The document discusses a study that examined the relationship between the personality traits and leadership styles of 105 Malaysian managers and their ability to lead change. The results showed that the managers tended to have personalities that were conscientious and open to experience, and they primarily used a consultative leadership style. Certain personality traits like extroversion and leadership styles like involvement were found to positively correlate with managers' ability to lead change.
Corporations often use different costs of capital for different op.docxvanesaburnand
Corporations often use different costs of capital for different operating divisions. Using an example, calculate the weighted cost of capital (WACC). What are some potential issues in using varying techniques for cost of capital for different divisions? If the overall company weighted average cost of capital (WACC) were used as the hurdle rate for all divisions, would more conservative or riskier divisions get a greater share of capital? Explain your reasoning. What are two techniques that you could use to develop a rough estimate for each division’s cost of capital? Your response should be 200 to 250 words
Running Head: LEADERSHIP THEORIES
LEADERSHIP THEORIES6
Assignment 1: Theories of Leadership
For all assignments, assume that the City Manager has hired you as the Chief of Staff for your local government. The City Manager has tasked you with developing and implementing the government’s new million dollar grant funded Public Leadership Academy. The mission of the Public Leadership Academy is to provide ongoing training and development of the local government’s current and prospective public leaders. This program was developed in an effort to build and sustain world class public leadership that exemplifies exceptional leadership traits and skills, while fostering long-term relationships internal and external stakeholders and constituents. In the upcoming weeks, you will deliver your first presentation to the government’s local councilpersons, in which you address the type of public leadership model(s) that is both needed within the local government for its public leaders and required to fulfil the mission of the Public Leadership Academy.
After careful review and analysis of the steps needed to meet your goal, your first assignment is to revisit the theories and styles of leadership. You will examine the theories and styles that support the role of the public leader.
You may use the Internet and / or Strayer databases to complete any additional research.
Note: You may create and / or make all necessary assumptions needed for the completion of this assignment.
Use the basic outline below to draft your paper. Organize your responses to each question (except Question 4) under the following section headings:
· Defining The Public Leader (for Question 1)
· Leadership Theories (for Question 2)
· Leadership Styles (for Question 3)
Write a four to five (4-5) page paper in which you:
1. Determine two (2) leadership theories and two (2) leadership styles that support the definition of a public leader. Provide a rationale for your response.
2. Assess the effectiveness of the two (2) leadership theories from Question 1. Provide two (2) examples for each leadership theory.
3. Assess the effectiveness of the two (2) leadership styles from Question 1. Provide two (2) examples for each leadership style.
Question 1: Defining the Public Leader
Leadership is defined as the process by which a leader influences people to aid in the completion o.
The document summarizes a leadership development program called "Leading the Way" for middle managers at Yorkshire Coast Homes, a UK housing association. The program was designed based on principles of shared ownership, an ongoing process rather than a single event, and impact evaluation. Middle managers participated in reflective exercises and generated stories of applying their learning on the job. The evaluation method, Appreciative Inquiry, encouraged participants to discuss tangible outcomes and plans for sustainability. This provided clear evidence of the program's successful real-world impact and supported ongoing organizational development led by the middle managers.
Change Management in Adult EducationalOrganizations A Slove.docxtidwellveronique
Change Management in Adult Educational
Organizations: A Slovenian Case Study
Romana Martinčič
Successful implementing and managing of change is urgently necessary
for each adult educational organization. During the process, leading
of the staff is becoming a key condition and the most significant fac-
tor. Beside certain personal traits of the leader, change management
demands also certain leadership knowledges, skills, versatilities and be-
haviour which may even border on changing the organizational culture.
The paper finds the significance of certain values and of organizational
climate and above all the significance of leadership style which a leader
will adjust to the staff and to the circumstances. The author presents a
multiple qualitative case study of managing change in three adult edu-
cational organizations. The paper finds that factors of successful lead-
ing of change exist which represent an adequate approach to leading the
staff during the introduction of changes in educational organizations.
Its originality/value is in providing information on the important re-
lationship between culture, leadership styles and leader’s behaviour as
preconditions for successful implementing and managing of strategic
change.
Key Words: change management, educational organization, leadership,
process of changes, qualitative research
jel Classification: i10, m10
Introduction
The only constant of the time we live in are the changes in all areas of our
life and work. They are incited by a number of factors: technological ad-
vancement, changed expectations and needs of the clients, changed mar-
ket conditions, changing of legislation, changed social values etc. (Paton
and McCalman 2000); no organization – large or small, local or global
– is immune to change (Kotter 1998b). Educational organization must
follow the opportunities and avoid the threats which occur in the con-
temporary turbulent environment. The changing of legislation and reg-
ulation of education entails change implementation in a special manner
‘from the top downwards.’ An educational organization has little or no
Romana Martinčič is a Director’s Human Resources Assistant at the
University Clinic of Respiratory and Allergic Diseases Golnik, Slovenia
Managing Global Transitions 8 (1): 79–96
80 Romana Martinčič
influence on such change. Its task is more or less to respond to change, as
it has no choice but to operate in accordance with the rules. Much more
interesting for the long term efficiency of an organization is the change
that originates from the organization itself as a premeditated, planned
activity caused by various reasons: fewer pupils and students, young or
adults, the need to improve the quality in education or to introduce new
formal or informal forms of education etc.
Several authors (Fullan 2001; Bukovec 2005; Coleman 1994; Drucker
1999; Kotter and Cohen 2003; Tracy 1999) claim that successful imple-
menting and managing of change depends on the lead ...
This document discusses a study on the impact of different leadership styles (transformational and transactional) on employee performance and the mediating role of job satisfaction. The study was conducted in private schools in Pakistan. The results showed that both transactional and transformational leadership styles were positively associated with employee performance, but transactional leadership had a more significant impact. Additionally, job satisfaction was found to mediate the relationship between transformational leadership and employee performance, but not between transactional leadership and employee performance. The document provides background on transformational and transactional leadership styles and reviews prior literature on their relationships with employee performance and job satisfaction. It also discusses the importance of considering cultural factors like power distance when studying leadership in different country contexts like Pakistan.
This document discusses various aspects of leadership, including definitions of leadership, characteristics of leaders, types of leadership power, and leadership models and theories. It defines leadership as the ability to influence people to work towards common goals. Leaders are described as emotionally stable, socially skilled individuals who are committed to self-development and have influence over others. The document also outlines different power bases leaders can use, including power derived from formal position or personal attributes. Transactional and transformational leadership styles are contrasted, as well as traits and contingency theories of leadership.
Essential skills for leadership effectivenessFernando Sorto
This document discusses essential skills for effective global leadership in diverse workplaces. It identifies several challenges global leaders face, including managing blended organizational cultures with diverse groups, dealing with different group dynamics, and navigating gender differences. Effective global leaders must be able to manage cultural diversity, appreciate differences, and adapt their leadership style to different situations. Developing intercultural competencies is important for addressing issues around diversity and avoiding biased management decisions.
The document discusses a study that examined the relationship between the personality traits and leadership styles of 105 Malaysian managers and their ability to lead change. The results showed that the managers tended to have personalities that were conscientious and open to experience, and they primarily used a consultative leadership style. Certain personality traits like extroversion and leadership styles like involvement were found to positively correlate with managers' ability to lead change.
Corporations often use different costs of capital for different op.docxvanesaburnand
Corporations often use different costs of capital for different operating divisions. Using an example, calculate the weighted cost of capital (WACC). What are some potential issues in using varying techniques for cost of capital for different divisions? If the overall company weighted average cost of capital (WACC) were used as the hurdle rate for all divisions, would more conservative or riskier divisions get a greater share of capital? Explain your reasoning. What are two techniques that you could use to develop a rough estimate for each division’s cost of capital? Your response should be 200 to 250 words
Running Head: LEADERSHIP THEORIES
LEADERSHIP THEORIES6
Assignment 1: Theories of Leadership
For all assignments, assume that the City Manager has hired you as the Chief of Staff for your local government. The City Manager has tasked you with developing and implementing the government’s new million dollar grant funded Public Leadership Academy. The mission of the Public Leadership Academy is to provide ongoing training and development of the local government’s current and prospective public leaders. This program was developed in an effort to build and sustain world class public leadership that exemplifies exceptional leadership traits and skills, while fostering long-term relationships internal and external stakeholders and constituents. In the upcoming weeks, you will deliver your first presentation to the government’s local councilpersons, in which you address the type of public leadership model(s) that is both needed within the local government for its public leaders and required to fulfil the mission of the Public Leadership Academy.
After careful review and analysis of the steps needed to meet your goal, your first assignment is to revisit the theories and styles of leadership. You will examine the theories and styles that support the role of the public leader.
You may use the Internet and / or Strayer databases to complete any additional research.
Note: You may create and / or make all necessary assumptions needed for the completion of this assignment.
Use the basic outline below to draft your paper. Organize your responses to each question (except Question 4) under the following section headings:
· Defining The Public Leader (for Question 1)
· Leadership Theories (for Question 2)
· Leadership Styles (for Question 3)
Write a four to five (4-5) page paper in which you:
1. Determine two (2) leadership theories and two (2) leadership styles that support the definition of a public leader. Provide a rationale for your response.
2. Assess the effectiveness of the two (2) leadership theories from Question 1. Provide two (2) examples for each leadership theory.
3. Assess the effectiveness of the two (2) leadership styles from Question 1. Provide two (2) examples for each leadership style.
Question 1: Defining the Public Leader
Leadership is defined as the process by which a leader influences people to aid in the completion o.
The document summarizes a leadership development program called "Leading the Way" for middle managers at Yorkshire Coast Homes, a UK housing association. The program was designed based on principles of shared ownership, an ongoing process rather than a single event, and impact evaluation. Middle managers participated in reflective exercises and generated stories of applying their learning on the job. The evaluation method, Appreciative Inquiry, encouraged participants to discuss tangible outcomes and plans for sustainability. This provided clear evidence of the program's successful real-world impact and supported ongoing organizational development led by the middle managers.
Change Management in Adult EducationalOrganizations A Slove.docxtidwellveronique
Change Management in Adult Educational
Organizations: A Slovenian Case Study
Romana Martinčič
Successful implementing and managing of change is urgently necessary
for each adult educational organization. During the process, leading
of the staff is becoming a key condition and the most significant fac-
tor. Beside certain personal traits of the leader, change management
demands also certain leadership knowledges, skills, versatilities and be-
haviour which may even border on changing the organizational culture.
The paper finds the significance of certain values and of organizational
climate and above all the significance of leadership style which a leader
will adjust to the staff and to the circumstances. The author presents a
multiple qualitative case study of managing change in three adult edu-
cational organizations. The paper finds that factors of successful lead-
ing of change exist which represent an adequate approach to leading the
staff during the introduction of changes in educational organizations.
Its originality/value is in providing information on the important re-
lationship between culture, leadership styles and leader’s behaviour as
preconditions for successful implementing and managing of strategic
change.
Key Words: change management, educational organization, leadership,
process of changes, qualitative research
jel Classification: i10, m10
Introduction
The only constant of the time we live in are the changes in all areas of our
life and work. They are incited by a number of factors: technological ad-
vancement, changed expectations and needs of the clients, changed mar-
ket conditions, changing of legislation, changed social values etc. (Paton
and McCalman 2000); no organization – large or small, local or global
– is immune to change (Kotter 1998b). Educational organization must
follow the opportunities and avoid the threats which occur in the con-
temporary turbulent environment. The changing of legislation and reg-
ulation of education entails change implementation in a special manner
‘from the top downwards.’ An educational organization has little or no
Romana Martinčič is a Director’s Human Resources Assistant at the
University Clinic of Respiratory and Allergic Diseases Golnik, Slovenia
Managing Global Transitions 8 (1): 79–96
80 Romana Martinčič
influence on such change. Its task is more or less to respond to change, as
it has no choice but to operate in accordance with the rules. Much more
interesting for the long term efficiency of an organization is the change
that originates from the organization itself as a premeditated, planned
activity caused by various reasons: fewer pupils and students, young or
adults, the need to improve the quality in education or to introduce new
formal or informal forms of education etc.
Several authors (Fullan 2001; Bukovec 2005; Coleman 1994; Drucker
1999; Kotter and Cohen 2003; Tracy 1999) claim that successful imple-
menting and managing of change depends on the lead ...
This document discusses a study on the impact of different leadership styles (transformational and transactional) on employee performance and the mediating role of job satisfaction. The study was conducted in private schools in Pakistan. The results showed that both transactional and transformational leadership styles were positively associated with employee performance, but transactional leadership had a more significant impact. Additionally, job satisfaction was found to mediate the relationship between transformational leadership and employee performance, but not between transactional leadership and employee performance. The document provides background on transformational and transactional leadership styles and reviews prior literature on their relationships with employee performance and job satisfaction. It also discusses the importance of considering cultural factors like power distance when studying leadership in different country contexts like Pakistan.
This document discusses various aspects of leadership, including definitions of leadership, characteristics of leaders, types of leadership power, and leadership models and theories. It defines leadership as the ability to influence people to work towards common goals. Leaders are described as emotionally stable, socially skilled individuals who are committed to self-development and have influence over others. The document also outlines different power bases leaders can use, including power derived from formal position or personal attributes. Transactional and transformational leadership styles are contrasted, as well as traits and contingency theories of leadership.
Essential skills for leadership effectivenessFernando Sorto
This document discusses essential skills for effective global leadership in diverse workplaces. It identifies several challenges global leaders face, including managing blended organizational cultures with diverse groups, dealing with different group dynamics, and navigating gender differences. Effective global leaders must be able to manage cultural diversity, appreciate differences, and adapt their leadership style to different situations. Developing intercultural competencies is important for addressing issues around diversity and avoiding biased management decisions.
Running Head INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP .docxcowinhelen
Running Head: INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP 1
INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP 4
Influential Leadership
Name:
Course:
Affiliation:
Instructor:
Date of Submission:
INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP OUTLINE
A. Introduction
In this part of the study, we try to discuss influential leadership in the current leadership generation. The intention of this part is to make sure that the readers are aware of what the discussion is all about (Postero, 2016). Further, we try to disseminate the different kinds of leadership which are used by the influential leaders and also the impact they have on different company success. It covers some surveys which have been done on the different roles leaders have when it comes to influence. It also focuses on the impact of changes in management paradigms and how that has some impact on leadership (Bae et al., 2013).
B. Meaning of terms
i. Leadership
Covers the meaning of leadership in details. In this part, we discover there is a difference to lead and to manage (Makala & David, 2010)
ii. Influence
Identifies the meaning of influence and how one can be influential (Hilley, 2012).The paper will study an extensive study of how leaders can use their leadership styles to influence performance in organizations (Murray et al., 2011).
C. Theory
This is a study of the relationship that the leaders and the followers. The intention of this part is to give a detailed study of the relationship between the followers and how to create a shared purpose among the two (Crozier & Priestley, 2011)
. The theory meant to show how the leaders can use their abilities to create followers in the different field they are acting on (Malek et al., 2015).
D. Factors that determine influential leadership
i. Organizational factors
These are factors which are within the organization which are very pertinent and makes a leader influential (You, 2014). This part of the leadership influence is abused in the fact that a problem will come up, and the leader will find a way through which they can manage to influence he workers capitalizing on the solution to the problems (Cote et al., 2015).
ii. Group factors
These are the factors that group members of an organization do to see that the workers have a following for a leader. This factor makes a leader one who focusses on the personal traits of every member of an organization (Zhang & Chua, 2011).
iii. Individual factors
This is a study of how a leader behaves and how that influences results and how one acts about that. A leader can have a following when he or she can use the personal traits that will have the rest of members of the organization following (Eichmann, 2001).
iv. Relations with coworkers
This studies how a leader can use the influence he or she has to make sure that they command a following out of this. Any leader who does not have a ...
Comprehensıve Evaluatıon of The Impact of Female Managers On Followers Under ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Leadership, which is a widely researched topic and plays an important role in different
disciplines, is discussed in a broad scope ranging from social organizations, education, politics, to philosophy.
Technological, cultural and socio-economic developments have transformed the leadership paradigm and the
expectations of the followers. To adapt to these transformations and achieve positive outcomes in organizations,
a new perspective such as authentic leadership is needed. Authentic leadership means that the leader acts in
harmony with himself and others, stays loyal to his values and builds trust with his followers. Authentic
leadership also emphasizes that the leader needs to constantly improve himself, be original and creative, share
his vision and adhere to ethical values. In this study, many academic studies were examined in order to
comprehensively evaluate the impact of women managers on the followers under the authentic leadership
paradigm. Based on the post-modern leadership theory, it is aimed to comprehensively evaluate the four
dimensions of authentic leadership basic components of women managers, which are self-awareness, balanced
and unbiased processing of information, internalized moral perspective and relational transparency, and their
impact on the followers. Considering the relationship between women managers and their relational
This document discusses the development of a leadership staffing model for frontline supervisors in the public sector. It proposes that a uniform model across public agencies could increase efficiency by allowing leadership to develop common areas. The model will focus on activities common in the public sector, examining several agency staffing functions to identify an effective leadership approach. A key theme is determining a leadership staffing model that can be used throughout the public sector.
A study on the relationship between leadership styles and leadership effectiv...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the relationship between leadership styles and leadership effectiveness in Malaysian government-linked companies (GLCs). It provides background on GLCs and leadership effectiveness. Leadership styles examined include transformational, transactional, and passive/avoidant styles. A survey was conducted of 325 leaders in GLCs using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire to assess relationships between styles and effectiveness. Results found transactional leadership was the most demonstrated style. Transformational and transactional styles positively correlated with effectiveness measures, while passive/avoidant styles negatively correlated or had low correlation.
WHERE IS THE RUNNING HEAD 1
WHERE IS THE RUNNING HEAD 5
Where is the title and why did you put in an abstract?
Just FOLLOW DIRECTIONS
Abstract
The above is not even centered
Leadership in organizations plays an important role in ensuring the company's objectives are attained with the monitoring of daily organizational operations. Leadership structures the decision-making process within an organization, which explains the intended purpose of the operations within the organization. Leadership varies depending on the nature of the organization's operations in chasing its goals; hence, decisions require scrutiny and understanding of the concerns within the organization. This paper gives concepts on leadership and explains different theories in meeting the expected goal of the organizations.
Comparison and contrasting Contrasting of leadership Leadership theoriesTheories
Different leadership theories follow values that the management concludes to be effective in extracting intended results hence differences in the leadership theories we discuss in this paper. There are different leadership theories, including situational leadership theory, which educates leaders on dealing with matters. In contrast, behavioral theory indicates learning skills toward becoming a good leader. The strengths of handling situations include saving on the costs of maintaining and deciding on methods to undertake in expecting positive results (Zaccaro et al., 2018). The response to situations is administered after the occurrence and the need for leadership qualities. Many leaders prefer situational leadership since a short time is taken to make decisions on situations at hand, which makes the responses effective as solutions. The strategy involves high expertise since its expectations of the decisions would be certain and accurate leadership. Behavioral leadership involves developing habits from practice in certain leadership skills through gaining experience in a certain field.
The leadership theory shapes leaders' characters and makes them familiar with issues they would have experienced during the learning process. Behaviors developed would influence decisions made in the organization since risks and strategies in fulfilling the plans would be evaluated adequately. The character of individuals grows with exposure to many issues in the organization and industry, hence the ability to make informed decisions in leading the organization. Adopting foreign skills improves the organization's quality in market sales since the leadership standards would be similar to those in foreign markets (Offermann & Coats, 2018). Trait leadership portrays similar qualities to behavioral leadership because of the common objective of leaders mastering the skill of leadership through learning. However, the theories differ in behavior adoption, where behaviors are perceived to be innate .
The Influence of Leadership on Followers Performance among Bottle Water Compa...Dr. Amarjeet Singh
This study aimed to investigate the relationship between leadership style and followers' performance in bottle water companies in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. It identified democratic, autocratic, participative, and transactional leadership styles as the independent variables, and followers' performance as the dependent variable.
A questionnaire was distributed to 100 employees across several bottle water companies, with a response rate of 90%. The results found that democratic leadership had a mean range of 3.04-3.34 and was agreed to have a high impact on followers' performance. Autocratic leadership obtained a mean range of 3.20-3.50 and was also agreed to highly impact performance. Overall, the study concluded that leadership styles positively impact followers, but each style
Influence of power bases on leadership strategies adopted byAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that examined the relationship between power bases and leadership strategies in information technology organizations. The study surveyed 515 employees from 87 IT companies to measure managers' power bases using French and Raven's taxonomy and leadership strategies using Cooke's instrument. The findings showed that managers in IT organizations most strongly utilize legitimate formal power, which influences prescriptive and restrictive leadership strategies. Personal power bases like referent and expert power were also highly used, while coercive formal power was the least utilized. The study provides insights into how power and leadership are enacted in the IT sector context.
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and .docxaryan532920
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and Marketing, 7(1), 30-46, March 30
Leadership Styles of Effective Project Managers: Techniques and Traits to Lead High
Performance Teams
Melissa DuBois, John Hanlon, Jodi Koch, Betty Nyatuga, Nathan Kerr
College of Engineering, Drexel University, USA
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
Project management is a growing practice and is being utilized in an increasing number of
facilities. The project manager is at the head of this project process, and has an important role of
overseeing the project and project team, and ultimately ensuring the project ends in success.
Analyzing critical qualities of leadership and determining their positive impact can benefit
project managers in any industry and therefore promote project success. A few of these
leadership styles include: team building, establishing clear relations and roles between project
members, openness, self-confidence, organization, and clearly defining project successes,
reevaluating when necessary. These leadership styles and traits were researched and analyzed to
determine the extent they contribute to the construction, execution, and closure of the project. By
adopting these qualities, the project’s stakeholders such as investors, clients, or patients are more
likely to feel the positive impact of a successful project. Projects can also move more smoothly
and efficiently, receiving positive results in less time. This is beneficial not only to the
stakeholders, but to all members involved: the organization, the project manager, executive staff,
team members, and outsourced facilities. It is not enough to possess one of these crucial traits.
As seen in literature and historical examples, a combination is necessary to create balance and
develop into a leader that can produce an efficient team and satisfactory end results.
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and Marketing, 7(1), 30-46, March 31
Introduction
In today’s increasingly complex global economy and shrinking geography, corporations,
governments, and other organizations are turning to a project management model to facilitate
successful endeavors that enhance their products, services, policies, and procedures. Project
management has proven to be a vehicle to oversee these short-term but strategic ventures. More
than ever, these organizations are recognizing that these projects require not just a project
manager, but a project leader. According to Pandya (2014), project leaders are accountable for
the day-to-day oversight of the project, the triple constraint of time, budget, and quality as any
manager is. However, they also need to manage change, assure resource availability, address
behavioral and emotional flares with internal and external stakeholders ...
This study examined the impact of leadership style on employee job satisfaction in the hospitality industry. A survey of 300 hospitality employees found:
1) Transactional, transformational, and laissez-faire leadership styles had a significant positive relationship with employee job satisfaction, while the autocratic style had a negative relationship.
2) Factors like empowerment, promotion opportunities, fair pay and rewards, and performance evaluations were important for job satisfaction.
3) Leadership style significantly influenced job satisfaction levels, so implementing the right leadership approach can enhance satisfaction and reduce turnover in the hospitality sector.
University leadership and management of research for national transformation ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on how university leadership in Nigeria has stimulated research for national transformation. It was found that universities have not realized this goal due to poor, ineffective, and autocratic leadership. The author recommends that vice-chancellors adopt a contingency leadership style to harness resources, gain cooperation, generate more funding, and promote industrial harmony to enable research and development for national progress.
Influence of Leadership Traits on Team Performance as Correlates of Success i...civej
This document summarizes a research study that assessed the influence of leadership traits on team performance and project success in the construction industry in Nigeria. The study evaluated 12 collaborative leadership traits and their impact on team spirit and satisfaction, which were used as measures of team performance. A survey was conducted with 172 professionals from 42 large construction projects. The results showed that collaborative leadership traits highly promoted team spirit factors like involvement, communication and commitment. The traits also had an average influence on other team spirit factors like self-confidence, loyalty and consultation. The study helps advance understanding of effective leadership traits for successful project delivery in the Nigerian research environment.
INFLUENCE OF LEADERSHIP TRAITS ON TEAM PERFORMANCE AS CORRELATES OF SUCCESS I...civej
The project environment in Nigeria is shifting from traditional practice towards dispersed teams thereby
creating the need to understand leadership attributes that lead to successful project outcomes. This study
assessed the impact of leadership traits on team performance as correlates of success in construction
projects. Like many other management research, the study involve inferential survey. 172 participants
drawn from the different professions in the construction industry selected from 42 mega projects completed
in the last three years in south-south Nigeria were sampled. Twelve collaborative leadership traits drawn
from emotional, managerial competencies were tested against team performance and team spirit stimulants
from the literature. Mean item score was used to evaluate relevance of the traits to collaborative working
while hypotheses were tested using chi square. While the result of the study is not different from literature,
the far reaching implication is that, project team members’ satisfaction translates into successful projects.
Project management’s leadership quest to satisfy the project team must be guided towards collaboration.
The current result has advance significantly the understanding of team leadership attributes for the
research environment and further buttress the need to meet project participants’ mutual objectives for a
successful project.
Relationship between transformational leadership, Innovation, Learning and Gr...Editor IJCATR
This document discusses the relationship between transformational leadership, innovation, learning and growth, and internal processes in government organizations. It first provides definitions and components of transformational leadership, including vision, inspirational communication, supportive leadership, intellectual stimulation, and personal recognition. It then discusses the relationships between these aspects of transformational leadership and innovation, learning and growth, and internal processes. The document conducts a literature review on empirical research that has studied the impact of transformational leadership on organizational performance dimensions.
The document provides an overview of a seminar on leadership. It discusses different concepts of leadership including definitions, theories of leadership styles such as transactional vs transformational, and skills needed for effective leadership. Transactional leadership focuses on day-to-day management while transformational leadership inspires followers and enables change. Several leadership theories are examined, including trait, behavioral, situational, and various management theories. Characteristics of effective leadership are also outlined.
Challenges in leading and managing people in educational institutions are worthwhile indicators that require constant checks and adjustments. These verifications are necessary because humans are complex beings and whose thinking faculties are not fixed and often guided by situational and environmental factors. Consequently, they must have divergent views which may pose unpredictable problems to administrators. Only very smart and ardent leaders maybe quick to detect, withstand and overcome such inevitables. The need for such challenges to be identified and controlled before they galvanize subordinates into negative behavioral tendencies cannot be under-estimated. This paper therefore examined possible challenges which may manifest as impediments or hindrances to the effective leading and managing of people in educational institutions in Cameroon. A number of challenges were examined and discussed in the paper. Suggestions for ways of checking and controlling the challenges have been made to serve as a reservoir of checks and guides for school administrators and leaders. The paper cautions school managers to be tactful and apply modern charismatic approaches in the control, directing of staff and managing of their institutions.
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior.docxjeremylockett77
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Mediating
Effect of Subordinates’ Competence and Downward Influence Tactics
Lee Kim Lian
UCSI University
Low Guan Tui
Vesseltech Engineering Sdn Bhd
The objective of this study is to test a theory-based model predicting the relationships between leadership
styles, subordinates’ competence, downward influence tactics and outcome of organizational citizenship
behavior in Malaysian-based organizations. Data was collected from 347 respondents that represent
major industries like services, manufacturing, mining and construction companies. Path analysis
technique was used to test the model developed. The results show that the transformational leadership
style has significant positive relationship with subordinates’ organizational citizenship behavior, whereas
the transactional leader style is negatively related to organizational citizenship behavior. This result
illustrates the direct effects of leadership styles on the subordinates’ outcome. In addition, inspirational
appeals and consultation tactics, as downward influence tactics, were found to mediate the relationship
between transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. Likewise, subordinates’
competence mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and consultation tactics.
These results only partially support the efficacy of the influence theory, and therefore lend support to
contingency theories of leadership. Implications for research and direction for future research are also
discussed.
INTRODUCTION
This study explores how superior leadership styles may impact subordinates’ organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB). The importance of leadership style as predictor of OCB has been well
established in Western settings (Bass, 1985; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Morrman & Fetter,
1990; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Podsakoff, MacKenzie &
Bommer, 1996; MacKenzie, Podsakoff & Rich, 2001; Geyer & Steyrer, 1998; Wang, Law, Hackett,
Wang, Chen, 2005; Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006; Boerner, Eisenbeiss, Griesser, 2007). However,
there is scant research explore the indirect effects between this two variables. Hence, the inclusion of
subordinates’ competence and downward influence tactics served to investigate the role of intervening
effect between leadership styles and OCB.
Several researchers have suggested that leadership research needs to focus more on the “fundamental”
issues, such as influence processes that characterize leader-follower interaction (Bass, 1990; Hollander &
Offermann, 1990; Yukl, 1989). Research has also shown that effective leaders must have the ability to
recognize when to use different tactics of influence as well as the skill necessary to effectively carry out
Journal of Applied Business and Economics vol. 13(2) 2012 59
these influence attempts (Kipnis, Schmidt & Wilkinson, 1980; Yu.
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior.docxcroysierkathey
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Mediating
Effect of Subordinates’ Competence and Downward Influence Tactics
Lee Kim Lian
UCSI University
Low Guan Tui
Vesseltech Engineering Sdn Bhd
The objective of this study is to test a theory-based model predicting the relationships between leadership
styles, subordinates’ competence, downward influence tactics and outcome of organizational citizenship
behavior in Malaysian-based organizations. Data was collected from 347 respondents that represent
major industries like services, manufacturing, mining and construction companies. Path analysis
technique was used to test the model developed. The results show that the transformational leadership
style has significant positive relationship with subordinates’ organizational citizenship behavior, whereas
the transactional leader style is negatively related to organizational citizenship behavior. This result
illustrates the direct effects of leadership styles on the subordinates’ outcome. In addition, inspirational
appeals and consultation tactics, as downward influence tactics, were found to mediate the relationship
between transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. Likewise, subordinates’
competence mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and consultation tactics.
These results only partially support the efficacy of the influence theory, and therefore lend support to
contingency theories of leadership. Implications for research and direction for future research are also
discussed.
INTRODUCTION
This study explores how superior leadership styles may impact subordinates’ organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB). The importance of leadership style as predictor of OCB has been well
established in Western settings (Bass, 1985; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Morrman & Fetter,
1990; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Podsakoff, MacKenzie &
Bommer, 1996; MacKenzie, Podsakoff & Rich, 2001; Geyer & Steyrer, 1998; Wang, Law, Hackett,
Wang, Chen, 2005; Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006; Boerner, Eisenbeiss, Griesser, 2007). However,
there is scant research explore the indirect effects between this two variables. Hence, the inclusion of
subordinates’ competence and downward influence tactics served to investigate the role of intervening
effect between leadership styles and OCB.
Several researchers have suggested that leadership research needs to focus more on the “fundamental”
issues, such as influence processes that characterize leader-follower interaction (Bass, 1990; Hollander &
Offermann, 1990; Yukl, 1989). Research has also shown that effective leaders must have the ability to
recognize when to use different tactics of influence as well as the skill necessary to effectively carry out
Journal of Applied Business and Economics vol. 13(2) 2012 59
these influence attempts (Kipnis, Schmidt & Wilkinson, 1980; Yu ...
Analyze MVPIThe motives, values, and preferences inventory (MV.docxikirkton
Analyze MVPI
The motives, values, and preferences inventory (MVPI) is used to identify the motives and values most important to an individual. Understanding the personal values of the individuals who make up a team can be useful in understanding the team dynamics and help a manager build and sustain teamwork within the organization.
Refer to the 10 core values (listed below) evaluated on the MVPI.
Rank order the traits according to the value you assign to them, with 1 being the trait you value the most in a team member and 10 being the trait you value the least.
Explain the rationale for your ranking. Give an example of each trait drawn from your experience or observations.
MVPI Values
Recognition:
Desire for attention, approval, and praise
Power:
Desire for success, accomplishment, status, competition, and control
Hedonism:
Desire for fun, pleasure, and recreation
Altruism:
Concern about the welfare of others and contribution to a better society
Affiliation:
Desire for enjoyment of social interaction
Tradition:
Concern for established values of conduct
Security:
Desire for certainty, order, and predictability in employment and finance
Science:
quest for knowledge, research, technology, and data
Aesthetics:
need for self-expression, concern over look, feel, and design of work products
Commerce:
interest in money, profits, investment, and business opportunities
.
Analyze and interpret the following quotation The confrontation of.docxikirkton
Analyze and interpret the following quotation: “The confrontation of Western civilization with other peoples whose values were often dramatically opposed to the West’s…suggests that by the dawn of the twentieth century, the tradition and sense of centeredness that had defined indigenous cultures for hundreds, even thousands, of years was either threatened or in the process of being destroyed. Worldwide, non-Western cultures suddenly found that they were defined as outposts of new colonial empires developed by Europeans, resulting in the weakening of traditional cultural practices, political leadership, and social systems that had been in place for centuries.” (Sayre, 2013, pp. 410-411).
In the later nineteenth and early twentieth century, what would this “loss of centeredness” of culture have meant for a given cultural group? Select from among the non-Western cultural groups noted in the text (Native American, Chinese, Indian, Japanese, or African) and research the impact of Western or European cultures on that group.
What was the selected non-Western culture like prior to the late nineteenth century? How did it change as a result of European expansion? How is this change representative of what Sayre calls a “loss of centeredness?” Be sure to use specific examples and details.
Submit your findings in a 4-page essay in APA format.
.
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Running Head INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP .docxcowinhelen
Running Head: INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP 1
INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP 4
Influential Leadership
Name:
Course:
Affiliation:
Instructor:
Date of Submission:
INFLUENTIAL LEADERSHIP OUTLINE
A. Introduction
In this part of the study, we try to discuss influential leadership in the current leadership generation. The intention of this part is to make sure that the readers are aware of what the discussion is all about (Postero, 2016). Further, we try to disseminate the different kinds of leadership which are used by the influential leaders and also the impact they have on different company success. It covers some surveys which have been done on the different roles leaders have when it comes to influence. It also focuses on the impact of changes in management paradigms and how that has some impact on leadership (Bae et al., 2013).
B. Meaning of terms
i. Leadership
Covers the meaning of leadership in details. In this part, we discover there is a difference to lead and to manage (Makala & David, 2010)
ii. Influence
Identifies the meaning of influence and how one can be influential (Hilley, 2012).The paper will study an extensive study of how leaders can use their leadership styles to influence performance in organizations (Murray et al., 2011).
C. Theory
This is a study of the relationship that the leaders and the followers. The intention of this part is to give a detailed study of the relationship between the followers and how to create a shared purpose among the two (Crozier & Priestley, 2011)
. The theory meant to show how the leaders can use their abilities to create followers in the different field they are acting on (Malek et al., 2015).
D. Factors that determine influential leadership
i. Organizational factors
These are factors which are within the organization which are very pertinent and makes a leader influential (You, 2014). This part of the leadership influence is abused in the fact that a problem will come up, and the leader will find a way through which they can manage to influence he workers capitalizing on the solution to the problems (Cote et al., 2015).
ii. Group factors
These are the factors that group members of an organization do to see that the workers have a following for a leader. This factor makes a leader one who focusses on the personal traits of every member of an organization (Zhang & Chua, 2011).
iii. Individual factors
This is a study of how a leader behaves and how that influences results and how one acts about that. A leader can have a following when he or she can use the personal traits that will have the rest of members of the organization following (Eichmann, 2001).
iv. Relations with coworkers
This studies how a leader can use the influence he or she has to make sure that they command a following out of this. Any leader who does not have a ...
Comprehensıve Evaluatıon of The Impact of Female Managers On Followers Under ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Leadership, which is a widely researched topic and plays an important role in different
disciplines, is discussed in a broad scope ranging from social organizations, education, politics, to philosophy.
Technological, cultural and socio-economic developments have transformed the leadership paradigm and the
expectations of the followers. To adapt to these transformations and achieve positive outcomes in organizations,
a new perspective such as authentic leadership is needed. Authentic leadership means that the leader acts in
harmony with himself and others, stays loyal to his values and builds trust with his followers. Authentic
leadership also emphasizes that the leader needs to constantly improve himself, be original and creative, share
his vision and adhere to ethical values. In this study, many academic studies were examined in order to
comprehensively evaluate the impact of women managers on the followers under the authentic leadership
paradigm. Based on the post-modern leadership theory, it is aimed to comprehensively evaluate the four
dimensions of authentic leadership basic components of women managers, which are self-awareness, balanced
and unbiased processing of information, internalized moral perspective and relational transparency, and their
impact on the followers. Considering the relationship between women managers and their relational
This document discusses the development of a leadership staffing model for frontline supervisors in the public sector. It proposes that a uniform model across public agencies could increase efficiency by allowing leadership to develop common areas. The model will focus on activities common in the public sector, examining several agency staffing functions to identify an effective leadership approach. A key theme is determining a leadership staffing model that can be used throughout the public sector.
A study on the relationship between leadership styles and leadership effectiv...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the relationship between leadership styles and leadership effectiveness in Malaysian government-linked companies (GLCs). It provides background on GLCs and leadership effectiveness. Leadership styles examined include transformational, transactional, and passive/avoidant styles. A survey was conducted of 325 leaders in GLCs using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire to assess relationships between styles and effectiveness. Results found transactional leadership was the most demonstrated style. Transformational and transactional styles positively correlated with effectiveness measures, while passive/avoidant styles negatively correlated or had low correlation.
WHERE IS THE RUNNING HEAD 1
WHERE IS THE RUNNING HEAD 5
Where is the title and why did you put in an abstract?
Just FOLLOW DIRECTIONS
Abstract
The above is not even centered
Leadership in organizations plays an important role in ensuring the company's objectives are attained with the monitoring of daily organizational operations. Leadership structures the decision-making process within an organization, which explains the intended purpose of the operations within the organization. Leadership varies depending on the nature of the organization's operations in chasing its goals; hence, decisions require scrutiny and understanding of the concerns within the organization. This paper gives concepts on leadership and explains different theories in meeting the expected goal of the organizations.
Comparison and contrasting Contrasting of leadership Leadership theoriesTheories
Different leadership theories follow values that the management concludes to be effective in extracting intended results hence differences in the leadership theories we discuss in this paper. There are different leadership theories, including situational leadership theory, which educates leaders on dealing with matters. In contrast, behavioral theory indicates learning skills toward becoming a good leader. The strengths of handling situations include saving on the costs of maintaining and deciding on methods to undertake in expecting positive results (Zaccaro et al., 2018). The response to situations is administered after the occurrence and the need for leadership qualities. Many leaders prefer situational leadership since a short time is taken to make decisions on situations at hand, which makes the responses effective as solutions. The strategy involves high expertise since its expectations of the decisions would be certain and accurate leadership. Behavioral leadership involves developing habits from practice in certain leadership skills through gaining experience in a certain field.
The leadership theory shapes leaders' characters and makes them familiar with issues they would have experienced during the learning process. Behaviors developed would influence decisions made in the organization since risks and strategies in fulfilling the plans would be evaluated adequately. The character of individuals grows with exposure to many issues in the organization and industry, hence the ability to make informed decisions in leading the organization. Adopting foreign skills improves the organization's quality in market sales since the leadership standards would be similar to those in foreign markets (Offermann & Coats, 2018). Trait leadership portrays similar qualities to behavioral leadership because of the common objective of leaders mastering the skill of leadership through learning. However, the theories differ in behavior adoption, where behaviors are perceived to be innate .
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This study aimed to investigate the relationship between leadership style and followers' performance in bottle water companies in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. It identified democratic, autocratic, participative, and transactional leadership styles as the independent variables, and followers' performance as the dependent variable.
A questionnaire was distributed to 100 employees across several bottle water companies, with a response rate of 90%. The results found that democratic leadership had a mean range of 3.04-3.34 and was agreed to have a high impact on followers' performance. Autocratic leadership obtained a mean range of 3.20-3.50 and was also agreed to highly impact performance. Overall, the study concluded that leadership styles positively impact followers, but each style
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Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and .docxaryan532920
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and Marketing, 7(1), 30-46, March 30
Leadership Styles of Effective Project Managers: Techniques and Traits to Lead High
Performance Teams
Melissa DuBois, John Hanlon, Jodi Koch, Betty Nyatuga, Nathan Kerr
College of Engineering, Drexel University, USA
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
Project management is a growing practice and is being utilized in an increasing number of
facilities. The project manager is at the head of this project process, and has an important role of
overseeing the project and project team, and ultimately ensuring the project ends in success.
Analyzing critical qualities of leadership and determining their positive impact can benefit
project managers in any industry and therefore promote project success. A few of these
leadership styles include: team building, establishing clear relations and roles between project
members, openness, self-confidence, organization, and clearly defining project successes,
reevaluating when necessary. These leadership styles and traits were researched and analyzed to
determine the extent they contribute to the construction, execution, and closure of the project. By
adopting these qualities, the project’s stakeholders such as investors, clients, or patients are more
likely to feel the positive impact of a successful project. Projects can also move more smoothly
and efficiently, receiving positive results in less time. This is beneficial not only to the
stakeholders, but to all members involved: the organization, the project manager, executive staff,
team members, and outsourced facilities. It is not enough to possess one of these crucial traits.
As seen in literature and historical examples, a combination is necessary to create balance and
develop into a leader that can produce an efficient team and satisfactory end results.
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
Journal of Economic Development, Management, IT, Finance and Marketing, 7(1), 30-46, March 31
Introduction
In today’s increasingly complex global economy and shrinking geography, corporations,
governments, and other organizations are turning to a project management model to facilitate
successful endeavors that enhance their products, services, policies, and procedures. Project
management has proven to be a vehicle to oversee these short-term but strategic ventures. More
than ever, these organizations are recognizing that these projects require not just a project
manager, but a project leader. According to Pandya (2014), project leaders are accountable for
the day-to-day oversight of the project, the triple constraint of time, budget, and quality as any
manager is. However, they also need to manage change, assure resource availability, address
behavioral and emotional flares with internal and external stakeholders ...
This study examined the impact of leadership style on employee job satisfaction in the hospitality industry. A survey of 300 hospitality employees found:
1) Transactional, transformational, and laissez-faire leadership styles had a significant positive relationship with employee job satisfaction, while the autocratic style had a negative relationship.
2) Factors like empowerment, promotion opportunities, fair pay and rewards, and performance evaluations were important for job satisfaction.
3) Leadership style significantly influenced job satisfaction levels, so implementing the right leadership approach can enhance satisfaction and reduce turnover in the hospitality sector.
University leadership and management of research for national transformation ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on how university leadership in Nigeria has stimulated research for national transformation. It was found that universities have not realized this goal due to poor, ineffective, and autocratic leadership. The author recommends that vice-chancellors adopt a contingency leadership style to harness resources, gain cooperation, generate more funding, and promote industrial harmony to enable research and development for national progress.
Influence of Leadership Traits on Team Performance as Correlates of Success i...civej
This document summarizes a research study that assessed the influence of leadership traits on team performance and project success in the construction industry in Nigeria. The study evaluated 12 collaborative leadership traits and their impact on team spirit and satisfaction, which were used as measures of team performance. A survey was conducted with 172 professionals from 42 large construction projects. The results showed that collaborative leadership traits highly promoted team spirit factors like involvement, communication and commitment. The traits also had an average influence on other team spirit factors like self-confidence, loyalty and consultation. The study helps advance understanding of effective leadership traits for successful project delivery in the Nigerian research environment.
INFLUENCE OF LEADERSHIP TRAITS ON TEAM PERFORMANCE AS CORRELATES OF SUCCESS I...civej
The project environment in Nigeria is shifting from traditional practice towards dispersed teams thereby
creating the need to understand leadership attributes that lead to successful project outcomes. This study
assessed the impact of leadership traits on team performance as correlates of success in construction
projects. Like many other management research, the study involve inferential survey. 172 participants
drawn from the different professions in the construction industry selected from 42 mega projects completed
in the last three years in south-south Nigeria were sampled. Twelve collaborative leadership traits drawn
from emotional, managerial competencies were tested against team performance and team spirit stimulants
from the literature. Mean item score was used to evaluate relevance of the traits to collaborative working
while hypotheses were tested using chi square. While the result of the study is not different from literature,
the far reaching implication is that, project team members’ satisfaction translates into successful projects.
Project management’s leadership quest to satisfy the project team must be guided towards collaboration.
The current result has advance significantly the understanding of team leadership attributes for the
research environment and further buttress the need to meet project participants’ mutual objectives for a
successful project.
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This document discusses the relationship between transformational leadership, innovation, learning and growth, and internal processes in government organizations. It first provides definitions and components of transformational leadership, including vision, inspirational communication, supportive leadership, intellectual stimulation, and personal recognition. It then discusses the relationships between these aspects of transformational leadership and innovation, learning and growth, and internal processes. The document conducts a literature review on empirical research that has studied the impact of transformational leadership on organizational performance dimensions.
The document provides an overview of a seminar on leadership. It discusses different concepts of leadership including definitions, theories of leadership styles such as transactional vs transformational, and skills needed for effective leadership. Transactional leadership focuses on day-to-day management while transformational leadership inspires followers and enables change. Several leadership theories are examined, including trait, behavioral, situational, and various management theories. Characteristics of effective leadership are also outlined.
Challenges in leading and managing people in educational institutions are worthwhile indicators that require constant checks and adjustments. These verifications are necessary because humans are complex beings and whose thinking faculties are not fixed and often guided by situational and environmental factors. Consequently, they must have divergent views which may pose unpredictable problems to administrators. Only very smart and ardent leaders maybe quick to detect, withstand and overcome such inevitables. The need for such challenges to be identified and controlled before they galvanize subordinates into negative behavioral tendencies cannot be under-estimated. This paper therefore examined possible challenges which may manifest as impediments or hindrances to the effective leading and managing of people in educational institutions in Cameroon. A number of challenges were examined and discussed in the paper. Suggestions for ways of checking and controlling the challenges have been made to serve as a reservoir of checks and guides for school administrators and leaders. The paper cautions school managers to be tactful and apply modern charismatic approaches in the control, directing of staff and managing of their institutions.
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior.docxjeremylockett77
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Mediating
Effect of Subordinates’ Competence and Downward Influence Tactics
Lee Kim Lian
UCSI University
Low Guan Tui
Vesseltech Engineering Sdn Bhd
The objective of this study is to test a theory-based model predicting the relationships between leadership
styles, subordinates’ competence, downward influence tactics and outcome of organizational citizenship
behavior in Malaysian-based organizations. Data was collected from 347 respondents that represent
major industries like services, manufacturing, mining and construction companies. Path analysis
technique was used to test the model developed. The results show that the transformational leadership
style has significant positive relationship with subordinates’ organizational citizenship behavior, whereas
the transactional leader style is negatively related to organizational citizenship behavior. This result
illustrates the direct effects of leadership styles on the subordinates’ outcome. In addition, inspirational
appeals and consultation tactics, as downward influence tactics, were found to mediate the relationship
between transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. Likewise, subordinates’
competence mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and consultation tactics.
These results only partially support the efficacy of the influence theory, and therefore lend support to
contingency theories of leadership. Implications for research and direction for future research are also
discussed.
INTRODUCTION
This study explores how superior leadership styles may impact subordinates’ organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB). The importance of leadership style as predictor of OCB has been well
established in Western settings (Bass, 1985; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Morrman & Fetter,
1990; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Podsakoff, MacKenzie &
Bommer, 1996; MacKenzie, Podsakoff & Rich, 2001; Geyer & Steyrer, 1998; Wang, Law, Hackett,
Wang, Chen, 2005; Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006; Boerner, Eisenbeiss, Griesser, 2007). However,
there is scant research explore the indirect effects between this two variables. Hence, the inclusion of
subordinates’ competence and downward influence tactics served to investigate the role of intervening
effect between leadership styles and OCB.
Several researchers have suggested that leadership research needs to focus more on the “fundamental”
issues, such as influence processes that characterize leader-follower interaction (Bass, 1990; Hollander &
Offermann, 1990; Yukl, 1989). Research has also shown that effective leaders must have the ability to
recognize when to use different tactics of influence as well as the skill necessary to effectively carry out
Journal of Applied Business and Economics vol. 13(2) 2012 59
these influence attempts (Kipnis, Schmidt & Wilkinson, 1980; Yu.
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior.docxcroysierkathey
Leadership Styles and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: The Mediating
Effect of Subordinates’ Competence and Downward Influence Tactics
Lee Kim Lian
UCSI University
Low Guan Tui
Vesseltech Engineering Sdn Bhd
The objective of this study is to test a theory-based model predicting the relationships between leadership
styles, subordinates’ competence, downward influence tactics and outcome of organizational citizenship
behavior in Malaysian-based organizations. Data was collected from 347 respondents that represent
major industries like services, manufacturing, mining and construction companies. Path analysis
technique was used to test the model developed. The results show that the transformational leadership
style has significant positive relationship with subordinates’ organizational citizenship behavior, whereas
the transactional leader style is negatively related to organizational citizenship behavior. This result
illustrates the direct effects of leadership styles on the subordinates’ outcome. In addition, inspirational
appeals and consultation tactics, as downward influence tactics, were found to mediate the relationship
between transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behavior. Likewise, subordinates’
competence mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and consultation tactics.
These results only partially support the efficacy of the influence theory, and therefore lend support to
contingency theories of leadership. Implications for research and direction for future research are also
discussed.
INTRODUCTION
This study explores how superior leadership styles may impact subordinates’ organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB). The importance of leadership style as predictor of OCB has been well
established in Western settings (Bass, 1985; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Morrman & Fetter,
1990; Howell & Avolio, 1993; Lowe, Kroeck & Sivasubramaniam, 1996; Podsakoff, MacKenzie &
Bommer, 1996; MacKenzie, Podsakoff & Rich, 2001; Geyer & Steyrer, 1998; Wang, Law, Hackett,
Wang, Chen, 2005; Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006; Boerner, Eisenbeiss, Griesser, 2007). However,
there is scant research explore the indirect effects between this two variables. Hence, the inclusion of
subordinates’ competence and downward influence tactics served to investigate the role of intervening
effect between leadership styles and OCB.
Several researchers have suggested that leadership research needs to focus more on the “fundamental”
issues, such as influence processes that characterize leader-follower interaction (Bass, 1990; Hollander &
Offermann, 1990; Yukl, 1989). Research has also shown that effective leaders must have the ability to
recognize when to use different tactics of influence as well as the skill necessary to effectively carry out
Journal of Applied Business and Economics vol. 13(2) 2012 59
these influence attempts (Kipnis, Schmidt & Wilkinson, 1980; Yu ...
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Analyze MVPIThe motives, values, and preferences inventory (MV.docxikirkton
Analyze MVPI
The motives, values, and preferences inventory (MVPI) is used to identify the motives and values most important to an individual. Understanding the personal values of the individuals who make up a team can be useful in understanding the team dynamics and help a manager build and sustain teamwork within the organization.
Refer to the 10 core values (listed below) evaluated on the MVPI.
Rank order the traits according to the value you assign to them, with 1 being the trait you value the most in a team member and 10 being the trait you value the least.
Explain the rationale for your ranking. Give an example of each trait drawn from your experience or observations.
MVPI Values
Recognition:
Desire for attention, approval, and praise
Power:
Desire for success, accomplishment, status, competition, and control
Hedonism:
Desire for fun, pleasure, and recreation
Altruism:
Concern about the welfare of others and contribution to a better society
Affiliation:
Desire for enjoyment of social interaction
Tradition:
Concern for established values of conduct
Security:
Desire for certainty, order, and predictability in employment and finance
Science:
quest for knowledge, research, technology, and data
Aesthetics:
need for self-expression, concern over look, feel, and design of work products
Commerce:
interest in money, profits, investment, and business opportunities
.
Analyze and interpret the following quotation The confrontation of.docxikirkton
Analyze and interpret the following quotation: “The confrontation of Western civilization with other peoples whose values were often dramatically opposed to the West’s…suggests that by the dawn of the twentieth century, the tradition and sense of centeredness that had defined indigenous cultures for hundreds, even thousands, of years was either threatened or in the process of being destroyed. Worldwide, non-Western cultures suddenly found that they were defined as outposts of new colonial empires developed by Europeans, resulting in the weakening of traditional cultural practices, political leadership, and social systems that had been in place for centuries.” (Sayre, 2013, pp. 410-411).
In the later nineteenth and early twentieth century, what would this “loss of centeredness” of culture have meant for a given cultural group? Select from among the non-Western cultural groups noted in the text (Native American, Chinese, Indian, Japanese, or African) and research the impact of Western or European cultures on that group.
What was the selected non-Western culture like prior to the late nineteenth century? How did it change as a result of European expansion? How is this change representative of what Sayre calls a “loss of centeredness?” Be sure to use specific examples and details.
Submit your findings in a 4-page essay in APA format.
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Analyze and prepare a critique of the following situation:
Mary has worked for Bob for two years. About 6 months ago, Bob asked Mary out to dinner. They had a good time together and agreed that they had some real interests in common outside of work. The pair dated for two months. Mary initially liked Bob, but he was beginning to get annoying. He called her all the time, was very pushy about her seeing him, and wanted to control all aspects of her life; both at work and at home. Mary decided to call it off. When she told Bob that she did not want to see him personally anymore, he went crazy on her. He told her she would be sorry and that he would see to it that she regretted it. Bob began to make life miserable for Mary at work. She suddenly started to get poor performance evaluations after two years of exemplary reviews. Even the managers above Bob were beginning to make comments about her poor attitude. Mary decided it was time to act. She was worried she would be fired, all because Bob wanted her to continue to date him. She loved her job and knew she did quality work. She made an appointment with the HR manager.
Using the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1991, discuss the type of sexual harassment Mary thinks she is experiencing. What are the obligations of the HR manager once Mary reports this? Discuss the likelihood that Bob would be found guilty of sexually harassing Mary. If the HR manager investigates and finds Mary is telling the truth, what should s/he do to handle the situation so that the company is not found complicit by the EEOC if further complaint is made? If found in Mary's favor, what options does the HR manager have to remedy the situation?
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The document provides guidance for analyzing the anthropological film "Jero: A Balinese Trance Seance" by discussing key concepts to explore such as cultural relativism and visual imperialism. Students are instructed to choose two or three concepts from readings and lectures to analyze how the film presents culture and ethnicity. They should consider the filmmakers' approach and construction of the presented culture, who Jero is and her significance, what was learned, and any ethical implications. Students are asked to evaluate if the filmmakers employed cultural relativism or privileged their own culture. They should also discuss how anthropology's shift may have impacted the filmmakers' approach and if it could have been more effective.
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Analyze financial statements using financial ratios.• .docxikirkton
Analyze financial statements using financial ratios.
•
Analyze and evaluate cash flows over time.
•
Use technology and information resources to research issues in financial management.
•
Write clearly and concisely about financial management using proper writing mechanics.
This project requires that you conduct a financial analysis of two, comparable organizations. You
may select any organizations that produce publicly available financial statements employing IFRS
or U.S. GAAP (both companies must follow the same GAAP). Let your professor know which two
companies you plan to study before the end of Week 2, as your selection must be approved. The
professor reserves the right to limit the number of students comparing the same two
organizations.
Assignment:
1. Carefully review the annual reports for both organizations. Comment on what approach
each company has taken in reporting to its shareholders.
(This requirement is purposely
broad to give you the freedom to talk about anything that comes under the broad title of
“reporting to shareholders”).
2. Prepare a ratio analysis for both companies including a trend analysis for three years.
Comment on the significance of the ratios for each company (do they indicate that things
are all right, do they suggest that problems exist, or is it likely that problems will occur in
the future?). Comment specifically on the similarities and differences among the ratios
calculated for both companies and comparison to any benchmark.
3.
Prepare an analysis of the cash flow statements for both companies.
4. List and discuss the importance of the two most significant accounting policies adopted
by the two organizations (you should select the same two policies for both organizations).
Explain the options selected by both companies and comment on any differences that
you see. Explain what other policies the organizations could have selected and state why
you think they selected one policy over another.
5. Provide the URL’s for each company’s Annual Report.
Your assignment should adhere to these guidelines:
•
Write in a logical, well-organized conventional business style. Use Times New Roman
font size 12 or similar, double space, and leave ample white space per page.
•
All references must follow JWMI style guide and works must be cited appropriately.
Check with your professor for any additional instructions on citations.
•
On the first page or in a header, include the title of the assignment, the student’s name,
the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. Reference pages are not included in
the assignment page length.
•
Faculty members have discretion to penalize for assignments that do not follow these
guidelines. Check with your individual professor if you feel the assignment r
much longer or shorter treatment than recommended.
The two companies are: Walm.
Analyze and prepare a critique of the following situationMary has.docxikirkton
Analyze and prepare a critique of the following situation:
Mary has worked for Bob for two years. About 6 months ago, Bob asked Mary out to dinner. They had a good time together and agreed that they had some real interests in common outside of work. The pair dated for two months. Mary initially liked Bob, but he was beginning to get annoying. He called her all the time, was very pushy about her seeing him, and wanted to control all aspects of her life; both at work and at home. Mary decided to call it off. When she told Bob that she did not want to see him personally anymore, he went crazy on her. He told her she would be sorry and that he would see to it that she regretted it. Bob began to make life miserable for Mary at work. She suddenly started to get poor performance evaluations after two years of exemplary reviews. Even the managers above Bob were beginning to make comments about her poor attitude. Mary decided it was time to act. She was worried she would be fired, all because Bob wanted her to continue to date him. She loved her job and knew she did quality work. She made an appointment with the HR manager.
Using the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1991, discuss the type of sexual harassment Mary thinks she is experiencing. What are the obligations of the HR manager once Mary reports this? Discuss the likelihood that Bob would be found guilty of sexually harassing Mary. If the HR manager investigates and finds Mary is telling the truth, what should s/he do to handle the situation so that the company is not found complicit by the EEOC if further complaint is made? If found in Mary's favor, what options does the HR manager have to remedy the situation?
Site references in APA format
.
Analyze Alternative Exchange Rate RegimesThere are several argum.docxikirkton
Analyze Alternative Exchange Rate Regimes
There are several arguments for and against the alternative exchange rate regimes. Prepare a 2- to 4-page paper presenting both sides of the argument. In your paper:
List and explain the advantages of the flexible exchange rate regime.
Criticize the flexible exchange rate regime from the viewpoint of the proponents of the fixed exchange rate regime.
Refute the above criticism from the viewpoint of the proponents of the flexible exchange rate regime.
Discuss the impact the increased volatility in interest and foreign exchange rates has on global institutions.
Assignment 3 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Listed and explained the advantages of the flexible exchange rate regime.
24
Criticized the flexible exchange rate regime from the viewpoint of the proponents of the fixed exchange rate regime.
24
Refuted the above criticism from the viewpoint of the proponents of the flexible exchange rate regime.
20
Discussed the impact the increased volatility in interest and foreign exchange rates has on global institutions.
20
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
12
Total:
100
.
Analyze and evaluate the different leadership theories and behavior .docxikirkton
Analyze and evaluate the different leadership theories and behavior approaches, including the Tuckman four stages of group development model.
Evaluate the importance of the internal environmental factors that include the cultural, language, political, and technological differences.
Apply the necessary steps to overcome the identified challenges with the different sources of power that must be taken into account.
Deliverable Length:
4-5 Body Pages
.
Analytical essay report about polio 1ِ- An introductory paragraph .docxikirkton
Analytical essay report about polio
1ِ- An introductory paragraph
2 - A background paragraph that includes factual and historical information about polio
3 - three body paragraph that explain the epidemic and illustrate its significance
4- A concluding paragraph
5- An end of text reference page with reference for all source referred to as you wrote your report
.
Analysis Essay 1DUE Feb 23, 2014 1155 PMGrade DetailsGrade.docxikirkton
Analysis Essay 1
DUE: Feb 23, 2014 11:55 PM
Grade Details
Grade
N/A
Gradebook Comments
None
Assignment Details
Open Date
Feb 3, 2014 12:05 AM
Graded?
Yes
Points Possible
100.0
Resubmissions Allowed?
No
Attachments checked for originality?
Yes
.
AnalogíasComplete the analogies. Follow the model.Modelomuer.docxikirkton
Este documento presenta dos analogías incompletas que deben completarse siguiendo el modelo dado. También presenta una conversación incompleta que debe completarse haciendo los cambios necesarios, omitiendo las palabras "cambiar" y "edad".
ANA Buenos días, señor González. ¿Cómo (1) (2) SR. GONZÁLEZ .docxikirkton
Ana se encuentra con el Sr. González y le presenta a Antonio. El Sr. González le da la bienvenida a Antonio y le pregunta de dónde es, a lo que Antonio responde que viene de México. Ana y Antonio se despiden del Sr. González.
Analyze symbolism in Jane Eyre from a Feminist point of view. Exa.docxikirkton
Analyze symbolism in Jane Eyre from a Feminist point of view.
Examples:
patriarchy
oppressed women
silence from women
4 pages paper
MLA format
Please include original source citations (Jane Eyre book)
Include in text citations from 3 specific secondary sources (sources attached)
.
An important part of research is finding sources that can be trusted.docxikirkton
An important part of research is finding sources that can be trusted.
(1) Comment on why you think it is important to scrutinize your sources to find out if they are credible or not? This can apply to our personal life as well as our academic and business life?
Can you think of an example, in every day life, where it was very important for you to trust your source? Or if not, what are some general areas of life
where you think it is especially important to trust information?
.
An incomplete Punnett square There are three possible phenotypes fo.docxikirkton
An incomplete Punnett square: There are three possible phenotypes for wing color in the species of Moon moth. Some of these moths have a red wings, others have yellow wings and some have orange wings. What type of inheritance is illustrated by the species of moth? What are the genotypes that coincide with the three phenotypes given? In a cross between two orange winged moths that produced 100 offspring how many of the offspring will be a yellow? ALSO DRAW OUT PUNNETT SQUARE!!
.
An expanded version of the accounting equation could be A + .docxikirkton
An expanded version of the accounting equation could be:
A + Rev = L + OE - Exp
A - L = Paid-in Capital - Rev - Exp
A = L + Paid-in Capital + Beginning Retained Earnings + Rev - Exp
A = L + Paid-in Capital - Rev + Exp
In the seller's records, the sale of merchandise on account would:
Increase assets and increase expenses.
Increase assets and decrease liabilities.
Increase assets and increase paid-in capital.
Increase assets and decrease revenues.
In the buyer's records, the purchase of merchandise on account would:
Increase assets and increase expenses.
Increase assets and increase liabilities.
Increase liabilities and increase paid-in capital.
Have no effect on total assets.
A debit entry will:
Decrease an asset account.
Increase a liability account.
Increase paid-in capital.
Increase an expense account.
A credit entry will:
Increase an asset account.
Increase a liability account.
Decrease paid-in capital.
Increase an expense account.
A credit entry to an account will:
Always decrease the account balance.
Always increase the account balance.
Increase the balance of a revenue account.
Increase the balance of an expense account.
A debit entry to an account will:
Always decrease the account balance.
Always increase the account balance.
Increase the balance of a revenue account.
Increase the balance of an expense account.
Sage, Inc. has 20 employees who each earn $100 per day and are paid every Friday. The end of the accounting period is on a Wednesday. How much wages should the firm accrue at the end of the period?
$2,000.
$1,000.
$0.
$6,000.
Which of the following is not one of the 5 questions of transaction analysis?
What's going on?
Which accounts are affected?
Is this an accrual?
Does the balance sheet balance?
Does my analysis make sense?
The effect of an adjustment is:
To correct an entry that was not in balance.
To increase the accuracy of the financial statements.
To record transactions not previously recorded.
To close the books.
A journal entry recording an accrual:
Results in a better matching of revenues and expenses.
Will involve a debit or credit to cash.
Will affect balance sheet accounts only.
Will most likely include a debit to a liability account
Wisdom Co. has a note payable to its bank. An adjustment is likely to be required on Wisdom's books at the end of every month that the loan is outstanding to record the:
Amount of interest paid during the month.
Amount of total interest to be paid when the note is paid off.
Amount of principal payable at the maturity date of the note.
Accrued interest expense for the month.
The accounting concept/principle being applied when an adjustment is made is usually:
matching revenue and expense.
consistency.
original cost.
materia.
An Evolving IndustryHow are the Internet and other technologies cu.docxikirkton
An Evolving Industry
How are the Internet and other technologies currently affecting the ways in which movies are produced, distributed, and exhibited? Are the changes having an impact on the quality or depth of the films? Provide specific examples as you explain your point of view.
Your initial post should be at least 150 words in length. Support your claims with examples from required material(s) and/or other scholarly resources, and properly cite any references
.
An essay addressing the definition or resemblance concerning categor.docxikirkton
An essay addressing the definition or resemblance concerning categorical placement or criteria-match reasoning. The Term is Inner Peace. This is going to be a rough draft only. APA format
3-5 pages;
3-5 scholarly sources. I would like to address inner peace as the state of living in harmoney with the enviroment, restrained from war and living peacefully. I woud like to tie into figures like Mandela and Ghandi as examples of people that have attained it.
.
How to Download & Install Module From the Odoo App Store in Odoo 17Celine George
Custom modules offer the flexibility to extend Odoo's capabilities, address unique requirements, and optimize workflows to align seamlessly with your organization's processes. By leveraging custom modules, businesses can unlock greater efficiency, productivity, and innovation, empowering them to stay competitive in today's dynamic market landscape. In this tutorial, we'll guide you step by step on how to easily download and install modules from the Odoo App Store.
Elevate Your Nonprofit's Online Presence_ A Guide to Effective SEO Strategies...TechSoup
Whether you're new to SEO or looking to refine your existing strategies, this webinar will provide you with actionable insights and practical tips to elevate your nonprofit's online presence.
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In Odoo, we can set a default value for a field during the creation of a record for a model. We have many methods in odoo for setting a default value to the field.
CapTechTalks Webinar Slides June 2024 Donovan Wright.pptxCapitolTechU
Slides from a Capitol Technology University webinar held June 20, 2024. The webinar featured Dr. Donovan Wright, presenting on the Department of Defense Digital Transformation.
2. South Africa (e-mail: [email protected])
tel: +27312608318
Reprints to be addressed to: C.N. Gerwel Proches, Graduate
School of Business and
Leadership, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville campus,
Durban, 3630, South Africa
The aim of this study was to investigate the leadership styles
utilized by women
project managers in a national electricity provider in South
Africa. In-depth,
semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 female
project managers,
and thematic analysis was then used. Certain leadership styles
and
characteristics were identified as being critical for successful
project
management. The women project managers were found to
exhibit qualities of
transformational, democratic and people-oriented leadership
styles. They did not
believe that gender should be a determinant of their leadership
style, but that
3. working as a project manager required certain leadership skills
and
competencies to meet the project’s objectives irrespective of
gender. Some of the
barriers identified were: gender stereotyping, lack of
qualifications, fear of not
succeeding, family responsibilities and lack of networking skills
and time.
The organization is a power utility company
in the Republic of South Africa. The project
environment in the organization involves
complex projects interfacing between
Engineering, Commercial and Project
Management Departments. The projects
involve many individuals across disciplines,
multi-cultural project teams (having
members from different cultural
backgrounds working in South Africa),
employing both genders and a range of age
groups. These variables result in different
behaviours that increase the complexity of
4. having to build the power stations under
major cost constraints and having to deliver
new power stations on time. Not only is
building new power stations a challenge,
but in today’s competitive world, managers
are required who will drive teams to
accomplish tasks while producing good
quality products (Lekganyane &
Oosthuizen, 2006).
During the apartheid regime, not only was
women’s representation very low, but the
situation was compounded by issues of race
and colour. Post-apartheid government
programmes such as the Commission of
Gender and Equality (Act No. 39 of 1996),
together with other policies such as the
Employment Equity Act Equity (Act No. 55
of 1998) were introduced as a means of
5. addressing the social imbalances created by
previous apartheid policies.
After 1994, the government embarked on a
transformation programme to change the
face of government by making it
representative of the diversity of society.
Women in South Africa account for 51
percent of the population, and yet prior to
1994 they accounted for less than 10
percent of management positions in
Government and Public Enterprises.
In the global perspective, gender equality
and transformation is not new. From the
18th century, the world and Africa in
particular, experienced significant changes
and advancement in terms of technological,
scientific, political changes and the
dismantling of the apartheid system. One of
6. the most notable changes worldwide and in
Africa in particular has been the
emancipation of women in terms of voting
and property rights, and lastly as holders of
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
Gender & Behaviour, 11(2), 2013
5664
high office in private, public, political and
voluntary organizations.
This study focuses on women project
managers in power stations and it identifies
leadership styles that women employ and
enquires into whether or not their
leadership styles provide them with the
competencies required to be successful as
women project managers in a male
7. dominated environment.
Literature Review
Literature suggests that the leadership
styles of men and women have, in most
cases, been stereotyped according to
gender. This has had its own impact on the
individual’s behaviour and most especially,
on how women are perceived in the working
environment (Powell, 2011).
Leadership styles play a critical
determinant role towards the advancement
of people to higher leadership positions in
an organization (Eagly & Johannesen-
Schmidt, 2001). The world we live in is
project-oriented. A project is broadly
defined as a task to be completed in order
to accomplish a goal (Meredith & Mantel,
1995). Project management is setting out to
8. accomplish the project’s goal by applying
knowledge and skills. This goal is achieved
by the project manager through
coordination and integration of all the
activities required to accomplish the goal
within a specified time, cost, quality and
performance and through the project’s
lifecycle (Meredith & Mantel, 1995; Project
Management Institute, 2004). Any project
orientated work requires individual
leadership abilities.
A project manager is a leader that
influences people to ensure that the
organization’s objectives and deliverables
are met, and is someone who is required to
have human skills to handle people and
conflict situations (Armandi, Oppedisano &
Sherman, 2003; Sunindijo, Hadikusum &
Ogunlana, 2007). Armandi et al. (2003)
9. maintain that the project manager can
accomplish these objectives through
leadership in planning, organizing and
control.
The activities to be integrated include
developing a plan, executing the plan and
making changes to the plan. Kerzner (2006)
states that integrating activities includes
converting inputs such as resources to
outputs, namely: products and profits.
Therefore, strong communication,
interpersonal skills and knowledge of the
business and technology are required by
the project manager to carry out such
duties.
Pheng and Chuvessiriporn (1997) compared
the task of a project manager to that of a
General. Just as the General is appointed
in the army to lead his troops to execute his
10. mission successfully and ultimately to win
the battle for his country, the project
manager is responsible for leading a team
towards delivering a successfully completed
project within a specified time, cost, quality
and ensuring that the customer
requirements are met. The findings on
military vs. project leadership revealed that
the style of leadership of a General is
autocratic (task-oriented) while the project
manager is ideally democratic (relationship-
oriented).
Leadership is a subject that has been
discussed broadly and at length by several
authors. There are many definitions of
leadership. Appelbaum, Audet and Miller
(2003) defined leadership as an ingredient
for corporate success which means that
rising to more senior positions requires a
person to be recognized as a leader and to
11. have full potential for leadership. A project
manager automatically assumes the role of
a leader. The leadership style determines
the success of the objectives to be delivered,
therefore, leadership is an important aspect
towards the success of the organization.
Leadership is a dynamic process, which is
influenced by different variables in an
environment/situation. A successful leader
will be in a position to apply different
leadership styles to suit different situations.
Other definitions of leadership include that
of Coughlin, Wingard and Hollihan (2005)
who referred to effective leadership as an
individual’s journey of personal
Maseko, B. & Gerwel C: Women Project Managers
5665
12. understanding that begins from within.
Yang, Huang and Wu cited DuBrin (2004,
who defined leadership as achieving goals
through communicating with others. Bass
(1990) defined leadership as collaboration
between members in a team to align with
the situation, perceptions and expectations
of the members.
All the definitions of leadership cited above
point to leadership as a set of qualities and
competencies which allows them to apply
suitable leadership styles for different
situations in an attempt to influence
subordinates towards a common goal of
achieving a task.
Different leadership traits of project
managers can determine the success of
different types of projects (Muller & Turner,
2007; Gehring 2007). Lekganyane and
13. Oosthuizen (2006) stated that strong
leadership is crucial in coping with change.
Their study capitalized on various
leadership traits which were indicated by
other authors as being relevant for
leadership success. These included:
dominance, high energy, self-confidence,
locus of control, stability, integrity,
intelligence, flexibility, sensitivity to others,
abilities and motivation. Their findings from
a study conducted on middle managers
revealed integrity, intelligence and high
energy to be the most dominant traits.
Leadership traits which were not as
dominant and required attention were
flexibility, sensitivity to others and stability.
Muller and Turner (2007) quoted Turner’s
work (1999, p.22) which identified seven
traits of effective project managers, namely,
14. “problem solving ability, results orientation,
energy and initiative, self-confidence,
perspective, communication and
negotiating ability”. Research identified the
following characteristics which describe an
effective project manager: recognizing the
importance of planning, goal-oriented,
desire for accomplishments and a sense of
team work (Dolfi & Andrews, 2007). It was
concluded that optimism of project
managers which could be learned, was a
critical quality required by project
managers to overcome chaotic challenges,
obstacles and changes in the working
environment.
An effective project manager should have
flexibility in skill and behaviour to manage
people in different types of projects and
situations, and most especially where
15. cultural differences apply (Fisher, 2011).
Having such flexibility improves the success
of delivery of projects.
Most research into the subject of leadership
has concluded that it is essential for project
success and that the temporal and
changing nature of a project requires
different styles of leadership that would be
appropriate for different project types
(Muller & Turner, 2007). Efficiency and
success in project managers requires them
to practice suitable leadership styles
(Burke, 2004).
Research on relationships between
leadership and project success, suggested
that successful project managers need to
employ flexibility in their leadership style.
Flexibility allows them to adjust and to
apply different leadership styles that will
16. suit changes in circumstances or situations
(Prabhakar, 2005; Muller & Turner, 2007).
Dolfi and Andrews (2007) study cited
Mulley and Thomas (2004) who stated that
project managers who are flexible have the
capability to adapt easily and successfully
in a working environment. Mulley and
Thomas also found that managers exhibited
a strong link between the personality type
and competency. Mulley and Thomas
concluded that the emotional (EQ)
competencies were most significant in
ensuring project success.
Studies on leadership tend to compare the
leadership styles of men and women.
Theoretical research has indicated the
existence of relationships between gender
and leadership (Chapman, 1975). When
placed in leadership positions, women tend
17. to display more relationship-oriented
behaviour as compared to men, thus being
consistent with societal expectations.
Chapman (1975) further indicated that the
empirical research done by other
researchers showed women to display
Gender & Behaviour, 11(2), 2013
5666
accommodative qualities in influencing
team performance towards achieving a goal.
In contrast, their male counterparts
displayed authoritarian qualities and
sought to gain individual advantages.
Chapman (1975) stated that there could be
an expectation of females to be task-
oriented in order to succeed in a
traditionally male environment.
18. Koch, Luft and Kruse (2005) found that
women were described as ‘communal’ –
associated with being feminine and
exhibiting traits such as soft, sentimental,
delicate, quiet, sociable, flexible and bold.
In contrast, men were associated with
masculinity and exhibiting traits such as
hard, strong, healthy, robust, tense,
instinctive, aggressive, dominant and
egoistic.
A study by Appelbaum et al. (2003) found
that women were higher on people-oriented
skills and that they tended to employ a
collaborative team approach that empowers
employees and customers. By comparison
men were higher on business-oriented
skills. It was later found that a good
manager, whether male or female, was
19. distinguished by stereotypical masculine
characteristics, contrary to Powell’s
hypothesis (Powell, 2011) that a good
manager would possess both masculine
and feminine traits (‘androgynous’). In
contrast, Appelbaum et al. (2003) found
that women utilizing ‘androgynous’
leadership would have a better chance of
rising to leadership positions.
Similarly Coughlan,Wingard and Hollihan
(2005) talked about the new and the old
leadership style. The new refers to feminine
leadership traits (open, transparent, and
caring) and is often associated with women
and perfectly suited for leaders who listen
and learn from others in order to be
effective. The old style is associated with
masculine leadership traits (aggressive,
closed and autocratic). They argued that
situations could however occur when a
20. leader should be masculine or apply both
the feminine and masculine qualities
irrespective of the gender. They stated that
according to the psychologist, Carl Jung,
women and men are each born with the
feminine and masculine side, except that
one is more prominent than the other in
each individual, which means that the one
who is able to balance both sides is an
effective leader.
Method
The research methodology that was chosen
for the study was qualitative. In-depth
interviews were conducted which presented
the opportunity to learn as much as
possible about the interviewee’s
experiences, feelings, perceptions and
emotions, thus providing rich data. The
semi-structured interviews also provided a
21. platform for conversation and interaction
between the interviewer and interviewee
and the open-ended questions provided the
interviewee with the flexibility to clarify
questions and misunderstandings.
A total of 15 interviews were conducted
with women project managers in the
organization. The interviews were
conducted in August 2011. The interview
sessions lasted approximately 45 minutes
to an hour. A digital recorder was used to
record all interviews which were transcribed
to facilitate data analysis. Thematic
analysis was used to analyze the data.
Results and Discussion
In analyzing responses to the interviews
used to obtain the data for this study, one
main theme and five other themes were
identified. Leadership styles was the main
theme and a number of sub-themes
22. emerged that included characteristics such
as being a decision-maker, being flexible,
goal oriented, open, motivational, leading
by example, having a vision and being self-
driven, as well as exhibiting leadership
behaviours such as
communication/providing clear direction,
being on top of the game, being people-
oriented, developing others, listening,
continuing to learn from other people and
having a high work ethic (integrity).
The characteristics displayed by the women
project managers – being people-oriented
(kindness, respectful, warmth, sensitivity to
others) are consistent with what culture
Maseko, B. & Gerwel C: Women Project Managers
5667
23. links to feminine characteristics, as
compared to masculine characteristics
which reflect competencies of decision-
making and business skill traits (Chugh &
Sahgal, 2007). A lack of decision-making
appeared to have a negative impact on the
progress of the work in a project.
Respondents stressed the importance of
making a decision whether right or wrong.
It was also highlighted that failure to make
decisions could have cost implications for
the company. The participants pointed out
the impact of failing to make a decision on
the job – that it slows down progress and
reduces the momentum. The participants
also explained that project managers
should be brave enough to make decisions
whether right or wrong, as long as they are
in a position to stand by those decisions
24. and should the decision go the wrong way,
they are still in a position to rectify matters.
A respondent elaborated on her abilities to
adjust her leadership styles to suit the
different people that she deals with or
manages. She emphasized the importance
of understanding the people that she works
with so that she can change her leadership
style to suit the individual.
A second theme to emerge was the impact
of the leadership style on delivery of
projects. Participants emphasized that
working with people on a project requires a
project manager that engages people and is
a good communicator and one who can
convey accurate information to people
which will align them to the same objectives
of the project. Project managers that can
motivate their teams to perform to their
highest levels achieve higher production
25. and they create teams that can deliver
within budget and on time. The women
project managers that were interviewed
pointed out that the leadership style of a
project manager can have an impact on the
failure or success of a project. The
participants highlighted that a project
manager is a team worker who
communicates, engages, motivates people
and possesses qualities that will impact on
the delivery of a project in a positive way.
Rosener (1990) referred to women who
engage teams through shared goals as
transformational leaders and also women
who encourage participation and sharing of
information as interactive leaders. Rosener
classified this leadership style as being
competitive in an environment which is
economically diverse. The women project
managers reflected an understanding of the
26. impact of their leadership style on the
delivery of the project. The strong
perception raised was that having project
success requires the manager’s ability to
apply suitable leadership styles to people
management.
Theme number three was: Challenges faced
by women project managers in the
organization. One of the challenges that
was pointed out by the female project
managers is competition among females.
The competitive environment prevailing in
the workplace made it difficult for the
women to support each other and to rally
behind one another when things were
difficult. Even though the women project
managers explained the importance of
Emotional Intelligence in women in
leadership positions, there was a view that
27. they lacked the capacity to detach their
emotions from work which could inhibit
their success.
Many other challenges were highlighted
including the problems of handling
contractors, under-resourcing, and the high
turnover of staff. The majority of the
participants interviewed felt that
contractors had an upper hand in the
project and that one has to handle the
relationship carefully. One of the issues
with contractors is that they do not always
follow the proper communication channels.
The contractors seem to have free reign
with little restrictions and this puts the
project managers under a lot of pressure.
The way the contracts are written poses
challenges for the project managers
because the contracts seem to favor the
28. contractor and this makes it difficult to
make the contractors more accountable.
Under-resourcing is often a major challenge
faced by the project managers. The projects
are under-resourced both in terms of
financial resources and human resources.
This makes the work of the project manager
difficult. High staff turnover at projects level
Gender & Behaviour, 11(2), 2013
5668
was also raised as a challenge because
continuity with initiatives is always difficult
if key people leave the project for better
opportunities in other organizations and
this can also apply to project managers
themselves.
Theme four was: Barriers preventing
advancement of women into senior
29. management positions. The main barriers
identified by the participants were: gender
stereotyping, lack of qualifications, fear of
not succeeding, family responsibilities, lack
of networking skills and lack of time. A
number of the interviewees expressed the
sentiment that males who reported to them
were not comfortable with having a female
project manager and so they undermined
them. The respondents also reported that
they are not given full responsibility and
accountability for the project whereas their
male counterparts are fully trusted with the
projects that they manage.
Other negative perceptions that are
perceived to be prevalent among males,
which affect women project managers, are
that women are lazy and that they are in
their positions just because of their looks.
30. Women therefore said that they have to
work twice as hard as men in order to prove
themselves. Societal gender stereotyping
still exists to a great extent, particularly in
South Africa and is a major barrier to the
advancement of women to top positions.
The women project managers that were
interviewed felt that there was a negative
perception that women cannot hold
leadership positions and were not as
competent as men in managing projects.
Powell (2011) argued that when it comes to
leader preferences across the globe,
employees still tend to prefer male
managers over female managers because of
the negative perception associated with
women. The research also shows that one
of the challenges faced by women project
managers was that their subordinates were
skeptical of their abilities to lead.
31. Comparative levels of education was a
major problem. Most of the positions at
senior management level in the
organization require a Master’s degree.
Even if the organization opens up
opportunities for promotions to women,
their lack of high-level qualifications will
prevent them from advancing to top
positions in the organization. This is
because top positions come with the
stipulation that they must be filled by
highly qualified personnel. Research by
Govender (2005) showed that men moved
into senior positions at a faster rate than
women, and men who held Master’s
qualifications were likely to earn higher
salaries as compared to their female
counterparts. Furthermore, the study
showed that education could assist females
in advancing in the organization; however,
32. his findings indicated that men advance to
senior management positions with
minimum qualifications such as diplomas
and degrees while women need to obtain
higher qualifications such as Master’s
degree before they can be recognized for
senior positions.
It was noted that of the 15 women project
manager’s interviewed, none of them had a
Master’s degree. However, the organization
has created avenues for further sponsored
study so that women can advance their
qualifications so that they can be prepared
for senior management levels. One way of
dealing with this is that women should find
a balance between their work and family
because their family responsibilities are a
hindrance to their rising to higher
positions. This is related to women not
33. being able to work too far from their
families or spending protracted periods of
time away from home on projects that
would advance their careers. Through
networking, information and ideas relating
to the work are shared. Because such
networking sessions occur after working
hours, the managers indicated that time
was a limiting factor because of family
responsibilities.
Cubillo and Brown (2003) pointed out that
fear of failure was identified by theorists as
a barrier to women’s progress and quoted
Cubillo (1999) who stated that women’s
lack of confidence had nothing to do with
the lack of faith in women’s abilities, but
was as a result of being unfamiliar with the
Maseko, B. & Gerwel C: Women Project Managers
34. 5669
men’s domain; however, the fear tends to
fade once the women are familiar with the
aspects of the job.
Most of the respondents pointed out that
the experience that they had acquired from
previous jobs contributed to their success
as project managers. One participant
explained that she had gained valuable
experience in contract management and
that this contributed immensely to her
success as a project manager. The
experience helped her to understand the
contracts related to the projects that she is
working on. A key aspect of project
management is people skills. The
respondents that had worked in leadership
positions before they became project
35. managers gained a lot of people-skills
which were very useful to them in their role
of project manager.
Technical experience which most of the
managers had gained on the job was
highlighted as a factor that contributed to
the success of women project managers in
the engineering environment. The
organization is of a technical nature;
therefore technical experience enables the
project manager to comprehend the
technical side of the work which assists
them to make informed decisions. It is
important to note that most of the women
project managers interviewed had technical
qualifications.
Coaching from the manager was a common
finding that the respondents attributed to
36. their success. The participants expressed a
sense of appreciation at having good
managers who groomed them to unleash
their full potential and afforded them with
opportunities to grow and be successful.
Since the organization does not have a
formal mentorship programme for women
project managers, this initiative from the
managers adds value in the advancement of
women.
Most participants highlighted personal
determination as contributing to their
success. The interview discussions showed
the characteristic of determination amongst
these women. Most of these women had
started off as engineers and project
management was new to them, but then
they learnt through experience.
Theme six related to perceptions of gender
37. transformation. Promoting women forms
part of the organization’s transformation
agenda and the current review of the
company’s business strategy is aimed at
presenting opportunities to create a
balanced representation at top and senior
management levels. The general view of the
majority of respondents is that the
organization still remains highly male-
dominated with males occupying most of
the top positions. Gender transformation is
progressing on lower and middle-
management positions and very slowly at
higher/top levels. The women project
managers interviewed were of the view that
senior management positions were being
occupied without openly advertising for the
positions. In most cases, men are selected
to occupy those positions and this hampers
38. the transformation drive to promote women
and it creates prejudice and a sense of
unfairness in terms of the criteria used to
fill the positions. The perception among the
women that were interviewed is that males
get more recognition for promotions than
females even though they do the same job
and have the same achievements. There is
lack of representation of women at the level
of decision-making at top levels. Women
project managers feel like they are
implementers of decisions taken by others.
It was also found that certain areas within
the organization are still reserved for men.
There is still a tendency to allocate
positions according to gender. This limits
the number of women occupying senior
positions in projects. Women are not given
opportunities to be senior managers.
39. Engineering, project management and
construction are still areas which are highly
male-dominated. Where there is
representation of women in top leadership
positions, those women are mostly in
Finance and Human Resource
Management. Respondents indicated lack of
opportunities given to lead bigger
disciplines such as turbines, boilers,
Gender & Behaviour, 11(2), 2013
5670
materials handling or any other discipline,
for that matter. There was a general
concern that women were still not given
opportunities to lead. The problem at hand
is that the organization has for a long time
been a male-dominated environment,
especially in engineering, project
40. management and construction, and this
cannot be ignored. Gender transformation
is a process which needs to be carefully
strategized.
Conclusion and recommendations
The findings emanating from this research
show that women project managers
perceive themselves to be strong on people
skills. They understand the importance of
people in projects and acknowledge that
projects are delivered by people and that
the success of the project depends on the
leadership and the performance of people.
In relation to leadership characteristics, the
women project managers perceive
themselves to have qualities of
transformational, democratic and people-
oriented leadership styles. In addition, the
study shows that the leadership style of a
41. project manager determines the success or
the failure of a project because how one
leads as a manager determines how people
will respond to the needs of a project. The
leadership style has an impact on the
delivery of the project in terms of cost, time
and quality. People make projects and as a
project manager you have to influence
people towards the goals of the project by
engaging them in decision-making and
caring for them, encouraging team-work
and continuously communicating the
objectives of the project.
Whilst the recommendations that arise from
this study are specific to the organization it
is possible that they could be applied in a
more general context to other firms and to
other institutions that employ women as
project managers. The following
recommendations are offered to be
42. considered by management.
1) A people-oriented project manager
creates an environment which helps people
to cope with the pressure and stress related
to the projects. A people-oriented leader
also empowers their team members by
engaging them in the decision-making
process. This makes people take ownership
of the project and this results in them being
more interested in the successful
completion of the project. Previous research
by Appelbaum et al. (2003) and Melero
(2011) shows that these traits are mostly
prevalent among women and those traits
improve management practice. These are
critical leadership styles which the
organization should nurture and retain in
the organization.
43. 2) The study showed that even though
women project managers have strong
leadership skills required for ever-changing
environments, they lack the self-
management and self-awareness capability
of EI in terms of controlling and dealing
with their emotions. It is strongly
recommended that the organization should
implement training programmes to help
women leaders to understand EI and how
to apply it in their lives.
3) The main challenge that women face is
gender stereotyping. Although they consider
themselves to be high performers in their
positions, they pointed out that they are
often undermined by their male
counterparts and seniors. Part of the
reason that women go through the
challenges as described in the working
44. environment today derives from societal
perceptions, which regard women as being
powerless, submissive and subordinate to
men (Commission of Gender Equality, Act
No. 39 of 1996). This therefore means that
women are not recognised as leaders.
Moran (1992) argued that despite attempts
such as affirmative action to increase the
number of women in leadership, the
existence of traditional stereotypes still
remains a major influence and continues to
hinder women in leadership positions. The
top management of the organization should
therefore introduce awareness programmes
and a paradigm shift needs to happen to
allow the male co-workers to recognise that
any person can be a leader, irrespective of
gender. Women project managers that were
interviewed pointed out that they did not
understand the process that is followed in
45. Maseko, B. & Gerwel C: Women Project Managers
5671
terms of promotions. They perceived that
men were being promoted rapidly simply
because they were males. In light of this, it
is recommended that top management
should be more transparent in terms of the
promotion processes so that there will be
no qualms about unfair promotions.
As the study has shown, the organization is
not doing as much as it should be doing for
women in terms of promoting women and
balancing the gender representation in top
management positions. The following
recommendation is made specifically in this
regard:
Management has to set goals for advancing
46. women to the top. This can be achieved by
implementing strategies that will close the
gap and advance women to the top. This
can be done by setting performance criteria
that involve conducting screening of women
who are already in the junior and middle
management positions. The screening will
check the qualifications, experience and
achievements. This is a fair and
transparent process which will then be
used as a selection criterion to promote
women based on their performance,
capabilities and strengths.
In terms of training, it was clear from the
interviews that women project managers do
not have dedicated career development
programmes. As much as the organization
supports training and development, it is up
to the individual to determine their own
47. development and advancement according to
their needs. Leadership programmes should
be introduced as these have been highly
recommended as programmes set up to fast
track the advancement of leaders.
Structured mentorship training where
female project managers are mentored by
senior/successful managers as part of their
succession planning programme could also
be introduced. The programme could
include the International Federation of
Consulting Engineers (FIDIC) training and
also focus on the organization’s policies and
procedures.
Women project managers felt that they had
more family responsibilities than their male
counterparts. Such family responsibilities
meant that at times they could not travel
48. far from home because there would not
have been someone to leave the children
with. One way in which the organization
could intervene would be to introduce
facilities such as nurseries and after-care
facilities for employees’ children.
Women project managers should pay more
attention to networking as this is one way
of accelerating advancement in the
workplace. They should make more of an
effort to attend social events that would
increase opportunities for networking.
It is also recommended that the
organization establish women’s forums.
Such sessions could be debriefing sessions
where women could provide peer-to-peer
support for one another. In addition, they
could also involve motivational speakers
49. and women that are already at top
management levels to share their
experiences and advise on how they made it
to the top.
This research did not test the leadership
styles of the women project managers but
relied on their own perceptions and views.
The study also did not include the views of
the Human Resources department or
subordinates.
Acknowledgments
All those who participated in the study are
thanked.
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56. female academic leaders and
managers’ career advancement in developing countries like
Vietnam. This paper reports on
an exploratory study of a research project funded by the
Cambridge—Viet Nam Women
Leadership Programme, which aims to advance an
understanding of the status of, and
identify strategies to empower, female academic managers in
Vietnamese higher educa-
tion. The focus of this paper is on university leaders and female
Deans’ perceptions of the
barriers to female academic Deanship and female Deans’
reflections on the facilitators for
their career advancement. The study found that the main
barriers are strong family obli-
gations, negative gender stereotypes regarding females as
leaders, and female academics’
unwillingness to take management positions. The major
facilitators of female Deans’
career advancement are self-effort, strong family support, and,
what is perceived to be, a
favourable or ‘lucky’ selection context. The paper provides
empirical evidence to support
the view that family support is a crucial factor for female
57. academic career advancement in
Vietnam. Women are both an agent and an object of change in
empowering female
academic leadership.
Keywords Middle level management · Female academic
managers ·
Women empowerment · Vietnamese higher education
T. L. H. Nguyen (&)
LH Martin Institute for Higher Education Leadership and
Management,
170 Bouverie Street, Carton, VIC 3053, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
T. L. H. Nguyen
Hanoi University of Industry, Km 13, Minh Khai, Tu Liem,
Hanoi, Vietnam
123
High Educ (2013) 66:123–138
DOI 10.1007/s10734-012-9594-4
Introduction
The fact that women are under-represented in leadership and
management positions,
including those in higher education, is well documented in the
literature (Bornstein 2008;
Doherty and Manfredi 2006; Mai 2007; McNeill 2007;
58. Va´zquez-Cupeiro and Elston 2006;
Valian 1998; Winchester et al. 2006). There also is a large
volume of literature that
identifies the challenges and facilitators for women assuming
leadership and management
roles, in society generally and in academic institutions.
However, there is little docu-
mentation of the experiences of female academic ‘leaders’ and
‘managers’ career
advancement in south-east Asian contexts, particularly in
Vietnam.
This article aims to fill this information gap by examining the
experiences of female
Deans in selected Vietnamese universities. The Deanship role is
chosen because of its
centrality to higher education middle management (Meek et al.
2010). The article will
identify both the barriers and facilitators these female Deans
have experienced in pursuing
their careers. The study is based on findings from a research
project funded by the
Cambridge—Viet Nam Women Leadership Programme, which
seeks to advance an
understanding of the status of, and identify strategies to
59. empower, female academic
managers
1
in Vietnamese higher education.
This research is significant for at least two reasons. Firstly, it
helps to fill a gap in the
literature on female academic leadership. The literature has
been dominated by a number
of studies on women in higher education management in
Western settings, particularly in
the UK, USA, and Australia and in some developing countries
such as China, Malaysia,
Turkey, etc. However, very little has been written on the subject
in Vietnam. Secondly,
understanding the barriers and facilitators for women in
assuming leadership positions in
higher education is important in deepening and broadening
understanding of leadership
development as a whole within higher education (Madsen 2010).
The task of empowering
female leadership is essential not only in terms of achieving
gender equity but also for
organizational productivity and human capital development
(Bell 2009; Cheung and
60. Halpern 2010).
Following a review of the relevant literature, the context and
methods of the study are
presented. Then the main findings of the study are reported and
discussed. Finally, con-
clusions and recommendations arising from the study are
presented.
Conceptual framework
In the absence of an appropriate theoretical framework
grounded in the Vietnamese
experience, a very general socio-structural framework is
employed based on the literature
of women in management and leadership positions, focusing on
the higher education
contexts. The framework is used as a guide to analyse the
barriers and facilitators for
female Deans’ career advancement in Vietnam. Two main
components of this framework
are barriers to and facilitators for women assuming leadership
and management positions.
1
In this paper, the term ‘managers’ is deliberately used to refer
to Deans and ‘leaders’ refers to university’s
most senior leadership positions such as Rectors or Vice
61. Rectors, because in Vietnam Deans enjoy a low
level of autonomy and in classifying between university leaders
and lower level of leaders, they are only
considered as department leaders, not university leaders.
124 High Educ (2013) 66:123–138
123
Barriers to women taking leadership and management positions
Researchers both outside and inside academia agree broadly that
for women who aspire to
top leadership positions, paths exist but are full of ‘twists and
turns’, both unexpected and
expected (Eagly and Carli 2007, p. 64). Researchers put forward
a range of theories to
explain the under-representation of women in senior
management positions. However, the
two most common are based on psychological and cultural
theories. From a psychological
perspective, negative gender stereotypes regarding female
leaders may critically impede
women’s leadership advancement (Eagly and Carli 2007;
Heilman 2001; Schein 2001).
From a cultural perspective, women have to face multiple
cultural barriers in accepting
62. leadership positions arising from the ‘macro’ socio-political
level, the ‘mesco’
2
organi-
zational level, and the ‘micro’ individual level (Cubillo and
Brown 2003).
Psychological barrier: think manager–think male attitudes
Prejudicial attitudes towards women as leaders is arguably the
most ingrained barrier to
women in leadership and management (Twombly 1998). Women
are often thought to be
more communal: affectionate, helpful, friendly, kind, and
sympathetic, interpersonally
sensitive, gentle, and soft-spoken. These communal
characteristics often are considered to
be inappropriate for effective leadership and management. In
contrast, men are considered
to be more agentic: aggressive, ambitious, dominant, self-
confident, forceful, self-reliant,
and individualistic. These agentic traits are often associated
with successful management
(Eagly and Carli 2007; Eagly and Johannesen-Schmidt 2001).
These stereotypes impede
women’s career advancement as it is assumed that women do
63. not have the attributes
associated with management. Such views about men and women
are often implicitly
acquired and thus very resistant to change.
Research indicates that the ‘think manager–think male’ attitude
is an entrenched view,
especially among males (Schein 1973, 2001). This phenomenon
translates equally well into
the university sector as “think professor–think male” (Tharenou
1994) and “think vice
chancellor–think male” (Tilbrook 1998). Such attitudes not only
limit women’s access to
leadership roles but also create biased evaluations for women
when they occupy such roles
(Bailyn 2003; Eagly and Carli 2007; Heilman 2001; Mabokela
2003). If women choose to
be highly communal, they can be criticized for lacking agentic
qualities; in contrast, if they
are too agentic, they may be criticized for lacking empathy.
Whichever way they act, they
may be considered to lack the ‘right stuff’ for powerful jobs
(Eagly and Carli 2007). Due to
this paradox between the way women and managers are
supposed to behave, women
64. leaders may find it very difficult to successfully fulfill
leadership and management roles—
damned if you do, damned if you don’t. However, it should be
acknowledged that there are
obviously women who are successful leaders and managers.
Cultural barrier 1: The “macro” socio-political level
Socio-political barriers refer to entrenched hegemonic cultural
traditions of a region or
country that women are generally required to follow (Cubillo
and Brown 2003). These
cultural expectations often put women in a disadvantaged
position compared to men in
trying to advance their careers (Cubillo and Brown 2003;
Oplatka 2006).
2
‘Mesco’ is a term used by Cubilllo and Brown (2003) to denote
a middle level between the macro and
micro level.
High Educ (2013) 66:123–138 125
123
Research has shown that women, particularly those in
65. traditional societies, are expected
to take more family responsibilities than men, such as solely
careering for their children,
husband, and extended family. They are also required to do
more domestic work. Such role
expectations have been found to be an important obstacle in
academic career progression
for women in Turkey (Neale and Ozkanli 2010), Thailand, Hong
Kong, Singapore, and
Malaysia (Luke 2000), Kenya (Olser 1997, cited in Oplatka
2006), and even for Asian
American Pacific Islanders (Chen and Hune 2011) and African
American women
(Blackwood and Brown-Welty 2011). The pressure of family
responsibilities results in
women continuing to be the ones who interrupt their careers,
take more days off work, and
work part-time. As a result, they have fewer years of job
experience, and fewer hours of
employment per year, which slow their career progress and
reduces their earnings. Even
women who have found a way to reduce family pressures by
sharing housework and child
rearing with husbands, relatives, or paid workers are still
66. perceived as having domestic
responsibilities which will be inappropriate for promotion,
especially to time consuming,
demanding positions (Eagly and Carli 2007). With the bulk of
domestic work still falling
on their shoulders, women’s career advancement continues to be
slowed.
Apart from family responsibilities, women are also required to
follow particular cultural
traditions imposed by the society in which they live (Cubillo
and Brown 2003; Luke 2000;
Oplatka 2006; Twombly 1998). For example, in a study on how
women’s career paths and
opportunities are shaped by the intersection of cultural values
and structures, and legal
systems of the state in four countries in South East Asia, Luke
(2000) found that Asian
values or Asian culture promotes a specific concept of
femininity. The stereotype ideal of
women’s roles is as dutiful wives, mothers, and homemakers
(Stivens 1998a, b, cited in
Luke 2000). Women’s public conduct should be ‘subdued’,
‘quiet’, and ‘withdrawn’. As a
result, women have to perform an ‘Asian sense of what it means
67. to be womanly’ or else
‘you will lose face’ (Luke 2000). Being required to be confined
within cultural rules of
feminine propriety, women are more reluctant to demonstrate
their leadership skills in
public or to socialize with colleagues to build professional
networks. This limits profes-
sional opportunities and advancement.
Cultural barrier 2: The ‘mesco’ organizational level
Beside socio-political culture barriers, the highly masculinist
culture at universities can act
as another barrier for women interested in leadership and
management positions (Chen and
Hune 2011; Tilbrook 1998; White 2003.). Like most large
institutions, universities were
historically the realm of a certain class of men, so university
practices and norms are
constructed around men’s life experiences (Meyerson and
Fletcher 2000). Because these
practices are well-established they are taken for granted and
very difficult to change
(Bailyn 2003). Although women have entered the workforce and
have added enormous
68. value, the balance of power within organisations still is in
favour of men. Consequently,
female academics are often disadvantaged in pay and
promotion.
The literature provides evidence on how organizational
structures, norms, and values
disadvantage women in their career advancement. For example,
the culture of long hours
makes it difficult for women who have family commitments
(Airini et al. 2011); poor
policies on women returnees from leave; and discrimination
against women in selection
and promotion through the syndrome of supporting ‘people like
us’ (Mann 1995). While
research is highly valued for academic promotion, women are
required to do more teaching
and pastoral care than their male colleagues on similar
appointment levels (Spurling 1997,
126 High Educ (2013) 66:123–138
123
cited in Tilbrook 1998; White 2003). In an established
university in the United Kingdom,
69. the human resources department informally looked for
interested candidates before an
election of a Head of Department. Because women were less
likely to get involved in the
informal networking required to get noticed, the initial informal
search was considered
lacking in transparency and possibly a form of indirect
discrimination (Doherty and
Manfredi 2006). In Malaysia and Hong Kong, training
specifically for women managers is
often not a university priority (Luke 2000). Or if a general
management training program is
provided, it does not fit well with women’s schedules. In short,
policies and processes in
higher education can act as barriers against women assuming
leadership and management
positions.
Cultural barrier 3: The ‘micro’ individual level’
As a consequence of the imposition of traditional male
hegemony at the socio-political and
organizational level, women’s internalisation of barriers may
also contribute to their under
representation in management. Some examples of these barriers
are lack of competitive-
70. ness, lack of confidence, and a fear of failure (Cubillo and
Brown 2003).
With the pressure of dutiful compliance with societal “norms”,
values and roles, women
may feel that they need to adhere to the social expectations of
their roles. As a result,
women are reluctant to ‘come forward and parade their
achievements in annual compe-
titions for promotion or professorial conferment’ Doherty and
Manfredi (2006, p. 568),
Luke (2000) argues that they may have even internalized a sense
of ‘gender neutral
meritocratic idealism’. Organizational structures that bias power
in favour of men also
make women unenthusiastic to engage in “politicking and
power-mongering” and a gen-
eral “distaste for political party” (Arroba and James 1987, cited
in Mann 1995). In
eschewing the role of power and politics, some have argued that
women demonstrate a lack
of political competence, which can impede career progress.
Facilitators for women in higher education leadership and
management
71. Whilst research focuses on the underrepresentation of women in
management and barriers
to success, it may be argued that insufficient original research
has been undertaken on
facilitators for women gaining senior academic leadership and
management positions in
higher education (Airini et al. 2011; Chen and Hune 2011). A
literature review of this topic
has found very few relevant publications in English (Airini et
al. 2011; Blackwood and
Brown-Welty 2011; Cubillo and Brown 2003; Harris et al. 2011;
Turner 2007; Twombly
1998). From this scant literature, the three most common
facilitators appear to be personal
factors, family support and mentor support.
Personal factors
Senior academic women seem to demonstrate very strong
personalities such as being self-
motivated, independent and hardworking. In interviews with 18
women in positions of
academic leadership at the University of Costa Rica, Twombly
(1998) found that to rise to
the top of their professions these women were determined not to
be left behind by trying
72. their best to survive many battles through their own excellence,
tenacity, and political skill.
They also worked twice as hard as their male colleagues to
succeed. In a study of narratives
drawn from women aspiring to leadership and management in
nine different educational
High Educ (2013) 66:123–138 127
123
contexts, from very different parts of the world, Cubillo and
Brown (2003) similarly found
that although they had to face hostile male-dominated cultures,
these women appeared to
be extremely independent, confident and self-motivated. In
studying pathways to leader-
ship for women of color in California Community Colleges,
Blackwood and Brown-Welty
(2011) also found that these women always tried to be the best
in their position. Working
hard and working smart were also the strategies employed by a
number of other female
leaders and managers (Cheung and Halpern, 2010).
73. Family support
Support from family is the second common facilitator for
women’s career advancement.
By reviewing the literature, Cheung and Halpern (2010)
reported that women leaders in
various studies all mentioned the importance of family support
in achieving their top
positions. While the extended family provided great help with
housework and childcare,
the husbands could also take on a substantial share of household
chores or take the role of
the trailing spouse, i.e. being willing to move to a new location
with uncertain career
prospects for the advancement of their wife’s career. Family
and partner support were also
recognized as playing an important role in three ‘first’
Mexican–American, Native
American, and Asian Pacific/Asian American women university
presidents’ (Turner 2007)
and twelve Asian American female leaders’ (Kawahara et al.
2007) achievement. Almost
all of the women in Cubillo and Brown’s (2003) study identified
their fathers as strong
influences in shaping their thinking and enabling them to aspire
74. to higher education and
role achievement.
Mentor support
Mentor support plays a significant role for women taking
leadership and management
roles. By analysing secondary data in exploring the career paths
of African American
women presidents, Harris et al. (2011) found that for African
American women to achieve
a presidency, mentoring was strongly recommended because
mentors and networking may
help women access significant information and opportunities for
career advancement. In a
New Zealand study, Airini et al. (2011) identified what helps or
hinders women to advance
in university leadership roles. One of the facilitators was having
senior leaders who support
women to assume leadership roles. The importance of mentoring
was also confirmed by
Peters (2011) in the study of African American women
achieving tenure in the field of
educational leadership, and by Blackwood and Brown-Welty
(2011) research on women of
75. color assuming leadership roles in California Community
Colleges.
Other factors
Apart from personal factors, family support, and mentor
support, some less common
factors were also identified in the literature. For example, the
importance of early edu-
cational and career success and teachers’ inspiration was
emphasized by the three ‘first’
Mexican–American, Native American, and Asian Pacific/Asian
American women presi-
dents (Turner 2007). Day-to-day application of organizational
policies and practices could
also help empower women (Airini et al. 2011). By allowing
women with full time
appointments to work part time when necessary, universities
provided some structural
facilitators for female academics (Twombly 1998). Female
administrator’s career
128 High Educ (2013) 66:123–138
123
advancement might also be facilitated by being able to move to
76. another institution or by
accepting an interim position (Blackwood and Brown-Welty
2011). Some female leaders’
success resulted from adopting non-traditional leadership styles
to bring diverse commu-
nities together (Turner 2007).
Even though there have been some common themes with respect
to facilitating female
leadership in the academy, they are not necessarily universal.
For example, although role
models appeared to be essential to the success of academic
American women of color
(Blackwood and Brown-Welty 2011; Harris et al. 2011; Peters
2011), women in North
America (Kelly 2011) and New Zealand (Airini et al. 2011), it
was not obviously a factor
for Costa Rican women academic leaders (Twombly 1998) or
Korean women (Johnsrud
1995, cited in Twombly 1998). Successful academic and
administrative managers in New
Zealand universities were proactive in building their career
development plans (Airini et al.
2011). However, female leaders of color in California
Community Colleges did not have
77. any well articulated career plans (Blackwood and Brown-Welty
2011) and African
American female community college presidents saw their career
development just as ‘‘in
the right place at the right time’’ (Gooch 2009, p. 118, cited in
Harris et al. 2011). This may
indicate the importance of socio-cultural context in determining
what facilitates/hinders
women’s academic advancement. So it’s important to widen our
understanding in different
contexts.
There is a gap in the literature in that most of the studies
primarily focused on very
senior women in more advanced countries such as the US or
New Zealand (Airini et al.
2011; Kelly 2011; Turner 2007). When researchers examined
the topic in less developed
country contexts, they didn’t distinguish academic from
administrative leadership roles
(Cubillo and Brown 2003) and when they did, the data was quite
outdated (Twombly
1998). In partly addressing this literature gap, this study
furthers our understanding in how
78. a particular group of middle-level academic managers (female
Deans) from a developing
country (Vietnam) have been hindered or facilitated in their
career progress. The two major
questions guiding this study are: (1) What are the barriers to
female Deans taking Deanship
positions at a Vietnamese university and (2) What are the
facilitators for their pathways to
the Deanship?
Context
Empowering women in leadership and management has been a
significant goal that
Vietnam has aimed to achieve. Vietnam ranks second among
Asia Pacific countries and 9th
out of 135 countries worldwide in the number of female
National Assembly Members.
Even so, the percentage of female National Assembly Members
for the 11th election is
only 28 %. Apart from politics, Vietnamese women have taken
leadership roles in fields
such as economics, culture, social organizations, and
educational institutions. Although,
due to lack of data, no specific ratios could be identified, the
numbers of women leaders are
79. modest in comparison with males (Quy and Nga 2008).
In higher education, there have been no specific university
policies on promoting
women in leadership and management. Vietnamese universities
generally conduct activi-
ties related to gender equity as stipulated by the Communist
Party’s leadership and the
government’s laws and policies. For example, each university
generally has a Women’s
Association. Their major activity is to hold annual meetings for
the university’s female
staff on Vietnamese Women’s Day to praise women’s
achievements both at work and in
High Educ (2013) 66:123–138 129
123
raising and educating their children at home. These associations
also organize sightseeing
tours or holidays for women to socialize and network once or
twice annually.
One of the two Vietnamese national universities was selected as
the site for this
80. research. At the time this research was conducted in 2009, the
selected national university
consisted of six university members
3
. Of their total 42 faculties only nine faculty Deans
were female (21 %), coming from four of the six university
members. On average, women
represent 34 % of the academic staff in these four university
members. Female academics
accounted for about 20 % of the total academic staff with
Doctoral qualifications. This
figure is 15 % at associate professor level, and well under 5 %
at professor level. As stated
in the University Regulations (Thủ tướng Chı́nh phủ 2010), it is
necessary for both men
and women to hold a Doctorate to be a Dean.
Methods
Face to face interviews were the primary method of
investigation. All nine female Deans
were invited to participate; however only six were able to
participate in the research. One
female Dean did not wish to participate; two others were on
business overseas at the time
the data was collected. One member of the Board of Rectors or
one Human Resources
81. Manager from each of the six universities was also invited to
participate. However, only
three male university leaders and two male Human Resources
Managers were available to
take part in the research. Because these participants were most
likely to be decision makers
on whether female academics were promoted, their perceptions
helped to obtain a more
comprehensive picture of the barriers to female Deans’ career
advancement.
All participants were asked to share their perceptions of the
status and empowerment of
female Deans at their university, facilitators and barriers for
women taking Deanship
positions, and how they think their university and society can
help women to overcome the
obstacles in their career development. Six female Deans were
also asked to describe times
when incidents in work or non-work situations have helped (or
hindered) them developing
as university managers. All interviews were recorded and
transcribed in Vietnamese.
Selected verbatim quotes were translated into English in the
final report.
82. Findings
The female Deans’ Faculty profile
The six female Deans have been in their current roles for
between one and three years.
Before their current position, they most commonly held an
academic Head of Program or
Deputy Dean Position. The average number of their Faculty’s
tenured staff is approxi-
mately 25, except for one Dean whose faculty has
approximately 40 tenured lecturers.
Each Dean is supported by one or two Deputy Deans. The
number of students enrolled in
each faculty varies from 300 to 1,000. One faculty provides
doctoral training; all other
faculties only deliver Master and Bachelor level courses.
Females account for the majority
of the staff and students in all of the six faculties. All of the
female Deans have doctoral
degrees; two have been promoted to ‘Assistant Professor’. No
female Dean is a ‘Professor’.
3
The two Vietnam National Universities are the two largest and
most autonomous universities in Vietnam.
83. Each national university consists of several independent mono-
disciplinary university members.
130 High Educ (2013) 66:123–138
123
Barriers
The most common barriers to women taking academic
management positions as perceived
by the respondents are strong family obligations, negative
gender stereotypes, and
women’s unwillingness to take leadership roles.
Strong family obligations
According to the participants, strong family commitment is the
biggest barrier to female
Deans. This barrier is perceived by both university leaders as
well as female Deans
themselves. From a male university leader’s perspective ‘it
seems to be the world’s
unwritten rule that women, not men must care about their family
more’ and therefore,
‘women are afraid that if they take part in too many social
activities and don’t care much
84. about their families, problems will arise’. This challenge is
recognized by all of the female
Deans. They say that the most common challenge for them is to
fulfill their roles as a wife
and a mother while working as a Dean:
The workload is now becoming heavier and heavier so female
academic leaders must
know how to balance family life and university work’. (Female
Dean)
For me, the biggest obstacle is time constraints. Sometimes my
husband complains
about me spending inadequate time with my family and my
children are sad because
I am too busy’. (Female Dean)
My children are still small, so I have to take care of them. I
didn’t get the title
‘excellent staff’ in 2002 and 2003 because my child was often
ill and I couldn’t
arrive at work on time. This is a very big challenge’. (Female
Dean)
Having to take major responsibility for family, leadership and
management work was
perceived as ‘not suitable’ for women because ‘leaders have to
deal with a variety of social
85. communications, go on business very often, and meet a lot of
people’ (Female Dean). So, if
women are leaders ‘sometimes they cannot come to their office
on time’ and ‘their family
duties affect university work’ (University Manager). Therefore,
male academics are valued
more than females because ‘males have more time for work than
females’ (University
Manager). One university leader further commented that ‘if we
want women to participate
more in social activities, the first task is to change society’s
assessment of women’s work’.
Stereotypes against women being leaders
Stereotypes against females being leaders still exist and they do
hinder female academics
from becoming leaders and managers. Female academics are
thought to be indecisive, less
active, limited in thinking, and dare not take risks.
From the male university leaders’ perspective, ‘female
managers are not very decisive’
and ‘women’s disadvantage is their lack of organizational
capability’. Some female Deans
themselves also think that ‘women are less active than men’.
They blame this on women’s
86. characteristics:
Women are very careful in making plans; however, they are less
decisive and dare
not take the risks. They care about too many things.
Consequently, they may lose a
lot of good opportunities’. (Female Dean)
High Educ (2013) 66:123–138 131
123
Sometimes I am not decisive enough so I cannot solve a
problem completely. I also
want to cover a lot of work. That is a disadvantage, not an
advantage. Maybe it is due
to my personality. (Female Dean)
or on women’s general low level of education and experience
compared to men:
Women’s thinking and management capabilities are more
limited than those of men
due to how they are educated, their living standards, and social
circumstances.
Except for females with very good living conditions or self-
reliance, the majority of
87. females’ thinking is limited in terms of vision, depth, and
width. (Female Dean)
The issue that women do not support women was also
identified:
At our university, there are a lot of female academics so it is
easy to choose a female
leader; however, females don’t seem to select other females, it
is females’ problem. I
have a feeling that females don’t vote for other females.
(Female Dean)
Women’s unwillingness to take leadership roles
Living in a culture where women’s primary role expectation is
as homemakers, some
women are satisfied with doing a low ranking job and taking
care of their family:
In fact, many women hold an attitude that they shouldn’t be too
involved in social
activities, their husband and children should be their primary
concern. As the Head
of a unit, they must deal with all problems and conflicts in their
unit. This takes a lot
of their time. Sometimes they just want to care about their
family and look after their
public appearance. They are fed up with all day management
88. work. (Female Dean)
This thinking appears to be common among Vietnamese women.
However, in this study
it is a viewpoint held only by a minority.
The facilitators for female Deans’ career advancement
The major facilitators for female Deans’ career advancement are
self-effort, strong family
support, and a favourable promotion context.
Female Deans’ self effort
The first factor that influences the female Deans’ career
advancement is their individual
abilities and effort in gaining high level qualifications. All of
the six Deans worked hard to
complete their Doctoral training programs. They were among
the first female Doctors in
their specialization.
I myself decided to study subject X. I didn’t plan anything or
didn’t think that I
would become a Dean one day. I myself felt that I had to study.
The current position,
first of all, is an outcome of my own motivation and efforts’.
(Female Dean)
89. The completion of my Doctoral thesis possibly made me a Dean.
I am the first female
PhD candidate who completed PhD study successfully. (Female
Dean)
There must be a strong need for learning, an adequate level of
expertise in the
specialized area, and professionalism. (Female Dean)
132 High Educ (2013) 66:123–138
123
Strong family support
Apart from the Deans’ personal ability and efforts, strong
support from their families is a
decisive factor. Support can come from the female Dean’s
husband, parents, and/or par-
ents-in-law:
I have an advantage because my husband is also a lecturer; he
supports me to
advance in my career. Sometimes, he is not happy when I come
home late but
generally, he is very supportive’. (Female Dean)
My husband is very supportive because some relatives in my
90. husband’s extended
family also work in my specialized area. My parents-in-law are
also involved in a lot
of social work and go on business extensively. Since I was
married, my husband’s
family has created favourable conditions for me to study and
participate in social
activities. It has been a long supportive process. Now that my
son follows my
profession, my husband must also support me more. (Female
Dean)
In fact, family support was the most important factor that
helped me to become a
Dean. I must say that I am very lucky because I have a Doctoral
qualification while
my husband doesn’t. For Asians and the Vietnamese, it is not
easy to accept a woman
whose education is better than that of her husband. Luckily, my
husband’s parents
are very understanding. They respect me because of my high-
level education. My
father-in-law used to be Deputy Director of the National
Department of Agriculture,
my mother-in-law used to be a lecturer of English; therefore
91. they supported me for
my PhD study. Another advantage is that my family’s financial
situation is very
strong. (Female Dean)
The selection context
Organizational contexts play a very important role in deciding
who can become Deans. In
the cases of the female Deans, most of them were able to take
management positions
because no men were qualified or available. Four of the six
Deans are Foundation Deans in
their faculty.
Actually, I was not elected or selected to be a Dean. I didn’t
apply for the post either.
It came quite naturally. It seemed inevitable. When I started
working in this Faculty,
there was only one male colleague who had graduated from
Russia. He was the one
who offered me my position in the Faculty. However, he only
worked in the Faculty
for two years, and then had to stop for military duties. There
was only me left in the
faculty at that time [with a Doctoral qualification]. So I am not
92. selected or appointed.
It just came naturally’. (Female Dean)
In fact, there was nothing special about my career advancement.
Our specialized
subject group was founded in 1995 consisting of only me and
another female PhD.
When there was a need to nominate a Head of the group, people
could only select
between me and the other female. I was chosen because I was
younger. After that, in
2001, the group became a Faculty and I was nominated Dean.
Also, there were not
many people who had a Doctoral qualification at that time’.
(Female Dean)
I worked as Deputy Dean from 2005–2007. When I started the
role I had nearly finish
my PhD. In 2008, when the former Dean retired and my
department was separated
High Educ (2013) 66:123–138 133
123
into an independent Faculty, I became Dean. I was strongly
qualified for the post
93. since I had a Doctoral qualification and was a Communist Party
member. Apart from
that, in terms of capabilities, no one else in the faculty was
qualified. If I wasn’t
qualified, no one from the Faculty was better than me at that
time. (Female Dean)
In general, there are some common features in the six Deans’
career advancement. None of
them had any clear plans for their career development (similar
findings can be found in
Blackwood and Brown-Welty 2011); however, they all had
excellent learning capabilities
and demonstrated great effort and determination to progress. In
addition, they had very
strong family support, especially from their husbands and
parents-in-law in studying
further. Thanks to these favourable factors, they became
outstanding in their faculties.
Having almost no competitors for the position at the time of
selection, they became the
strongest candidates for the Deanship. Similar findings of being
in the right place at the
right time are also found in Gooch (2009) and Ausmer (2009),
cited in Harris et al. (2011).
94. Discussion
A number of barriers and facilitators for women taking
Deanship positions in this study
confirm findings from previous research on this subject. In
terms of the challenges, female
Deans in the current study face almost all the common barriers
identified in the literature.
Psychologically, prejudicial attitudes against female managers
are quite common among
both male university managers and female Deans. Women were
perceived as having some
personal attributes that are inappropriate for being leaders, for
example, being indecisive,
narrow thinkers, and not being risk takers. Similar findings can
be found in the literature
(Eagly and Carli 2007; Heilman 2001; Schein 2001). However,
the think manager-think
male attitude was not clearly expressed.
Women’s strong family obligations act as the strongest macro
socio-political cultural
barrier to female academic advancement. This ‘unwritten rule’
places a heavy burden on
female Deans’, both physically and mentally. The psychological
95. effects of this social
imperative can be seen as one type of ‘glass ceiling’ for
academic women (Cotter,
Hermnsen, Ovadia, and Vanneman 2001; Powell and Graves
2003, cited in Harris et al.
2011). This is because university leaders are often in favor of
men in selecting a manager
since as a social norm men have more time for work than
women. Psychologically, women
themselves may feel ashamed if they are involved too much in
career activities and cannot
devote adequate time to their family and consequently face
family problems. While this
finding resonates very well with previous research of Neale and
Ozkanli (2010), Luke
(2000) and Olser (1997), cited in Oplatka 2006), the study does
not seem to support the
Asian values of feminine propriety as a barrier for women
advancement as found in a study
by Luke (2000). This is an important observation, and may be
due to Vietnam’s particular
history.
Surprisingly, even though universities did not seem to have any
available gender profile
96. data or any particular policies on supporting women,
respondents appeared to be happy
with the current level of university support. No participants
claimed university structures
and policies as a barrier to female academic advancement. One
female Dean even thought
that ‘the university is right in not having any special support for
women’ because ‘if
anyone can satisfy the criteria, s/he can become a manager’.
Although this finding is not
exclusive to the current study—similar findings can be found in
a study on Turkish
universities by White and Ozkanli (2011), it differs greatly from
most other studies in
134 High Educ (2013) 66:123–138
123
‘Western’ contexts in which organizational structures, norms,
and values are perceived as
barriers to women’s career advancement (Airini et al. 2011;
Doherty and Manfredi 2006;
Tilbrook 1998; White 2003). Perhaps, the female Deans
themselves have internalized a
97. sense of gender neutrality at work as a result of the deeply
rooted social expectation of
their family roles. This finding may indicate that Vietnamese
academic women’s slow
professional progress is mainly due to the social expectations of
their role in the family.
Organizational interventions may help, but they may not be the
decisive factors in
removing barriers for academic women, if the broader social
barriers are not removed.
Possibly, women should learn to take the advantages of the
work-family interface rather
than considering work-family balance as a major concern
(Cheung and Halpern 2010).
Despite barriers, the women in this study are successful in their
career. Women’s
self-ability and determination appear to be the prerequisites for
success. Not surprisingly,
family support is the strongest facilitator for the female Deans
not only prior to but also
during their Deanship. In addition, the way in which they were
selected for the role appears
to be the final decisive factor. These findings support previous
research on the facilitators
98. of female academics’ advancement: personal factors
(Blackwood and Brown-Welty 2011;
Cubillo and Brown 2003; Twombly 1998), family support
(Cheung and Halpern 2010;
Kawahara et al. 2007; Turner 2007) and a favorable selection
context (Gooch 2009,
pp 118, cited in Harris et al. 2011). However, unlike in some
other studies (Airini et al.
2011; Blackwood and Brown-Welty 2011; Harris et al. 2011;
Peters 2011), in this study the
success of the female Deans wasn’t facilitated by mentors.
This study is limited to one university and its findings cannot
be generalized to all
female Deans in Vietnam. But in this case study, apart from
their own ability and efforts,
female Deans depend on ‘luck’ as a factor for their career
advancement. They seemed to be
lucky because at work they were simply in the right place at the
right time. There is
nothing wrong with someone being lucky in life in general, in
one’s career advancement in
particular; but it can be argued that in order for women to
advance more systematically,
99. there is much more to be done than for women sitting passively
in one place and waiting
for their luck to come. The female Deans in this study have very
powerful family support
because their family members understand the need to empower
them. This may suggest
that in order for women to be empowered and promoted, we
need to enhance people’s
awareness of freeing and empowering women’s potential.
Possibly, in order to make this
change, women themselves need to first change their thinking
(Mann 1995).
This study adds to the literature on barriers to and facilitators
for female academic
advancement in higher education. It helps to illuminate the
experiences of academic
women taking management positions from a research context in
a developing South East
Asian country. Such specific knowledge is very important in
building gender equity pro-
grams in these contexts.
Although this research has achieved its overall aim of exploring
the barriers to and
facilitators of female academic Deans’ advancement at a
100. national university in Vietnam,
there are nonetheless limitations to this research work. The
study is based on a quite small
sample of female Deans and university leaders at only one
institution in Vietnam. The
results cannot represent the whole of Vietnamese higher
education, much less that of all or
even only South East Asian developing countries. However, as
there is a lack of research
on this subject in Vietnam, it is important to have this
exploratory study in the Vietnamese
context. It is expected that additional research will be
undertaken to provide a broader
understanding of the advancement of female academic leaders in
higher education in
Vietnam and other developing countries. Future research is
planned in other Vietnamese
universities, involving a greater number of stakeholders from
wider university contexts.
High Educ (2013) 66:123–138 135
123
It would be interesting to compare the facilitators of and the
101. barriers to female Deans in
Vietnam with those in other Asian contexts such as China,
Thailand, Malaysia, etc. The
similarities and differences in female academic Deans’
facilitators and barriers from such
comparative studies would help universities learn how to better
empower and promote
female academic leaders.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this is an exploratory study on barriers to and
facilitators of female Deans’
career advancement at a Vietnamese university. An important
limitation of this study is
that it is based on only one university and there is a need to
extend the study to a number of
other universities before any reliable generalisations can be
drawn. However, in the
absence of such research in the Vietnamese context, the study
helps to narrow the
knowledge gap by providing perceptions of male university
leaders and female Deans on
the factors that enhance or hinder female academic leadership
and management. The
102. conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that family
support is a very important
factor that can significantly impede or facilitate female
academic career progress in
Vietnam. In addition, women themselves can be both an object
and an agent of change in
empowering female leadership.
Since having more women as leaders and managers can promote
not only gender equity
but also organizational productivity and human capital
development, appropriate measures
should be taken to empower female leaders. In the Vietnamese
context, as the social
expectations of women as dutiful wives and mothers are so
strong, appropriate policies and
measures must be developed to lessen the time demands of
women’s domestic work and
childcare so that women can invest time as much as men do in
their career progress. At the
same time, women should learn to take the advantages of the
work-family interface rather
than considering work-family balance as a major concern
(Cheung and Halpern 2010).
Additionally, female academics must be aware of and interested
103. in their career advance-
ment. Without female academics’ personal interest in and
commitment to their own
careers, it is difficult to see how any of the other measures
designed to promote their career
advancement will prove fruitful. Vietnamese higher education is
presently undergoing a
radical transformation in the attempt to create a modern higher
education system for the
nation. Women leaders and managers have a crucial role to play
in this process.
Acknowledgments This study was funded by the Cambridge—
Viet Nam Women Leadership Programme.
The author acknowledges the very thoughtful comments and
advice on earlier drafts from Professor Vincent
Lynn Meek, Professor Sharon Bell and the two anonymous
reviewers.
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Barriers to and facilitators of female Deans’ career
advancement in higher education: an exploratory study in
VietnamAbstractIntroductionConceptual frameworkBarriers to
women taking leadership and management
positionsPsychological barrier: think manager–think male
attitudesCultural barrier 1: The “macro” socio-political
levelCultural barrier 2: The ‘mesco’ organizational
levelCultural barrier 3: The ‘micro’ individual level’Facilitators
for women in higher education leadership and
managementPersonal factorsFamily supportMentor supportOther
factorsContextMethodsFindingsThe female Deans’ Faculty
profileBarriersStrong family obligationsStereotypes against
women being leadersWomen’s unwillingness to take leadership
110. rolesThe facilitators for female Deans’ career
advancementFemale Deans’ self effortStrong family supportThe
selection
contextDiscussionConclusionAcknowledgmentsReferences
women's leadership 3.pdf
LEADERSHIP STYLES OF ENTREPRENEURIAL WOMEN IN
EASTERN CHINA: CHARACTERISTICS AND DIFFERENCES
CHENGYAN LI
Shanghai Normal University
LILI BAO
Case Western Reserve University
QIANG JIANG
Fudan University
A number of studies have recently been conducted on
entrepreneurship of women. In one
study the researchers found that gender had an impact on
entrepreneurial activity (Mueller &
Conway Dat-On, 2008) and the characteristics of
entrepreneurial women per se became the
focus of research. In our empirical research we explored the
characteristics of, and differences
among, the leadership style of a sample of 225 entrepreneurial
women from Zhejiang
Province and Shanghai in eastern China. We found that the
majority of these women adopted
an achievement-oriented style of leadership, that is, a style
consisting of high initiating
structure and high consideration. We found differences in the
consideration leadership style of