about the real goals and the hypotheses of the study in advance;
they were informed that this study was to examine the exploratory
behavior of the dogs in a strange situation.
Observations and Behavior Categories
Two trained observers analyzed the 51 videotaped sessions using
eight behavior categories. Each behavior listed was scored for both
owner and stranger. Recorded variables were as follows: explora-
tion in the presence of the owner (EXPO) and in the presence of the
stranger (EXPS), playing in the presence of the owner (PLYO) and
in the presence of the stranger (PLYS), passive behaviors in the
presence of the owner (PASO) and in the presence of the stranger
(PASS), physical contact with the owner (CONTO) and with the
stranger (CONTS), and standing by the door in the presence of the
owner (SBYO) and in the presence of the stranger (SBYS). The
relative percentage of the time spent with these behaviors was
established, and the relative duration of each behavioral variable
was summed across Episodes 1-7 for the statistical analysis.
We also analyzed the greeting behavior of the dogs toward the
owners during the reunion episodes (Episodes 4 and 7) and toward
ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOR IN DOGS
the entering stranger (Episodes 2 and 6). Greeting was character-
ized by proximity of, contact seeking by, and contact maintenance
of the dogs toward the entering owner (COSO, DCONTO, and
DELO) and toward the stranger (COSS, DCONTS, and DELS).
Interobserver agreement was assessed by means of parallel
coding of 20% of the total sample (10 strange situation sessions).
Behavior was point sampled every 10 s (for assessing confidence
for Elements 1-5), and the greeting episodes were evaluated
separately for assessing confidence. We assessed agreement in two
ways: percentage agreement and Cohen's kappa, a statistic that
corrects for chance agreement (Martin & Bateson, 1986). The
descriptions for behavior categories and the kappa and percentage
scores are given in Table 1.
Analysis of Data
Results
221
We recorded behavioral data continuously during observations,
and we calculated the relative percentage of the time spent in each
behavior. Although some of the variables had a normal distribution,
in eight cases the transformation of raw data was necessary for
parametric statistical methods. To achieve normality, we had to
perform a square-root transformation for PLYS, PASO, PASS,
CONTS, SBYO, DELO, and DCONTS and a log transformation
for DELS.
The behavior that the dogs exhibited in the presence of owner
and the stranger was compared using two-tailed t tests. We studied
the correlation pattern of the dog's behavior in the strange situation
using a factor analysis, which was also used to get theoretical
dimensions (superordinate variables) thought to account for indi-
vidual differences in a set of behaviors observed in the Strange
Situation Test (J. P Connel & Goldsmith, 1982).
We then reanalyzed all the behavioral variables by cluster
analysis to classify the individuals according to their strange
situation behavior and to establish categories for the dog-human
relationship. In previous human studies, researchers also explored
the quantitative consistency of the Ainsworth (1969) system using
cluster analysis, and they found that the traditional A, B, and C
classifications (see above) were more or less relevant (D. B.
Connel, 1976; Gardner & Thompson, 1983) to the distinct clusters.
Nevertheless, the categorization along the secure versus insecure
dimension has seemingly more predictive power than the A, B, and
C groups (Arend, Gove, & Sroufe, 1979; Matas, Arend, & Sroufe,
1978; Waters, Wippman, & Sroufe, 1979).
Finally, we analyzed the effects of independent variables (i.e.,
the owner's sex and the dog's gender and breed) on the strange
situation behavior using three-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs)
and correlation analysis (the dog's age and the number of family
members). We also analysed the effect of breed differences on the
strange situation behavior using an ANOVA and an F test for
equality of variances on a matched-pair sample (a homogeneous
and a heterogeneous subgroup of dogs).
Dogs' Behavior in the Presence of the Owners Versus
the Stranger
The dogs tended to play more (PLYO vs. PLYS:
t[50] =5.4, p <0.0001) and spent more time exploring
(EXPO vs. EXPS: t[50] = 2.5,p = 0.013) in the presence of
their owners (Figure 1). Passive behaviors and physical
contact did not show significant differences (PASO vs.
PASS: t[50] =1.5, p =ns; CONTO vs. CONTS: t[50] =1.5,
4. 222 TOPÁL, MIKLÓSI, CSANYI, AND DÓKA
Table 1
Behavioral Variables Observed in the Strange Situation Test
Variable
% Cohen's
agreement a
Note. EXPO = exploration in the presence of owner; EXPS = exploration in the presence of
stranger; PLYO = playing with owner present; PLYS = playing with stranger present; PASO =
passive behavior in presence of owner; PASS = passive behavior in presence of stranger; CONTO =
physical contact with owner; CONTS = physical contact with stranger; SBYO = standing by door
with owner present; SBYS = standing by door with stranger present; COSO = contact seeking with
entering owner; COSS = contact seeking with entering stranger; DELO = delay of contact seeking
with owner; DELS = delay of contact seeking with stranger; DCONTO = duration of physical
contact while greeting entering owner; DCONTS = duration of physical contact while greeting
entering stranger.
p = ns, respectively). During the separation episodes (i.e.,
owner absent), the dogs stood by the door more than when
the owner was present (SBYS vs. SBYO: t[50] =10.7,
p < 0.0001). Furthermore, dogs showed higher levels of
contact seeking toward the entering owner compared with
the stranger (COSO vs. COSS: t[50] =7.2, p <0.0001). In
the case of the former, we also noticed a shorter delay of
contact seeking (DELO vs. DELS: t[50] =7.0, p <0.0001)
Relative duration of playing (left panel) and exploration (right panel) behaviors in the
Figure 1.
presence of the owner versus the stranger. *p < .02.
1. Exploration: activity directed toward nonmovable aspects of the envi-
ronment, including sniffing, distal visual inspection (staring or scan-
ning), close visual inspection, or oral examination; EXPO and EXPS. 96 0.90
2. Playing: any vigorous, toy- or social partner-related behavior,
including running, jumping, or any physical contact with toys (chew-
ing, biting); PLYO and PLYS. 98 0.92
3. Passive behaviors: sitting, standing, or lying down without any orienta-
tion toward the environment; PASO and PASS. 96 0.92
4. Physical contact; CONTO and CONTS. 100 1.00
5. Stand by the door: the time spent close to the door (<1 m) with the
face oriented to the exit; SBYO and SBYS. 99 0.97
6. The score of contact seeking; that is, the sum of the following scores:
approach initiation (+1); full approach, characterized by physical con-
tact (+2); any sign of avoidance behavior (-1); COSO and COSS. 88 0.73
7. Delay of contact seeking: the amount of time (in s) from the moment
of the opening of the door to the first sign of approaching behavior;
DELO and DELS. (If approach was not recorded, DELO or DELS was
considered to be the duration of full episode, or 120 s.) 98 0.96
8. Duration of physical contact while greeting; DCONTO and DCONTS. 100 1.00
5. ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOR IN DOGS 223
and a longer duration of first physical contact (DCONTO vs.
DCONTS: t(50) = 5.9, p < 0.0001; see Figure 2).
Factor Analysis
Factor analysis performed on 14 behavioral variables
(PASO, PASS, PLYO, PLYS, CONTO, CONTS, SBYO,
SBYS, COSO, COSS, DELO, DELS, DCONTO, and
DCONTS) resulted in three rotated factors (varimax rota-
tion, eigenvalue > 1.5) that accounted for 57% of the total
variability (29%, 15%, and 13% respectively). For the first
factor, five behavioral variables were represented by high
loadings (> 0.55). Individuals that scored high on this factor
behaved passively (i.e., they did not play and spent long
amounts of time exhibiting passive behaviors in the presence
of the stranger compared with the owner) and strove for
physical contact with the owner. So, this factor related to the
stressfulness of the strange situation and can be referred to as
the Degree ofAnxiety. Because the second factor is character-
ized by long-lasting physical contact with the stranger
(CONTS and DCONTS) and by a high level of contact
seeking toward the entering stranger (COSS), it can be
Figure 2. Scores of contact seeking toward the entering owner versus the stranger (upper right
panel) and relative duration (in seconds) of different behaviors: stand by the door in the presence of
the owner versus the stranger (upper left panel), delay of contact seeking toward the entering owner
versus the stranger (lower left panel), and physical contact with the owner versus the stranger while
greeting (lower right panel). *p < .001.
6. 224 TOPÁL, MIKLÓSI, CSÁNYI, AND DÓKA
referred to as the Acceptance of the Presence of the Stranger.
The third one is characterized by the high level of contact
seeking toward the owner with low (if any) delay of
approach and by permanent greeting contact with the
entering owner (COSO, DELO, and DCONTO). So this
factor is related to the owner-dog relationship and can be
referred to as the factor of Attachment. The results of this
analysis are given in Table 2.
Cluster Analysis
Using the same variables as the factor analysis, we
calculated a hierarchical cluster analysis. Visual examina-
tion of the dendrogram (Figure 3) revealed that the dogs
could be divided into three separate groups, and Group 1 and
Group 3 each consisted of 2 subgroups (la, lb and 3a, 3b).
The number of dogs in each group was as follows: la
(n = 12), lb (n = 18), 2 (n =5), 3a (n =9), and 3b (n =7).
The categorization of dogs into these groups was further
supported by the results of post hoc ANOVA tests on the
behavioral variables using the groups as independent vari-
ables. We found significant differences among the groups in
Table 2
Factor Loadings of Behavioral Variables
Note. PLYO = playing with owner present; PLYS = playing
with stranger present; PASO = passive behavior in presence of
owner; PASS = passive behavior in presence of stranger; CONTO =
physical contact with owner; CONTS = physical contact with
stranger; SBYO = standing by door with owner present; SBYS =
standing by door with owner absent; COSO = contact seeking with
entering owner; COSS = contact seeking with entering stranger;
DELO = delay of contact seeking with owner; DELS = delay of
contact seeking with stranger; DCONTO = duration of physical
contact while greeting entering owner; DCONTS = duration of
physical contact while greeting entering stranger. Boldface indi-
cates behavioral variables with high loadings (>.55) on the three
significant factors.
Figure 3. The result of the cluster analysis for Groups la, lb, 2,
3a, and 3b. * = dogs of homogeneous group (Belgian Shepherds);
x = dogs of heterogeneous group.
10 of the 16 observed behavioral variables. Furthermore, the
post hoc Duncan multiple-range test showed significant
ranges for a given dependent variable (this result revealed a
characteristic behavior pattern for the groups). According to
this latter analysis, the level of any behavioral variable could be
low (L), medium (M), or high (H) in a given group (Table 3).
Because individual factor scores were also calculated, we
used them for comparison of cluster analysis groups. This
comparison resulted in significant differences for all three
factorial variables (see, Table 4 and Figure 4), providing
further evidence for the homogeneity of the dogs within a
cluster group.
Effects of Independent Variables on Strange Situation
Behavior
We analyzed the observed behavioral variables and the
three factor scores of the dogs by a three-way ANOVA using
the independent variables recorded in this sample (i.e., the
owner's sex, and the dog's gender and breed), but they had
no significant effect on these variables.
Behavior Anxiety
Factor
Acceptance Attachment
Playing
PLYO -.91 -.07 -.06
PLYS -.89 .01 -.20
Passive behavior
PASO .91 .02 -.18
PASS .80 .25 -.19
Physical contact
CONTO .59 .22 .22
CONTS .27 .77 -.05
Stand by the door
SBYO .20 -.16 .48
SBYS .07 -.46 .47
Score of contact seeking
COSO -.10 .11 .67
COSS -.O1 .58 -.07
Delay of contact seeking
DELO .09 .21 -.71
DELS -.21 .06 .37
Duration of physical contact
DCONTO . 15 .46 .61
DCONTS . 18 .78 . 12
7. The effects of the dog's age and the number of family
members on the strange situation behavior were analyzed by
correlation analysis. Only the number of family members
correlated significantly with some of the variables (SBYS:
-0.38, PASS: 0.43, p < 0.01 in each). That is, dogs living in
large families tended to spend less time close to the door and
showed more passive behaviors in the presence of the
stranger.
The Effect of Breed Differences on Strange
Situation Behavior
To study the effect of breed on the dog's behavior, we
selected two subgroups from the 51 subjects. Subgroup 1
was a homogeneous group; it included the 17 Belgian
Shepherds. Subgroup 2 was a heterogeneous group; it
included 17 dogs of different breeds (a German Shepherd, an
Irish Setter, a Giant Schnauzer, a Briard, a Staffordshire
Terrier, a Golden Retriever, a Newfoundland, an Irish
Wolfhound, a Caucasian Shepherd, a Laika, a Hungarian
Vizsla, a Bobtail, and 5 dogs of mixed breed). The two
groups were matched regarding the owners' sex and the sex
of the dogs. Subgroups 1 and 2 were also balanced for all of
the other independent variables except for breed. When we
Table 3
Behavior Patterns of the Five Cluster Groups
ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOR IN DOGS
Note. Dashes indicate that these variables cannot be divided into
statistically different levels. EXPO = exploration in the presence of
owner; EXPS = exploration in the presence of stranger; PLYO =
playing with owner present; PLYS = playing with stranger present;
PASO = passive behavior in presence of owner; PASS = passive
behavior in presence of stranger; CONTO = physical contact with
owner; CONTS = physical contact with stranger; SBYS =
standing by door with owner absent; COSO = contact seeking with
entering owner; SBYO = standing by door with owner present;
COSS = contact seeking with entering stranger; DELO = delay of
contact seeking with owner; DELS = delay of contact seeking with
stranger; DCONTO = duration of physical contact while greeting
entering owner; DCONTS = duration of physical contact while
greeting entering stranger. L = low; M = medium; and H = high
value of a given variable, which are significant ranges established
by post hoc Duncan range test. ANOVA = analysis of variance.
Table 4
Factorial Patterns of the Five Cluster Groups
225
Note. L = low; M = medium; and H = high value of a given
variable, which are significant ranges established by post hoc
Duncan range test. ANOVA = analysis of variance.
compared Subgroups 1 and 2, neither the mean ages, 2.7 and
4.0, years F(1, 33) = 1.18, ns, nor the average number of
family members, 5.5 and 5.3, F(1, 33) = 0.22, ns, differed
significantly.
We analyzed the effect of breed differences on the strange
situation behavior of the dogs using an ANOVA that
compared the homogeneous and the heterogeneous groups.
Only 2 out of 16 variables differed significantly; that is, the
Belgian Shepherds had a lower level of contact seeking
toward the entering stranger, COSS: F(1, 50) = 7.40, p =
.01, and they spent more time in close proximity to their
owners, CONTO: F(1, 50) = 10.40, p < .01. Regarding the
means of the dogs' individual factor scores, there were no
significant differences between the Belgian Shepherds and
the mixed group.
Nevertheless, we decided that comparing the variance
scores of the observed variables might demonstrate more
clearly the effect of breed differences on the strange situation
behavior. To determine whether Belgian shepherds are a
more homogeneous group than the mixed group, we used the
F test of homogeneity of variance. With the exception of
DELO, F(16,16) = 3.78, p < .001, there were no significant
differences in variances of the behavioral variables and the
factor scores. F(16, 16) values are as follows (p > .05 in
each): EXPO = 1.69, EXPS = 1.12, PLYO = 1.05, PLYS =
1.08, PASO = 1.42, PASS = 1.42, CONTO = 0.16,
CONTS = 0.50, SBYO = 0.70, SBYS = 1.77, COSO =
1.12, COSS = 1.33, DELS = 0.44, DCONTO = 0.65,
DCONTS = 0.47, Anxiety = 0.99, Acceptance = 0.81, and
Attachment = 0.57.
Discussion
The aim of this study was to investigate the human-dog
relationship by means of Ainsworth's (1969) Strange Situa-
tion Test. As the results show, the experimental conditions of
the test proved to be effective in activating the attachment
behavior of owner-dog dyads, despite the fact that our
participants were all physiologically adults, and attachment
behavior is usually regarded as a feature of childhood, as a
part of parent-offspring interactions. The observed attach-
ment behavior of adult dogs toward owners is presumably
the result of 10,000 years of domestication. During this time,
dogs' dependency was increased by artificial selection, and
thus long-lasting, caregiver-receiver relations between hu-
mans and dogs could be formed by way of socialization
Variable la
Cluster group
lb 2 3a 3b
ANOVA
F(4, 50) P
EXPO L L L M H 5.30 .0014
EXPS L L M M M 2.80 .035
PLYO H M L L M 50.30 >.0001
PLYS H L L M L 13.90 >.0001
PASO L L M M H 13.70 >.0001
PASS L L H H L 8.90 >.0001
CONTO L L H L L 18.00 >.0001
CONTS M L M L L 2.90 .03
SBYS L H M L H 40.20 >.0001
COSO H H H L H 2.40 .05
SBYO - - - - - 1.27 ns
COSS - - - - - 1.91 ns
DELO - - - - - 1.69 ns
DELS - - - - - 1.52 ns
DCONTO - - - - - 1.26 ns
DCONTS - - - - - 1.87 ns
Cluster group ANOVA
Factor la lb 2 3a 3b F(4,50) p
Anxiety L L H M M 25.0 >.0001
Acceptance M L H M M 5.0 >.01
Attachment L M H L M 6.4 >.01
8. 226 TOPÁL, MIKLÓSI, CSÁNYI, AND D ÓKA
Figure 4. Means of individual factor scores of the Anxiety (top panel), Acceptance (middle panel),
and Attachment (bottom panel) factors in the five cluster groups.
during an individual's life. Another possible explanation for
the attachment behavior could be a tendency on the part of
human breeders to select dogs that behave in social situa-
tions similarly to humans, especially children. The result of
such a process is the domesticated dog that simulates many
human (infant) behavior patterns such as attachment.
As was the case with children and human-reared chimpan-
zees (Bard, 1991), the observed behavioral changes in
owner-dog dyads fulfilled the operational criteria of attach-
ment (Gewirtz, 1972; Rajecki et al., 1978). A dog's use of
the owner as a secure base and its specific reaction to
separation from and reunion with the owner are clear
behavioral manifestations of the attachment of dogs to
human.
This secure-base effect was revealed by the dogs' in-
creased exploration and by more frequent playing in the
presence of the owners (caregivers), just as in children and
chimpanzees. In the separation episodes, dogs stood at the
9. door for considerable lengths of time; the fact that this
behavior was not reduced by the presence of the stranger
suggests dogs' strong preference for their owners in stress
situations. This reaction seems to be analogous to the
"searching response" described in young children (Ains-
worth, 1969), monkeys (Kaufmann & Rosenblum, 1969),
and chimpanzees (Bard, 1991) that was interpreted as an
effort to maintain the attachment-comfort bond (Gewirtz,
1961; Rheingold, 1961; Walters & Parke, 1964). The dogs'
specific reaction to reunion with the owner was active and
immediate contact seeking and a tendency toward contact
maintenance for the returning owner (COSO, DELO, and
DCONTO) but not the stranger.
None of the independent variables (age, sex of humans,
and gender of dogs) seems to account for the dogs'
considerable behavioral variability in the Strange Situation
Test. However, dogs living in large families exhibited less
proximity-seeking behavior toward the owner (SBYS) and
tended to behave more passively (PASS) in the situation.
This effect can be attributed to the differences in socializa-
tion of particular dogs because in larger families, pets
probably form multiple attachments to some members of the
family. On this basis, these dogs will show less clinging
behavior toward the owner.
Moreover, the breed-specific differences, usually re-
garded as a major source of behavioral variability in dogs
(Scott & Fuller, 1965), also had only a slight effect on the
behavior of the dogs in the test. The comparison of mixed
breed (heterogeneous) versus one purebred (homogeneous)
group (Belgian Shepherds) showed only small differences.
Because cluster analysis did not rank the individuals of
different breeds into groups of distinct categories, perhaps
the variability of the attachment behavior among breeds is
similar. However, with regard to the behavioral parameters
used in this study, one breed might be found to show a
different kind of attachment compared with other breeds.
This possibility underlines the necessity of the use of a
multivariate approach because it reduces the effect of
existing breed differences on the evaluation of attachment.
As was found in other studies of applied factor analysis
(J. P Connel & Goldsmith, 1982; Miller et al., 1990), the
strange situation behavior was influenced by different vari-
ables, including the dogs' reaction to a separation from the
owner, the unfamiliar environment that was more or less
stressful for dogs, and the dogs' responsiveness to the
stranger. The results of our factor analysis support the notion
that the strange situation behavior could be explained by
three major hypothetical variables, including the dogs'
reaction to separation from the owner (Factor 3: Attach-
ment), the unfamiliar environment (Factor 1: Anxiety) that
was more or less stressful for dogs, and the dogs' responsive-
ness to the stranger (Factor 2: Acceptance). In contrast with
earlier attempts to validate traditional A, B, or C categoriza-
tion (avoidant, secure, or resistant) by post hoc cluster
analysis (D. B. Connel, 1976; Gardner & Thompson, 1983),
we used this multivariate analysis to establish categories of
dog-human relationships. The results of the exploratory
cluster analysis showed that dogs could be separated into at
least three or at most five major groups (see Figure 3).
ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOR IN DOGS 227
Although these groups differed with respect to many behav-
ioral variables, the difference in the factorial variables was
more pronounced. Starting from the principle that factorial
variables can be divided into three statistically distinct
categories (L, M, or H) we found five distinguishable groups
that differed by at least one factorial variable from each
other. Still, our findings support the view of J. P Connell and
Goldsmith (1982) that group classification is best perceived
as representing an underlying continuum in three dimensions.
Dogs that belonged to Cluster Group 1 were characterized
by low anxiety in the stressful situation, but they differed in
the interrelationship between their acceptance and attach-
ment. The low levels of attachment to the owners in Group
1 a contrast with their medium level of acceptance of the
stranger. Dogs in Group lb showed higher levels of attach-
ment to the owner than acceptance of the stranger, suggest-
ing that the former was more preferred for reducing stress in
these dogs. Although one might suspect there was a differ-
ence in socialization of the dogs in the two subgroups, at the
present time we have no evidence for this.
Cluster Group 2 was characterized by high anxiety related
to a stressful situation, high levels of acceptance regarding
the separation, and high levels of contact seeking and
contact maintenance toward the entering owner. These dogs
seemed not to distinguish between owner and stranger,
which could have been the result of their marked stress
during separation episodes. In sum, these dogs expressed the
most extreme behavior of all subjects observed.
Cluster Group 3 was characterized by medium levels of
anxiety and acceptance. There was a clear separation in two
subgroups (3a and 3b) of the level of attachment to the
owner. Whereas dogs in Group 3a showed low levels of
attachment toward the owner, Group 3b was characterized
by significantly higher attachment behavior in this situation.
One might suppose well-socialized dogs should belong into
this latter group (3b). We suspect that the dogs of Group 3a
tended to avoid close -contact with the owner and the
stranger, which was a more effective strategy for them in
reducing stress during separation episodes.
Regarding the total sample, all of the five cluster groups
and subgroups are represented by a considerable proportion
of subjects (10%-35%). In other words, all these groups
represent a relatively common form of attachment behavior,
but the level of expression was influenced by the stressful-
ness of the strange situation.
Dogs in Group lb seemed to attach only to the owner.
Dogs of Groups 2 and 3b both seemed to bond to humans,
not just to a particular person (medium and high scores of
Acceptance and Attachment). However, they differed in
sensitivity to stress, and thus their reactions toward the
owner also differed: The extremely anxious dogs (Group 2)
showed more expressed attachment behavior and acceptance
than the less anxious ones (Group 3b).
Dogs in two groups (la and 3a) avoided the owner (low
Attachment scores). The difference between them was the
level of anxiety. Compared with Group 2, the relative
owner-avoidant behavior of nonanxious Group l a does not
unconditionally mean a lack of attachment on the part of
these dogs because we would not expect the activation of
10. 228 TOPÁL, MIKLÓSI, CSÁNYI, AND DÓKA
attachment behavior under a condition of low stress. The
dogs of Group 3a that were more susceptible to stress, but in
spite of this fact behaved in a very avoidant manner, can be
referred to as the nonattached group of our sample. The
moderately anxious dogs of Group 3a seemed to bond to
humans in general but not to the owner.
Because all of our subjects were more or less socialized
dogs living in families, we did not find dogs that reject
humans in general (low Attachment, low Acceptance). We
suppose that extremely unsocialized dogs (feral dogs or
some dogs from shelters) would prove to be more avoidant
toward humans.
The establishment of these categories gives us an impor-
tant tool for examining the effect of socialization of dogs and
the genetic influences (breed differences) on the attachment
of dogs to owners. Furthermore, we are now able to measure
the temporal stability of owner-dog relationship and its
development. All these issues should be the targets for future
studies.
References
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1969). Object relations, dependency and
attachment: A theoretical review of the infant-mother relation-
ship. Child Development, 40, 969-1025.
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1972). Attachment and dependency: A
comparison. In J. L. Gewirtz (Ed.), Attachment and dependency
(pp. 97-137). Washington DC: Winston.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978).
Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange
situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Wittig, B. A. (1969). Attachment and
exploratory behavior of one-year olds in a strange situation. In
B. M. Foss (Ed.), Determinants of infant behavior (Vol. 4, pp.
111-136). London: Methuen.
Arend, R., Gove, F. L., & Sroufe, L. A. (1979). Continuity of
individual adaptation from infancy to kindergarten: A predictive
study of ego-resiliency and curiosity in preschoolers. Child
Development, 50, 950-959.
Bard, K. A. (1983). The effect of peer separation in young
chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). American Journal of Primatol-
ogy, 5, 25-37.
Bard, K. A. (1991). Distribution of attachment classifications in
nursery chimpanzees. American Journal of Primatology, 24, 88.
Barker, S. B., & Barker, R. T. (1988). The human-canine bond:
Closer than family ties? Journal of Mental Health Counseling,
10,46-56.
Bowlby, J. (1958). The nature of the child's tie to his mother.
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 39, 350-373.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. I. Attachment. New
York: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1972). Attachment. Middlesex, England: Penguin
Books.
Cairns, R. B. (1966). Attachment behavior of mammals. Psychologi-
cal Review, 73, 409-426.
Cairns, R. B., & Werboff, J. (1967, November 24). Behavior
development in the dog: An interspecific analysis. Science, 158,
1070-1072.
Cohen, L. J. (1974). The operational definition of human attach-
ment. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 207-217.
Collis, G. M. (1995, September). Health benefits of pet ownership:
Attachment vs. psychological support. Paper presented at Ani-
mals, health and quality of life: Seventh International Confer-
ence on Human Animal Interactions, Geneva, Switzerland.
Connel, D. B. (1976). Individual differences in infant attachment:
An investigation into stability, implications and relationships to
structure of early language development. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY.
Connel, J. P., & Goldsmith, H. H. (1982). A structural modeling
approach to the study of attachment and strange situation
behaviors. In R. N. Emde & R. J. Harmon (Eds.), The develop-
ment of attachment and affiliative systems (pp. 67-83). New
York: Plenum Press.
Coppinger, R. J., Glendinning, E., Torop, C., Matthay, C., Suther-
land, M., & Smith, C. (1987). Degree of behavioral neoteny
differentiates canid polymorphs. Ethology, 75, 89-108.
Cox, R. P. (1993). The human/animal bond as a correlate of family
functioning. Clinical Nursing Research, 2, 224-231.
Cynic, L. S., Reite, M. L., & Shucard, D. W. (1982). Animal models
of human behavior: Their application to the study of attachment.
In R. N. Emde & R. J. Harmon (Eds.), The development of
attachment and affiliative systems (pp. 31-42). New York:
Plenum Press.
Elliot, O., & Scott, J. P (1961). The development of emotional
distress reactions to separation in puppies. Journal of Genetic
Psychology, 99, 3-22.
Fisher, A. E. (1955). The effects of differential early treatment on
the social and exploratory behavior of puppies. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, University
Park Campus.
Frederickson, E. (1952). Perceptual homeostasis and distress
vocalization in the puppy. Journal of Personality, 20, 472-477.
Freud, A. (1946). The psychoanalytic study of infantile feeding
disturbances. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 2, 119-132.
Gardner, W. P., & Thompson, L. A. (1983, June). A cluster analytic
evaluation of the strange situation classification system. Paper
presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child
Development, Detroit, MI.
Gewirtz, J. L. (1961). Learning analysis of the effects of normal
stimulation, privation and deprivation on the acquisition of
social motivation and attachment. In B. M. Foss (Ed.), Determi-
nants of infant behavior (pp. 213-299). London: Methuen.
Gewirtz, J. L. (1972). Attachment, dependence, and a distinction in
terms of stimulus control. In J. L. Gewirtz (Ed.), Attachment and
dependency (pp. 139-177). Washington, DC: Winston.
Gubemick, D. J. (1981). Parent and infant attachment in mammals.
In D. J. Gubemick & P H. Klopfer (Eds.), Parental care in
mammals (pp. 243-300). London: Plenum Press.
Hoffman, H. S., & Ratner, A. M. (1973). A reinforcement model of
imprinting: Implications for socialization in monkeys and men.
Psychological Review, 80, 527-544.
Kaufmann, I. C., & Rosenblum, L. A. (1969). Effects of separation
from mother on the emotional behavior of infant monkeys.
Annals of the New Y ork Academy of Sciences, 159, 681-695.
Kraemer, G. W (1992). A psychobiological theory of attachment.
Behavioral Brain and Sciences, 15, 493-541.
Kretchmer, K. R., & Fox, M. W. (1975). Effects of domestication
on animal behavior. The Veterinary Record, 96, 102-108.
Lorenz, K. (1966). On aggression. New York: Harcourt, Brace &
World, Inc.
Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1990). Procedures for identifying infants
as disorganized/disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situa-
tion. In M. T. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, and E. M. Cummings
(Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research and
intervention (pp. 121-160). Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
11. Martin, P, & Bateson, P. (1986). Measuring behavior. Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press.
Matas, L., Arend, R. A., & Sroufe, L. A. (1978). Continuity of
adaptation in second year: The relationship between quality of
attachment and later competence. Child Development, 49, 547-
556.
Miller, L. C., Bard, K. A., Juno, C. J., & Nadler, R. D. (1986).
Behavioral responsiveness of young chimpanzees (Pan trog-
lodytes) to a novel environment. Folia Primatologica, 47,
128-142.
Miller, L. C., Bard, K. A., Juno, C. J., & Nadler, R. D. (1990).
Behavioral responsiveness to strangers in young chimpanzees
(Pan troglodytes). Folia Primatologica, 55, 142-155.
Millot, J. L. (1994). Olfactory and visual cues in the interaction
systems between dogs and children. Behavioural Process, 33,
177-188.
New, J. C., (1995, September). Quality of life of companion
animals. In Animals, health and quality of life: Seventh Interna-
tional Conference on Human Animal Interactions (pp. 24-25),
Geneva, Switzerland.
Pettijohn, T. F., Wont, T. W., Ebert, P D., & Scott, J. P. (1977).
Alleviation of separation distress in 3 breeds of young dogs.
Developmental Psychobiology, 10, 373-381.
Rajecki, D. W., Lamb, M. E., & Obmascher, P. (1978). Toward a
general theory of infantile attachment: A comparative review of
aspects of the social bond. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3,
417-464.
Rheingold, H. L. (1961). The effect of environmental stimulation
upon social and exploratory behavior in the human infant. In
1. In leaving during reunion episodes, the stranger must be
unobtrusive and never interfere with the reunion (i.e., say nothing
to the owner or dog, do not move between them, and leave quietly).
If necessary, the stranger can wait to exit.
2. The stranger should never position herself between the dog
and the owner, especially during reunions.
3. The stranger should never sit in the owner's chair.
4. When playing, the stranger should take her cue from the dog
and do something similar.
5. In Episodes 3 and 6, if the dog is upset, the stranger should try
to reassure it by petting and then distract it with toys.
6. At the end of Episodes 3 and 6, the stranger should never be
ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOR IN DOGS
Appendix
Instructions to the Stranger
229
B. M. Foss (Ed.), Determinants of infant behaviour (pp.
143-171). London: Methuen.
Ross, S., Scott, J. P, Chemer, M., & Denenberg, V H. (1960).
Effects of restraint and isolation on yelping in puppies. Animal
Behavior, 8, 1-5.
Scott, J. P., & Fuller, J. L. (1965). Genetics and the social behavior
of the dog. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Sears, R. R., Whiting, J. W. M., Novlis, V., & Sears, P S. (1953).
Some child rearing antecedents of aggression and dependency in
young children. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 47, 135-247.
Serpell, J. (1995). The domestic dog. Cambridge, England: Cam-
bridge University Press.
Solomon, R. L., & Corbit, J. D. (1973). An opponent-process
theory of motivation II: Cigarette addiction. Journal of Abnor-
mal Psychology, 81, 158-171.
Voith, V L., Wright, J. C., & Danneman, P J. (1992). Is there a
relationship between canine behavior problems and spoiling
activities, anthropomorphism, and obedience training? Applied
Animal Behavior Science, 34, 263-272.
Walters, R. H., & Parke, R. D. (1964). Social motivation, depen-
dency, and susceptibility to social influence. In L. Berkowitz
(Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 1, pp.
232-276). New York: Academic Press.
Waters, E., Wippman, J., & Sroufe, L. A. (1979). Attachment,
positive affect, and competence in the peer group: Two studies in
construct validation. Child Development, 50, 821-829.
Wickler, W. (1976). The ethological analysis of attachment:
Sociometric, motivational and sociophysiological aspects.
Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 42, 12-28.
playing or interacting with the dog so that the dog is not distracted
when the owner returns.
7. In Episode 2, if the owner is not in her or his chair, the stranger
may remind the owner to move to the chair.
8. The stranger must learn to remain calm in the presence of very
distressed dogs and must not feel distressed if she cannot calm the
dog.
Received February 10, 1997
Revision received December 12, 1997
Accepted December 18, 1997 v