AF is associated with increased mortality, but it is unclear if this is directly caused by AF or associated conditions. Studies show AF patients have 1.5-2x higher risk of death than controls (1). While some evidence suggests AF directly increases mortality risk through stroke and heart failure worsening, randomized trials found rhythm control did not reduce mortality compared to rate control (2). It is likely AF directly increases mortality in some patients and is also a marker for worsening of linked conditions. Understanding the AF-mortality relationship could guide new treatments to lower premature death risk.
Eplerenone in Patients with Systolic Heart Failure and Mild Symptoms.
Presented at AHA by: Faiez Zannad, M.D., Ph.D., John J.V. McMurray, M.D., Henry Krum, M.B., PhD., Dirk J. van Veldhuisen, M.D.,Ph.D., Karl Swedberg, M.D., Ph.D, Harry Shi, M.S., John Vincent, M.B., PhD., Stuart J Pocock, Ph.D. and Bertram Pitt, M.D. for the EMPHASIS-HF Study Group * Eplerenone in Mild Patients Hospitalization And SurvIval Study in Heart Failure
Courtesy of http://www.cardiovascularbusiness.com
Eplerenone in Patients with Systolic Heart Failure and Mild Symptoms.
Presented at AHA by: Faiez Zannad, M.D., Ph.D., John J.V. McMurray, M.D., Henry Krum, M.B., PhD., Dirk J. van Veldhuisen, M.D.,Ph.D., Karl Swedberg, M.D., Ph.D, Harry Shi, M.S., John Vincent, M.B., PhD., Stuart J Pocock, Ph.D. and Bertram Pitt, M.D. for the EMPHASIS-HF Study Group * Eplerenone in Mild Patients Hospitalization And SurvIval Study in Heart Failure
Courtesy of http://www.cardiovascularbusiness.com
Dyslipidemia and CVS by Mohit Soni and Chandan KumarOlgaGoryacheva4
My students Mohit Soni and Chandan Kumar had presented this topic in our 22nd Student Scientific Society Conference in the department of Propaedeutic of Internal Diseases No.2
Co-Chairs, Alok A. Khorana, MD, FACP, FASCO, and Robert D. McBane, II, MD, along with Dana Angelini, MD, prepared useful Practice Aids pertaining to VTE for this CME/MOC/NCPD/CPE activity titled “Reducing the Global Burden of Cancer-Associated VTE: Applying Guideline-Concordant, Evidence-Based Care and Shared Decision-Making Strategies to Improve Patient Outcomes.” For the full presentation, downloadable Practice Aids, and complete CME/MOC/NCPD/CPE information, and to apply for credit, please visit us at https://bit.ly/3pxFR5t. CME/MOC/NCPD/CPE credit will be available until August 9, 2022.
Dyslipidemia and CVS by Mohit Soni and Chandan KumarOlgaGoryacheva4
My students Mohit Soni and Chandan Kumar had presented this topic in our 22nd Student Scientific Society Conference in the department of Propaedeutic of Internal Diseases No.2
Co-Chairs, Alok A. Khorana, MD, FACP, FASCO, and Robert D. McBane, II, MD, along with Dana Angelini, MD, prepared useful Practice Aids pertaining to VTE for this CME/MOC/NCPD/CPE activity titled “Reducing the Global Burden of Cancer-Associated VTE: Applying Guideline-Concordant, Evidence-Based Care and Shared Decision-Making Strategies to Improve Patient Outcomes.” For the full presentation, downloadable Practice Aids, and complete CME/MOC/NCPD/CPE information, and to apply for credit, please visit us at https://bit.ly/3pxFR5t. CME/MOC/NCPD/CPE credit will be available until August 9, 2022.
Exercise stress echocardiography in patients with aortic stenosis: impact of baseline diastolic dysfunction and functional capacity on mortality and aortic valve replacement
Authors: Andrew N. Rassi, Wael AlJaroudi, Sahar Naderi, M Chadi Alraies, Venu Menon, Leonardo Rodriguez, Richard Grimm, Brian Griffin, Wael A. Jaber
http://www.thecdt.org/article/view/2855
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
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Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
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Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
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micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Atrial fibrillation and increased mortality: causation or association? Mexico City 2016 final version
1. AF and increased mortality:AF and increased mortality:
causation or association?causation or association?
Antonio Raviele, MD, FESC, FHRSAntonio Raviele, MD, FESC, FHRS
ALFA – Alliance to Fight Atrial fibrillation, Mestre – Venice, ItalyALFA – Alliance to Fight Atrial fibrillation, Mestre – Venice, Italy
Curso de Actualizaciòn en Arritmias, Mexico City, Mexico - 16-18 November, 2016
6. All-cause mortality in AF patients vs controls
Andersson T et al. Eur Heart J 2013;34:1061-1067
AF patients
Controls
ALFA – Alliance to Fight Atrial fibrillation, Mestre – Venice, ItalyALFA – Alliance to Fight Atrial fibrillation, Mestre – Venice, Italy
7. Unadjusted all-cause mortality risk
All-cause mortality risk adjusted for concomitant diseases
Age < 65 yrs Age 65-74 yrs Age 75-85
All patients
- Women 3,57
2.15
2,55
1,72
1,94
1,44
- Men 2,80
1,76
2,03
1,36
1,72
1,24
Patients with primary
diagnosis of AF
- Women 2,20
1,63
1,76
1,46
1,43
1,28
- Men 1,91
1,45
1,44
1,17
1,25
1,10
Andersson T et al. Eur Heart J 2013;34:1061-1067
9. Impact of Atrial Fibrillation on the Risk of Death
Emelia J. Benjamin, Philip A. Wolf, Ralph B. D’Agostino, Halit Silbershatz, William B.
Kannel, and Daniel Levy
Circulation 1998; 98: 946-952
10. (Benjamin EJ et al. Circulation 1998; 98: 946-952)(Benjamin EJ et al. Circulation 1998; 98: 946-952)
Impact of AF on the risk of death: the Framingham studyImpact of AF on the risk of death: the Framingham study
N = 5209; follow-up: 40 yearsN = 5209; follow-up: 40 years
8080
6060
4040
00
00 22 44 66 88 1010
%ofsubjectsdeadinthefollow-up%ofsubjectsdeadinthefollow-up
Follow-up (years)Follow-up (years)
7070
5050
2020
3030
1010
9977553311
Men without AFMen without AF
Women without AFWomen without AF
Women with AFWomen with AF
Men with AFMen with AF HR = 1.5
HR = 1.9
11. General Population
Specific clinical situations
Relationship between AF & mortalityRelationship between AF & mortality
- Heart failure
- Myocardial infarction
- Renal failure
- Stroke
- Hypertension
- Diabetes mellitus
- Post-cardiac surgery period
14. Risk of Death and Cardiovascular Events in Initially
Healthy Women With New-Onset Atrial Fibrillation
David Conen, MD, MPH; Claudia U. Chae, MD, MPH; Robert J. Glynn, ScD; Usha B.
Tedrow, MD, MSc; Brendan M. Everett, MD, MPH; Julie E. Buring, ScD; Christine M. Albert,
MD, MPH
JAMA. 2011; 305: 2080-2087
Women’s Healthy Study
15. FU = 15.4 years
Conen DT et al. JAMA. 2011; 305: 2080-2087
16. AFAF && ↑ MortalityMortality
• Direct cause of death ?
• Marker of an increased risk ?
17. It is important to determine whether the
excess mortality observed in patients with AF
is directly due to AF or is just an association
ConsiderationsConsiderations
18. AF is a largely diffuse clinical condition and the
mortality due to this pathology is increasingly growing
If AF directly causes excess mortality, then the use of
therapies that specifically and successfully eliminate
AF – rather than just prevent its symptoms – are
preferable
ConsiderationsConsiderations
25. All these studies were observational and, despite
adjustment for co-morbidities, they are subject to the
potential for confounding factors that were not
measured, such as myocardial fibrosis, digoxin use,
obesity, obstructive sleep apnoea, control of
hypertension, patient adherence to heart failure and
other therapies, etc.
ConsiderationConsideration
27. J Am Heart Assoc 2013; doi: 10.1161/JAHA 113000126
28. Lubitz SA et al. J Am Heart Assoc 2013; doi: 10.1161/JAHA 113000126
29. Higher risk of death and stroke in patients with persistent vs.
paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: results from the ROCKET-AF Trial
Steinberg BA, Hellkamp AS, Lokhnygina Y, Patel MR, Breithardt G, Hankey GJ, Becker RC,
Singer DE, Halperin JL, Hacke W, Nessel CC, Berkowitz SD, Mahaffey KW, Fox KA, Califf RM,
Piccini JP; ROCKET-AF Steering Committee and investigators
Eur Heart J. 2015; 36: 288-96
32. Stroke / Thromboembolic events
Worsening of Heart failure
Plausible mechanisms of deathPlausible mechanisms of death in AF ptsin AF pts
33. Stroke appears to account for a very small
proportion of the deaths in AF patients.
In the AF-CHF study, reducing atrial fibrillation in
heart failure patients did not mortality
ConsiderationsConsiderations
35. Stroke appears to account for a very small
proportion of the deaths in AF patients.
In the AF-CHF study, reducing atrial fibrillation in
heart failure patients did not decrease mortality
ConsiderationsConsiderations
36. Roy D et al. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 2667-2677
Death from cardiovascular cause (primary endpoint)
38. Represent the strongest support
to the causation hypothesis
Randomized clinical trialsRandomized clinical trials
39. PIAF, Lancet 2000PIAF, Lancet 2000
AFFIRM, N Engl J Med 2002AFFIRM, N Engl J Med 2002
RACE, N Engl J Med 2002RACE, N Engl J Med 2002
STAF, JACC 2003STAF, JACC 2003
HOT- CAFE, Chest 2004HOT- CAFE, Chest 2004
AF-CHF, N Engl J Med 2008AF-CHF, N Engl J Med 2008
J-RHYTHM, Circ J 2009J-RHYTHM, Circ J 2009
AF Randomized TrialsAF Randomized Trials / Rhythm Control vs Rate Control/ Rhythm Control vs Rate Control
40. Trial
Age, y
Mean
Follow-up
Thrombo-embolic
complications
%
Mortality
%
Modified from Falk, RH. Circulation (2005) 111: 3141
RateRate vsvs Rhythm TrialsRhythm Trials
n
PIAFPIAF 12m
Rate control
Rhythm control
125
127
61
60
10
56
100
100
NR
NR
1.6
1.6
AFFIRMAFFIRM 42m
Rate control
Rhythm control
2027
2033
70
70
35
63
85
70
6
7.5
21
24
RACERACE 27m
Rate control
Rhythm control
256
266
68
68
10
39
96-99
86-99
5.5
7.9
17
13
STAFSTAF 22m
Rate control
Rhythm control
100
100
65
66
0
NR
NR
NR
0.6
3.1
5.0
2.5
Hot CafeHot Cafe 20m
Rate control
Rhythm control
101
104
61
60
NR
63.5
74
NR
1
2.9
1.0
2.9
AF-CHFAF-CHF 37m
Rate control
Rhythm control
694
682
67
66
30-41
73
92
88
4
3
33
32
JJ-RHYTHM-RHYTHM 19m
Rate control
Rhythm control
404
419
64.5
65
44
73
59
60
2.9
2.3
0.7
1.0
Sinus
rhythm
(%)
Warfarin
(%)
43. These data suggest that any beneficial
antiarrhythmic effects of AADs are offset by
their adverse effects, and that if an effective
method for maintaining SR with fewer adverse
effects were available, it might be beneficial in
reducing the increased mortality of AF patients
ConsiderationsConsiderations
45. Consistent evidence indicates that AF is
associated with increased mortality, but the
extent to which this is a direct effect of AF itself
or is related to the numerous serious associated
conditions remains a puzzle.
Conclusions (1)Conclusions (1)
46. It is likely that AF itself directly increases the
risk of death in some patients; and it is also a
marker of worsening of heart failure,
hypertension, valvular disease, and other
associated conditions.
Conclusions (2)Conclusions (2)
47. Improving our understanding of how AF is
associated with mortality may offer the potential
for new treatments that reduce the risk of
premature death.
Conclusions (3)Conclusions (3)
Editor's Notes
Mister Chairmen, Ladies and Gentlemen, first of all let me thank the Directors of this Curso de Actualizacion en arritmias, Pedro Iturralde Torres y Jorge Rafael Gomez and the new president of the Sociedad Mexicana de Electrofisiologia y Electroestimulacion Cardiaca Manlio Marquez Murillo for their kind invitation to participate in this very interesting meeting in a so prestigious venue, the Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia de Mexico, thank you very much my dear frienda Pedro, Jorge y Manlio. The topic of my presentation today is AF and increased mortality: causation or association? Undoubtely this is a controversial issue.
In a recent paper published in the EHJ in 2013
the data of the Swedish National Patient Registry and the Cause of Death Registry were utilized to evaluate the long-term risk of all-cause mortality in women and men hospitalized with incident atrial fibrillation compared with matched controls
In total, two hundred 72 thousand AF patients and 5 hundred 44 thousand controls were examined, average age 72 years, 44% women. Patients and controls did not significantly differ except for the presence of concomitant diseases that was higher in patients, 69% vs 27%.
In one hundred 19 thousand patients, AF was the primary diagnosis for hospitalization. These patients were younger, average age 69 years, and had fewer concomitant diseases, 53%, than the entire (intàia) AF population.
During the 14 years of follow-up, the all-cause mortality was higher in AF patients than in controls, especially in the first year.
more in women and younger patients than in men and older patients. This was true for both unadjusted and adjusted risk for concomitant diseases, as well as for all patients and for those with primary diagnosis of AF.
Based on these data the authors concluded that AF is an indipendent risk factor for all-cause mortality in patients with incident atrial fibrillation.
These results are neither new nor surprising. Similar data had been already observed in the Framingham study and reported by Benjamin and coworkers in Circulation in 1998.
increased risk of death in both women and men with AF compared to controls with an HR of 1.9 and 1.5, respectively.
The relationship between AF and mortality has been reported not only in the general population but also in different specific clinical situations, such as heart failure, myocardial infarction, renal failure, stroke, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and post-cardiac surgery period.
For example, in the Framingham study,
the occurrence of incident AF in patients with heart failure, increased the risk of all-cause mortality by 2.7 fold in women and by 1.6 fold in men.
Also apparently healthy subjects seem to have reduced survival with the development of AF. Indeed, in the Women’s Healthy Study,
all-cause mortality was significantly higher, during the 15 years of follow-up, in subjects with incident AF compared to those without, even after adjustment for multiple variables, with an HR ranging from 1.70 to 2.14.
But, if it is indisputable (indispiùtbol) the relationship between AF and increased mortality, a question arises spontaneous, is the AF the direct cause of death or is it only a marker of an increased risk?
It is important to determine whether the excess mortality observed in patients with AF is directly due to AF or is just an association
Indeed, AF is a largely diffuse clinical condition and the mortality due to this pathology is increasingly growing. Moreover, if AF directly causes excess mortality, then the use of therapies that specifically and successfully eliminate AF – rather than just prevent its symptoms – are preferable
In order to answer the question causation or association critically,
we can use the criteria proposed by Hill to assess a causality (kozàlity). They include strength of association, consistency (konsìstensi) of association, biological gradient, biological plausibility (plozibìlity) and experimental evidence. Let me start with strength of association
As mentioned before, the adjusted hazard ratio for all-cause mortality observed by Andersson and coworkers in Sweden amongst patients with incident AF is 1.5–2, This represents a moderately strong association
To put this relative risk into a correct context, we can remenber in a 40-year prospective cohort study, smoking exhibited a similar hazard ratio of ∼1.5 for all-cause mortality
Regarding consistency of association
studies evaluating the association between AF and death have been consistent in reporting an independent relationship between AF and mortality with relative risks ranging from 1.1 to 2.8,
However we have to outline that, despite adjustment for co-morbidities, all these studies are observational and subject to the potential for confounding factors that were not measured, such as myocardial fibrosis, digoxin use, obesity, obstructive nocturnal apnea, control of hypertension, patient compliance to the therapy of heart failure, etc.
Coming to the biological gradient
there is some evidence to suggest a relationship between the burden of AF and mortality. For example, in this paper published in the Journal of American Heart Association in 2013
patients with recurrent and especially with sustained AF had a higher mortality compared to patients without recurrent AF, the HR being 2.04 and 2.36, respectively.
Similarly, in this subanalysis of the ROCKET-AF trial
All-cause death was consistently higher in patients with persistent AF compared to those with paroxysmal AF, annual incidence 4.78% vs 3.52%, even after adjustments for multiple variables
And now biological plausibility
The plausible (plòozbol) mechanisms by which AF might cause death include stroke and worsening of heart failure.
However, stroke appears to account for a very small proportion of the deaths in AF patients.
For example, in the RE-LY study, the most common causes of death were sudden cardiac death (22%), progressive heart failure (15%) and cancer (14%), whereas stroke accounted for only 7% of all deaths.
Moreover, in the AF-CHF study, reducing AF in heart failure patients did not prevent worsening heart failure or heart failure deaths
As you can see in this slide, no difference in mortality was observed, in the AF-CHF study, between patients assigned to rhythm control and those assigned to rate control.
Finally, experimental evidence.
According to the general opinion, randomized clinical trials, represent the strongest support to the causation hypothesis
As you know, several randomized controlled trials have been conducted in the last years to compare rate control and rhythm control strategies in patients with AF
These trials have demonstrated that rate control is not inferior to rhythm control in terms of mortality
However, a substudy of the AFFIRM trial that has investigated the relationships between sinus rhythm, treatment and survival
has shown that the presence of sinus rhythm is associated with a lower risk of death (about 50% reduction) whereas the use of AAD is associated with a higher risk of death (about 50% increase),
suggesting that any beneficial antiarrhythmic effects of AADs are offset by their adverse effects, and that If an effective method for maintaining SR with fewer adverse effects were available, it might be beneficial in reducing the increased mortality of AF patients.
At the end of this presentation, taking into account all the Hill criteria for establishing causality between AF and excess mortality, we can say that the strength of association is moderate, the consistency of association strong, the biological gradient moderate, the biological plausibility moderate, and the experimental evidence against.
In conclusion, mister chairmen, Ladies and Gentlemen, consistent evidence indicates that AF is associated with increased mortality, but the extent to which this is a direct effect of AF itself or is related to the numerous serious associated conditions remains a puzzle
It is likely that AF itself directly increases the risk of death in some patients; and it is also a marker of worsening of heart failure, hypertension, valvular disease, and other associated conditions.
Improving our understanding of how AF is associated with mortality may offer the potential for new treatments that reduce the risk of premature death.
If we refer to Guidelines, the two Expert Consensus documents on AF ablation published in 2012, the HRS/ECAS/EHRA Expert Consensus Statement,