This study examines how attributions moderate the relationship between conflict type (cognitive or affective) and emotions, specifically anger, in top management teams. It hypothesizes that attributing conflict to intentional actions will positively influence the relationship between both cognitive and affective conflict and anger, while attributing conflict to unintentional actions will negatively influence this relationship. The study aims to provide insights into why conflict reactions vary and help understand prior mixed results on conflict effects in organizations.
A STUDY ON HOW EMOTIONAL DISSONANCE IMPACT WORK EXHAUSTION, JOB SATISFACTION ...IAEME Publication
This document summarizes a study on how emotional dissonance impacts work exhaustion, job satisfaction, and turnover intention among IT professionals. It defines emotional dissonance as the conflict between emotions felt and emotions expressed. The study collected data from 246 IT professionals in India to examine how emotional dissonance relates to work exhaustion, job satisfaction, and turnover intention. The results showed that emotional dissonance experienced by IT professionals leads to increased work exhaustion and reduced job satisfaction, which in turn influences their turnover intention.
Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi, 16 (1) 2015, 109-120 ROLE OF.docxelinoraudley582231
Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi, 16 (1) 2015, 109-120
ROLE OF MANAGERS IN SOLVING CONFLICTS IN THE
ORGANIZATIONS
ÖRGÜTLERDE ÇATIŞMANIN ÇÖZÜMLENMESİNDE YÖNETİCİNİN ROLÜ
Pelin ŞAHİN YARBAĞ
Beykent Üniversitesi, İİBF, Girişimcilik Bölümü
[email protected]
ABSTRACT: Conflict means a clash of opinions in the simplest term. It is clear that
clash of opinions will be everywhere if human is there and this will cause conflicts.
In that case, it is possible and should be expected there will be conflicts in the
organizations in which many different people work together, have different cultures
and world views, with different education and equipments, different expectations
and purposes. Firstly, this study defines conflict and conflict in the organization. It
tries to emphasize the importance of the issue of conflict in the organization by
focusing on reasons, sources, types and phases of the conflicts. The cause-effect
relations are examined and suggestions for both managers and academicians are
provided.
Keywords: Conflict; Conflict in Organizationl Solving the Problems; Role of
Managers in Solving Problems
JEL Classifications: M10, M120, M140
ÖZET: Çatışma, en basit tanımı ile fikir ayrılığı demektir. İnsanın olduğu her yerde
fikir ayrılıklarının yaşanabileceği, bunun da çatışmalara sebep olacağı aşikârdır. O
halde birçok insanın bir arada çalıştığı, farklı kültür ve dünya görüşlerinin olduğu,
farklı eğitim ve donanımlara sahip, farklı beklentiler ve amaçlar içerisinde
bulundukları örgütlerde çatışmaların olması olağandır ve beklenmelidir. Bu
çalışmanın başlangıcında çatışma ve örgütte çatışmanın tanımı yapılmaktadır.
Çatışmaların sebepleri, kaynakları, türleri, evreleri üzerinde durarak örgütte
çatışma konusunun önemi vurgulanmaya çalışılmaktadır. Örgütte çatışmanın fayda
ve sakıncalarına değinilerek yöneticinin tercih yapmasını kolaylaştırmaya
çalışılmaktadır. Çalışma boyunca sebep sonuç ilişkilerine değinilmiş, yönetici ve
akademisyenler için öneriler getirilmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Çatışma; Örgütte Çatışma; Çatışmaların Çözümlenmesi;
Çatışmanın Çözümünde Yöneticinin Rolü
1. Introduction
In our daily life, the conversion of our different thought into conflicts is
unavoidable. When these conflicts are experienced by the people working for an
organization to perform an organizational aim and who are the basic elements of this
aim, itp is called the conflict in the organization. The aim of this work is to evaluate
the conflict in the organization in detail. The conflict in an organization will be
defined by making explanation about them. By explaining the types of the conflicts,
we will try to figure out who may live conflict. We will press the subject of having a
background about the importance of the event for the administrator who has an aim
to solve the problem by distracting attention. We will examine the conflict in such a
way that we will see not only its advantage of it but als.
Organizational Conflict and Conflict ManagementAtif Chaudhry
This document summarizes a literature review on organizational conflict and conflict management. It defines organizational conflict and discusses whether conflict is healthy or unhealthy for organizations. It identifies three main dimensions of conflict: task conflict, relationship conflict, and procedural conflict. Relationship conflict tends to be the most damaging as it involves negative emotions. The literature review also discusses four key components of intragroup conflict: negative emotionality, importance, acceptability, and resolution potential. Negative emotionality can hamper rational thinking and make conflict more difficult to resolve. The review provides an overview of the current research on different types of organizational conflict and factors that influence conflict.
Social and Personality Psychology Compass 101 (2016) 11–25, .docxwhitneyleman54422
Social and Personality Psychology Compass 10/1 (2016): 11–25, 10.1111/spc3.12229
Exploring the Toolkit of Emotion: What Do Sadness and
Anger Do for Us?
Heather C. Lench*, Thomas P. Tibbett and Shane W. Bench
Texas A&M University
Abstract
What do negative emotions do for people? We present a framework that defines the function of emotions
as the degree to which discrete emotions result in better outcomes in particular types of situations. Focus-
ing on sadness and anger, we review evidence related to the situations that elicit these emotions; the cog-
nitive, physiological, and behavioral changes associated with the emotions; and the extent to which these
changes result in demonstrably better outcomes in the type of situation that elicits the emotion. Sadness is
elicited by perceived goal loss without possibility of restoration given current abilities and is associated
with deliberative reasoning, reduced physiological activity, and behavioral expression. There is prelimi-
nary evidence suggesting that sadness can permit coping with loss, and that expression of sadness can re-
cruit others to assist in goal attainment. Anger is elicited by perceived goal loss that can be prevented if an
obstacle is overcome and is associated with heuristic reasoning, increased physiological activity, and be-
havioral expression. There is evidence that expression of anger prompts others to remove themselves as
obstacles, and preliminary evidence that anger can promote overcoming obstacles and goal attainment.
Like precision tools, specific emotions are best utilized to resolve particular problems.
People often assume that being in a constant state of happiness would be ideal for human func-
tioning. In fact, the majority of people consider being happy to be of paramount importance in
their lives (Diener, 2000). Yet research findings have revealed that happiness is not the panacea it
might appear, and that instead a mixture of positive and negative emotions is related to positive
outcomes (Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004). In the present review, we address the question of
what negative emotions do for people. We utilize a class of emotion theories – functional ac-
counts – to integrate findings related to the consequences of emotions. Broadly speaking, func-
tional accounts of emotion posit that emotions are functional in the sense that they do
something useful for people. We present a framework that defines the function of emotions
as the degree to which the changes associated with discrete emotions result in better outcomes
in particular types of situations. To use an analogy, emotions do not function as sledgehammers that
can deal with any problem, but rather as a Swiss army knife with a multitude of tools that are
best utilized to resolve particular problems.
Functional Accounts of Emotion
The term “emotion” is used in a variety of ways in the research literature and in colloquial
speech. Although debate continues, there is an emerging consensus that a pr.
Team conflict management and teameffectiveness the effects .docxerlindaw
Team conflict management and team
effectiveness: the effects of task
interdependence and team identification
ANIT SOMECH
1*, HELENA SYNA DESIVILYA
2
AND HELENA LIDOGOSTER
1
1
University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
2
Emek Yezreel College, Emek Yezreel, Israel
Summary The present study explores the dynamics of conflict management as a team phenomenon. The
study examines how the input variable of task structure (task interdependence) is related to
team conflict management style (cooperative versus competitive) and to team performance,
and how team identity moderates these relationships. Seventy-seven intact work teams from
high-technology companies participated in the study. Results revealed that at high levels of
team identity, task interdependence was positively associated with the cooperative style of
conflict management, which in turn fostered team performance. Although a negative associ-
ation was found between competitive style and team performance, this style of team conflict
management did not mediate between the interactive effect of task interdependence and team
identity on team performance. Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Introduction
In modern organizations, teams have become the method of choice for responding quickly to
technological and market changes and thus improving the organization’s chances of survival (Illgen,
Hollenbeck, Johnson, & Jundt, 2006; Richter, West, van Dick, & Dawson, 2006). Considerable
research effort and human energy have been invested in understanding how to create and develop
effective teams (e.g., Illgen et al., 2006). Although research on teams within organizations has
developed somewhat independently from research on organizational conflict, over the past 20 years an
increasing number of studies have emphasized the impact of conflict on team dynamics and outcomes
(De Dreu & Beersma, 2005; Tjosvold, Hui, & Yu, 2005). Conflicts are common within the
interpersonal context of teams, as are attempts made to manage these conflicts (De Dreu & van de
Vliert, 1997; Rahim, Magner, & Shapiro, 2000). In such conflicts, team members become aware of
discrepancies, incompatible wishes, or incompatible desires (Jehn & Mannix, 2001). Among other
issues, teams must contend with conflicts over how to distribute work and rewards effectively and
fairly, how to cope with social loafing, and how best to accomplish their goals (Wageman, 1995).
Journal of Organizational Behavior
J. Organiz. Behav. 30, 359–378 (2009)
Published online 25 April 2008 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/job.537
* Correspondence to: Anit Somech, Faculty of Education, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa 31905, Israel.
E-mail: [email protected]
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 8 March 2007
Revised 18 February 2008
Accepted 9 March 2008
Furthermore, research has shown that it is not simply the presence of conflict that affects teams; rather,
how team members approach an.
This document provides a literature review on the role of emotions in negotiations and introduces the concept of emotional intelligence. It discusses how discrete emotions like anger, anxiety, and guilt can have different effects on negotiation outcomes depending on various situational and individual factors. While emotions can be used strategically, their effectiveness depends on contingencies like power levels, culture, and perceived authenticity. The document then defines emotional intelligence based on models by Mayer and Salovey and Goleman. Emotional intelligence incorporates skills like self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, and relationship management that can help negotiators better understand and strategically use emotions.
A Study of the effects of emotions and Personality on Physical Health using I...ijcnes
Emotions have a significant influence on the human performance and intelligent behavior.As a negative emotion, anger is the main cause in destroying ones happiness. Also the effects of anger are stress, fear etc., and they play a major role in building a negative personality. The personality plays a vital role in affecting states of emotions in any specific situations. In this paper, we analyze the emotion anger which affects physical health by relating with the dimensions of personality using Induced Neutrosophic Relational Maps. Section one describes problem of study. Section two gives the information on the development of Induced Linked Neutrosophic Relational Maps. Section three, the adaption of the problem using Induced Linked Neutrosophic Relational Maps (ILNRMs). Section four,conclusion and scope for future study.
IRJET- Understanding the Co-Occurrence of Task Conflict and Relationship Conf...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study that examines the moderating role of political skill on the relationship between task conflict and relationship conflict in teams. The study hypothesizes that the association between task conflict and relationship conflict will be weaker for teams with members high in political skill, due to political skill's ability to reduce misattribution and adjust emotional expression. Survey data from 206 team members supports the hypothesis, with results showing the positive relationship between task and relationship conflict is weakened when political skill is higher. The study contributes to understanding how political skill impacts team conflicts.
A STUDY ON HOW EMOTIONAL DISSONANCE IMPACT WORK EXHAUSTION, JOB SATISFACTION ...IAEME Publication
This document summarizes a study on how emotional dissonance impacts work exhaustion, job satisfaction, and turnover intention among IT professionals. It defines emotional dissonance as the conflict between emotions felt and emotions expressed. The study collected data from 246 IT professionals in India to examine how emotional dissonance relates to work exhaustion, job satisfaction, and turnover intention. The results showed that emotional dissonance experienced by IT professionals leads to increased work exhaustion and reduced job satisfaction, which in turn influences their turnover intention.
Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi, 16 (1) 2015, 109-120 ROLE OF.docxelinoraudley582231
Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi, 16 (1) 2015, 109-120
ROLE OF MANAGERS IN SOLVING CONFLICTS IN THE
ORGANIZATIONS
ÖRGÜTLERDE ÇATIŞMANIN ÇÖZÜMLENMESİNDE YÖNETİCİNİN ROLÜ
Pelin ŞAHİN YARBAĞ
Beykent Üniversitesi, İİBF, Girişimcilik Bölümü
[email protected]
ABSTRACT: Conflict means a clash of opinions in the simplest term. It is clear that
clash of opinions will be everywhere if human is there and this will cause conflicts.
In that case, it is possible and should be expected there will be conflicts in the
organizations in which many different people work together, have different cultures
and world views, with different education and equipments, different expectations
and purposes. Firstly, this study defines conflict and conflict in the organization. It
tries to emphasize the importance of the issue of conflict in the organization by
focusing on reasons, sources, types and phases of the conflicts. The cause-effect
relations are examined and suggestions for both managers and academicians are
provided.
Keywords: Conflict; Conflict in Organizationl Solving the Problems; Role of
Managers in Solving Problems
JEL Classifications: M10, M120, M140
ÖZET: Çatışma, en basit tanımı ile fikir ayrılığı demektir. İnsanın olduğu her yerde
fikir ayrılıklarının yaşanabileceği, bunun da çatışmalara sebep olacağı aşikârdır. O
halde birçok insanın bir arada çalıştığı, farklı kültür ve dünya görüşlerinin olduğu,
farklı eğitim ve donanımlara sahip, farklı beklentiler ve amaçlar içerisinde
bulundukları örgütlerde çatışmaların olması olağandır ve beklenmelidir. Bu
çalışmanın başlangıcında çatışma ve örgütte çatışmanın tanımı yapılmaktadır.
Çatışmaların sebepleri, kaynakları, türleri, evreleri üzerinde durarak örgütte
çatışma konusunun önemi vurgulanmaya çalışılmaktadır. Örgütte çatışmanın fayda
ve sakıncalarına değinilerek yöneticinin tercih yapmasını kolaylaştırmaya
çalışılmaktadır. Çalışma boyunca sebep sonuç ilişkilerine değinilmiş, yönetici ve
akademisyenler için öneriler getirilmiştir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Çatışma; Örgütte Çatışma; Çatışmaların Çözümlenmesi;
Çatışmanın Çözümünde Yöneticinin Rolü
1. Introduction
In our daily life, the conversion of our different thought into conflicts is
unavoidable. When these conflicts are experienced by the people working for an
organization to perform an organizational aim and who are the basic elements of this
aim, itp is called the conflict in the organization. The aim of this work is to evaluate
the conflict in the organization in detail. The conflict in an organization will be
defined by making explanation about them. By explaining the types of the conflicts,
we will try to figure out who may live conflict. We will press the subject of having a
background about the importance of the event for the administrator who has an aim
to solve the problem by distracting attention. We will examine the conflict in such a
way that we will see not only its advantage of it but als.
Organizational Conflict and Conflict ManagementAtif Chaudhry
This document summarizes a literature review on organizational conflict and conflict management. It defines organizational conflict and discusses whether conflict is healthy or unhealthy for organizations. It identifies three main dimensions of conflict: task conflict, relationship conflict, and procedural conflict. Relationship conflict tends to be the most damaging as it involves negative emotions. The literature review also discusses four key components of intragroup conflict: negative emotionality, importance, acceptability, and resolution potential. Negative emotionality can hamper rational thinking and make conflict more difficult to resolve. The review provides an overview of the current research on different types of organizational conflict and factors that influence conflict.
Social and Personality Psychology Compass 101 (2016) 11–25, .docxwhitneyleman54422
Social and Personality Psychology Compass 10/1 (2016): 11–25, 10.1111/spc3.12229
Exploring the Toolkit of Emotion: What Do Sadness and
Anger Do for Us?
Heather C. Lench*, Thomas P. Tibbett and Shane W. Bench
Texas A&M University
Abstract
What do negative emotions do for people? We present a framework that defines the function of emotions
as the degree to which discrete emotions result in better outcomes in particular types of situations. Focus-
ing on sadness and anger, we review evidence related to the situations that elicit these emotions; the cog-
nitive, physiological, and behavioral changes associated with the emotions; and the extent to which these
changes result in demonstrably better outcomes in the type of situation that elicits the emotion. Sadness is
elicited by perceived goal loss without possibility of restoration given current abilities and is associated
with deliberative reasoning, reduced physiological activity, and behavioral expression. There is prelimi-
nary evidence suggesting that sadness can permit coping with loss, and that expression of sadness can re-
cruit others to assist in goal attainment. Anger is elicited by perceived goal loss that can be prevented if an
obstacle is overcome and is associated with heuristic reasoning, increased physiological activity, and be-
havioral expression. There is evidence that expression of anger prompts others to remove themselves as
obstacles, and preliminary evidence that anger can promote overcoming obstacles and goal attainment.
Like precision tools, specific emotions are best utilized to resolve particular problems.
People often assume that being in a constant state of happiness would be ideal for human func-
tioning. In fact, the majority of people consider being happy to be of paramount importance in
their lives (Diener, 2000). Yet research findings have revealed that happiness is not the panacea it
might appear, and that instead a mixture of positive and negative emotions is related to positive
outcomes (Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004). In the present review, we address the question of
what negative emotions do for people. We utilize a class of emotion theories – functional ac-
counts – to integrate findings related to the consequences of emotions. Broadly speaking, func-
tional accounts of emotion posit that emotions are functional in the sense that they do
something useful for people. We present a framework that defines the function of emotions
as the degree to which the changes associated with discrete emotions result in better outcomes
in particular types of situations. To use an analogy, emotions do not function as sledgehammers that
can deal with any problem, but rather as a Swiss army knife with a multitude of tools that are
best utilized to resolve particular problems.
Functional Accounts of Emotion
The term “emotion” is used in a variety of ways in the research literature and in colloquial
speech. Although debate continues, there is an emerging consensus that a pr.
Team conflict management and teameffectiveness the effects .docxerlindaw
Team conflict management and team
effectiveness: the effects of task
interdependence and team identification
ANIT SOMECH
1*, HELENA SYNA DESIVILYA
2
AND HELENA LIDOGOSTER
1
1
University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
2
Emek Yezreel College, Emek Yezreel, Israel
Summary The present study explores the dynamics of conflict management as a team phenomenon. The
study examines how the input variable of task structure (task interdependence) is related to
team conflict management style (cooperative versus competitive) and to team performance,
and how team identity moderates these relationships. Seventy-seven intact work teams from
high-technology companies participated in the study. Results revealed that at high levels of
team identity, task interdependence was positively associated with the cooperative style of
conflict management, which in turn fostered team performance. Although a negative associ-
ation was found between competitive style and team performance, this style of team conflict
management did not mediate between the interactive effect of task interdependence and team
identity on team performance. Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Introduction
In modern organizations, teams have become the method of choice for responding quickly to
technological and market changes and thus improving the organization’s chances of survival (Illgen,
Hollenbeck, Johnson, & Jundt, 2006; Richter, West, van Dick, & Dawson, 2006). Considerable
research effort and human energy have been invested in understanding how to create and develop
effective teams (e.g., Illgen et al., 2006). Although research on teams within organizations has
developed somewhat independently from research on organizational conflict, over the past 20 years an
increasing number of studies have emphasized the impact of conflict on team dynamics and outcomes
(De Dreu & Beersma, 2005; Tjosvold, Hui, & Yu, 2005). Conflicts are common within the
interpersonal context of teams, as are attempts made to manage these conflicts (De Dreu & van de
Vliert, 1997; Rahim, Magner, & Shapiro, 2000). In such conflicts, team members become aware of
discrepancies, incompatible wishes, or incompatible desires (Jehn & Mannix, 2001). Among other
issues, teams must contend with conflicts over how to distribute work and rewards effectively and
fairly, how to cope with social loafing, and how best to accomplish their goals (Wageman, 1995).
Journal of Organizational Behavior
J. Organiz. Behav. 30, 359–378 (2009)
Published online 25 April 2008 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/job.537
* Correspondence to: Anit Somech, Faculty of Education, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa 31905, Israel.
E-mail: [email protected]
Copyright # 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 8 March 2007
Revised 18 February 2008
Accepted 9 March 2008
Furthermore, research has shown that it is not simply the presence of conflict that affects teams; rather,
how team members approach an.
This document provides a literature review on the role of emotions in negotiations and introduces the concept of emotional intelligence. It discusses how discrete emotions like anger, anxiety, and guilt can have different effects on negotiation outcomes depending on various situational and individual factors. While emotions can be used strategically, their effectiveness depends on contingencies like power levels, culture, and perceived authenticity. The document then defines emotional intelligence based on models by Mayer and Salovey and Goleman. Emotional intelligence incorporates skills like self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, and relationship management that can help negotiators better understand and strategically use emotions.
A Study of the effects of emotions and Personality on Physical Health using I...ijcnes
Emotions have a significant influence on the human performance and intelligent behavior.As a negative emotion, anger is the main cause in destroying ones happiness. Also the effects of anger are stress, fear etc., and they play a major role in building a negative personality. The personality plays a vital role in affecting states of emotions in any specific situations. In this paper, we analyze the emotion anger which affects physical health by relating with the dimensions of personality using Induced Neutrosophic Relational Maps. Section one describes problem of study. Section two gives the information on the development of Induced Linked Neutrosophic Relational Maps. Section three, the adaption of the problem using Induced Linked Neutrosophic Relational Maps (ILNRMs). Section four,conclusion and scope for future study.
IRJET- Understanding the Co-Occurrence of Task Conflict and Relationship Conf...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study that examines the moderating role of political skill on the relationship between task conflict and relationship conflict in teams. The study hypothesizes that the association between task conflict and relationship conflict will be weaker for teams with members high in political skill, due to political skill's ability to reduce misattribution and adjust emotional expression. Survey data from 206 team members supports the hypothesis, with results showing the positive relationship between task and relationship conflict is weakened when political skill is higher. The study contributes to understanding how political skill impacts team conflicts.
Research ArticlePrejudice From Thin AirThe Effect of Emo.docxronak56
Research Article
Prejudice From Thin Air
The Effect of Emotion on Automatic Intergroup Attitudes
David DeSteno,1 Nilanjana Dasgupta,2 Monica Y. Bartlett,1 and Aida Cajdric1
1
Northeastern University and
2
University of Massachusetts–Amherst
ABSTRACT—Two experiments provide initial evidence that spe-
cific emotional states are capable of creating automatic prej-
udice toward outgroups. Specifically, we propose that anger
should influence automatic evaluations of outgroups because of
its functional relevance to intergroup conflict and competition,
whereas other negative emotions less relevant to intergroup
relations (e.g., sadness) should not. In both experiments, after
minimal ingroups and outgroups were created, participants
were induced to experience anger, sadness, or a neutral state.
Automatic attitudes toward the in- and outgroups were then
assessed using an evaluative priming measure (Experiment 1)
and the Implicit Association Test (Experiment 2). As predicted,
results showed that anger created automatic prejudice toward
the outgroup, whereas sadness and neutrality resulted in no
automatic intergroup bias. The implications of these findings for
emotion-induced biases in implicit intergroup cognition in par-
ticular, and in social cognition in general, are considered.
Since the heyday of frustration-aggression and scapegoating theories
of prejudice (e.g., Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939),
social psychologists have recognized that intergroup relations, and the
stereotypes and prejudices that inevitably accompany them, are in-
fluenced by perceivers’ emotional states. As in the case of attitudes
more generally, emotions have been found to influence when, and to
what extent, people express positive or negative attitudes toward, and
beliefs about, members of in- and outgroups (Bodenhausen, Muss-
weiler, Gabriel, & Moreno, 2001; Fiske, 1998; cf. Petty, DeSteno, &
Rucker, 2001). For example, anger and happiness are known to en-
hance heuristic processing of social information that, in turn, ex-
acerbates stereotypic judgments of outgroups (Bodenhausen, Shep-
pard, & Kramer, 1994; Tiedens & Linton, 2001). Sadness, however,
has been shown to promote systematic processing of information that,
in turn, decreases stereotypic judgments (Lambert, Khan, Lickel, &
Fricke, 1997). These and similar findings have led to wide
acceptance of the view that specific emotions can influence people’s
beliefs about social groups.
It is important to note, however, that thus far, the growing corpus of
research on emotion and intergroup cognition has focused exclusively
on the effects of emotion on self-reported, or explicit, judgments of
social groups (for a review, see Bodenhausen et al., 2001). Such
judgments involve conscious deliberation and are, therefore, clearly
under perceivers’ voluntary control. Indeed, if people suspect that
incidental emotion may unduly influence an unrelated judgment, they
often ...
This document provides an overview of a framework for understanding the emotion process in organizations. The framework outlines the emotion process as occurring in stages, beginning with an eliciting stimulus and ending with potential behavioral consequences. Key points of the framework include:
- The emotion process starts with an individual encountering a stimulus, registering its meaning, and experiencing physiological changes and feelings. This can then influence behaviors, attitudes, and expressions.
- Emotion regulation processes occur at each stage and are influenced by individual and group factors. These regulation processes can become automatic with practice.
- The behaviors and expressions from one individual can then act as eliciting stimuli for others, allowing the emotion process to spread between individuals.
- This
A Supporting Hand In Dealing With Interpersonal Conflicts The Role Of Intera...Justin Knight
This study examined how conflict management styles and interactional justice influence subordinates' psychological strain. The researchers hypothesized that a bargaining style would be positively related to strain, while a problem-solving style would be negatively related. They also hypothesized that interactional justice from supervisors would weaken the relationship between bargaining and strain. Data was collected through surveys of 390 Malaysian public sector employees. Results supported the hypotheses, indicating that bargaining relates to increased strain, problem-solving relates to decreased strain, and interactional justice buffers the negative impact of bargaining. This research highlights the importance of interactional justice and conflict management styles for subordinates' well-being.
A Supporting Hand In Dealing With Interpersonal Conflicts The Role Of Intera...Amy Cernava
This study examined the relationship between conflict management styles (bargaining and problem-solving) used by subordinates when dealing with conflicts with supervisors, and the subordinates' psychological strain. It also explored the moderating role of interactional justice in these relationships. The study found that bargaining was positively associated with subordinates' somatic strain, while problem-solving was negatively associated with somatic strain and depressive symptoms. Interactional justice buffered the negative consequences of bargaining on strain. This highlights interactional justice as providing support that protects against the negative impacts of bargaining styles on subordinates' well-being. The implications are for organizations to consider interactional justice in managing conflicts to sustain employee well-being.
This document contains a student's honesty declaration for an assignment submitted for an Advanced Research Methods course. The student declares that the assignment is their original work and where they have used other writers' ideas or visuals, they have properly referenced them. The student also acknowledges reading the university's code of conduct regarding honesty in submitting coursework. The student signs and dates the declaration.
Content:
Introduction and Status quo . 2
Ontology .
Epistemology .
Me hodolog . . .3
Research De ign . . 4
The introduction of Background Theory . 4
Background Theorie .
Reference . . . .. . 6
Introduction and status quo
The family business is the prevalent organizational form of business globally (Daily and Dollinger,
1993). One of the distinguishing features of family firms (FFs) is that they are built upon close
relationships among family members (Cruz et al., 2010), which can serve as a valuable resource
for serious tensions (Herrero, 2018). Some scholars see conflict as the source of all evil (Jayantilal
et al., 2016) that can create anxiety, especially among spouses. The tensions may be transferred to
other family members, notably the children, which may cause severe dysfunctional problems in
the family. These problems may put the whole family business in danger. These assumptions are
too simplistic and misleading and are one of the main reasons why the literature on this topic
remains largely undertheorized and fragmented, resulting in theoretical limitations and empirical
indeterminacy (Pai and Bendersky, 2020). we (Paola Rovelli,2021) advice for further research
that looks more closely at the family system, considering for instance aspects such as conflicts to
increase their attention towards the consequences of such inconsistencies. The psychology
literature suggests that moderate levels of conflict may enhance group performance through
improved decision-making processes, fostered innovation, and enhanced creativity Likewise,
conflict is not always negative (cognitive conflict), as it may lead to constructive challenges and
improvements (e.g., Ensley & Pearson, 2005. The purpose of this research is that it will give
insights to understand why in some contexts conflict leads to negative performance and why in
others to a positive outcome.
Ontology
An area of philosoph , that deals with the nature of being, or what exists; the area of philosophy
that asks what is and what the fundamental categories of reality are (Neuman, 2014, p. 94). social
reality is created by subjects through their interactions and interpretations, actors influence
structures and regularities, knowledge about social reality is always dependent on subjects and
social relations. In the concept of ontology, this research will put in the concept of nominalism
(as opposed to realism). Nominalists believe in multiple versions of reality, which is derived from
the researcher s interpretations of truth, and depending on the researcher s experience, it can only
be transferred to similar contexts. conflicts, as phenomena of social reality (Kellermanns and
Eddleston, 2004) focuses on communications, relationships and sees communicative acts as the
elements rather than persons. To understand it, the researcher should penetrate the depth of the
matter. Conflicts as a complex web of ...
Desires and Decisions - A look into how positive emotions influence decision ...Shiva Kakkar
In the past few years the field of emotions has increasingly attracted the attention of researchers. A major reason for this is the ability of emotions to influence human motivation and actions by influencing the cognitive processes of the brain (Latham, 2007). Research by Kahneman and Tversky (1973) has for long suggested that not all human decisions are rational in nature. A significant part of irrational decision making can be attributed to the play of emotions in human beings. Thus, it is interesting to see how emotions interfere with the thinking process of individuals. The paper specifically attempts to view the effect of positive emotions i.e. feeling of happiness, joy and/or enthusiasm on the decision making process in human beings. In order to achieve this, two opposite scientific views in the form of a critique and a refutation are presented to understand the utility of positive emotions in decision making.
Uhs 2062 Group Behaviours, Teams And Conflictsguest1d0b19
Groups consist of multiple members who see themselves as a unit sharing common goals. Factors like cohesiveness, size, and ability affect group performance. Conflicts can occur due to issues like ambiguous roles or goals. There are different conflict styles like avoiding or collaborating. It is best to resolve conflicts through open communication or third party mediation before they escalate.
Mathematical Model to Predict Leader Self-Awareness and Effective Conflict Ma...Triple A Research Journal
This document presents a mathematical model to predict leader self-awareness and effective conflict management in manufacturing companies. It begins with an abstract that outlines the study's objectives to evaluate self-awareness and conflict management and their impact on collaboration and communication. The introduction then provides background on the importance of emotional intelligence competencies like self-awareness for organizational success. The literature review discusses theories of emotional intelligence, increased collaboration, leader self-awareness, improved communication, and their relationships. The study aims to examine how self-awareness influences increased collaboration and improved communication using a mathematical model. It presents the model development and discusses variables. The goal is to monitor leader self-awareness and evaluate effective conflict management to enhance communication between customers
Chronic stress can negatively impact decision making abilities. It has been linked to poor issue interpretation, decreased alternative seeking, and implementing previously failed approaches. Researchers agree chronic stress leads to poor decision making. Those under chronic stress may exhibit risk taking behaviors due to altered reward processing. Additional variables like social pressure and rumination can further decrease decision making capabilities for those experiencing chronic stress. While some mixed results exist, chronic stress overall impairs cognitive processes involved in effective decision making.
Compassion involves noticing and experiencing emotional reactions to others' suffering, and acting to alleviate it. It fosters cooperation and community. Self-compassion involves being kind to oneself rather than self-critical, recognizing one's shared humanity, and holding painful feelings mindfully rather than becoming overwhelmed. Instruments like the DASS-21 and Five Facet Mindfulness Scale can help identify emotional issues and mindfulness in a compassionate way. Organizational compassion occurs when a system collectively notices and responds to members' pain, cultivating cooperation. Overall, compassion emphasizes our shared humanity.
When Business Becomes Personal: The Role of Emotions in NegotiationsJesús Vega-Cerdá
An introductory look at the role and impact of emotions in business-like negotiations. Within the paper, two studies are analyzed: One of them provides a general argument for emotional intelligence in negotiations; the other presents a particular emotion (disappointment) and its impact. And, while these studies present contradictory findings, they revolve around a similar thesis: emotions affect negotiations.
Emotions, according to Greenberg and Baron (2003), can be defined .docxSALU18
Emotions, according to Greenberg and Baron (2003), can be defined as “overt reactions that express feelings about events.” The same researchers differentiate emotions from moods, claiming that moods are less reactive than emotions, existing in the background instead. Emotions arise due to a variety of reasons, such as needs, ambition, personal development, or the orientation of attention (Andries, 2011). Examples of such emotions include fear, anger, joy and pride among others, and are widely believed to be the antithesis of rational thought (Greenspan, 2002, as cited in Kirman, Livet and Teschl, 2010). This belief has led many to claim that within the workplace, the presence of emotions is problematic for organizations, as it may lead employees to think irrationally and perform erratic or unpredictable actions. However, it should be noted that emotions are an unavoidable aspect of dealing with human employees, therefore, the emotions felt by these individuals should be acknowledged by the organization and controlled or redirected to avoid an undesirable outcome, or in some cases, result in increased profitability through the use of emotional labor. Therefore, this paper will firstly use existing research to present how and why emotions are viewed negatively in organizations and discuss the consequences of such a view. Secondly, the impact of emotions on various aspects of employee performance will be considered, with a focus on the affective events theory. These effects will be further explored, with a focus on the positive effects through the broaden-and-build theory. Moreover, the regulation of emotions in the workplace through display rules and other mechanisms will be analyzed. Finally, the use of emotional labor will be examined to show that in some industries, especially service sectors, emotions can be used to boost customer satisfaction and therefore profits.
To begin with, modern workplaces are often thought to be places devoid of emotions, with an emphasis on rational thought which does not allow for any emotional expression or experiences. However, as claimed by Ashkanasy et al. (2002), workplaces are as emotional as any other aspect of an individual’s social life. As mentioned previously, emotions may arise due to a variety of causes, many of which are unavoidable in a workplace. Organizations often fall under various economic or market pressures and have hierarchical power structures, with an uneven distribution of resources and privilege (Fineman, 2010). Fineman (2010) continues, claiming that such pressures may lead to the rise of negative emotions such as fear or anger. When these negative emotions such are left unchecked, they may escalate and lead to detrimental behaviors through a process known as “spinning” (Mitchell and Noakes-Fry, 2013). These detrimental behaviors, according to Fineman (2010), include resistance to executive instructions, lack of motivation, absenteeism, and in some extreme cases, a bullying culture w ...
We live inside our frame of experiences. These experiences arise from the combination of content and emotions that create emotional states that color our decisions. Redefining the experience keeps the group (team/organization) in a state of movement and creativity. If the system is too tight, the risk is a
stereotyped or compulsive response. If the system is very
relaxed, the risk is the lack of appropriate responses. The
consequence of indifference is the ineffectiveness.
This document discusses the nature and origin of conflict. It defines conflict as an expression of hostility, negative attitudes, aggression, rivalry and misunderstanding. Conflict arises when individuals perceive that another party has negatively affected something they care about. Conflict is a psychological state that occurs when people have to choose between alternative courses of action. The understanding of conflict depends on how it is viewed - as natural, abnormal, or necessary for growth. Conflicts can occur between individuals, groups, and at various levels from interpersonal to international.
Implications of gender disparity in concepts of conflict resolution for peace...Alexander Decker
This document discusses concepts of conflict resolution among residents of Gombe town in Nigeria and the implications of gender differences in these concepts for peace and stability. The study found that while males and females did not significantly differ in their overall approaches to conflict resolution, there were some differences when individual items were examined. Five implications for peace and stability were identified based on these differences. The document provides context on understanding conflicts, causes of conflicts, types of conflicts, advantages and disadvantages of conflicts, appropriate conduct during conflicts, and preliminary steps for conflict resolution.
CULTURES OF CONFLICT HOW LEADERS AND MEMBERS SHAPE CONFLICT .docxannettsparrow
CULTURES OF CONFLICT: HOW LEADERS AND MEMBERS SHAPE CONFLICT
CULTURES IN ORGANIZATIONS
MICHELE J. GELFAND
Department of Psychology
University of Maryland, College Park
College Park, MD 20742
LISA M. LESLIE
University of Minnesota
KIRSTEN KELLER
Rand Corporation
CARSTEN K. W. DEDREU
University of Amsterdam
INTRODUCTION
Why do some organizations develop cultures where conflict is managed productively
whereas others have cultures where members work against one another, sabotaging each other in
and out of the boardroom? Southwest Airlines, for example, has been argued to have a
collaborative conflict culture (Gittell, 2003), whereas organizations such as Playco describe
themselves as having a dominating conflict culture, approaching conflict like they are in “the old
west” or through “warfare games” (Morill, 1995, p. 195). Still others, such as the now defunct
Wang laboratories, are known to have avoidant cultures, in which people actively suppress
conflict at all costs (Finkelstein, 2005). For psychologists, many questions remain unasked and
unanswered: Is there any evidence that conflict cultures exist at the organizational level? If so,
how do such distinct conflict cultures develop? What role do leaders and organizations play in
shaping the development of conflict cultures? Answers to these questions cannot be found in the
psychological literature on conflict, which has focused on conflict management styles at the
individual and small group level and has yet to examine whether and how distinct conflict
cultures develop at higher levels of analysis.
In the present research, we start with the premise that although individuals have
idiosyncratic preferences for different conflict management strategies, organizational contexts
provide strong situations (Johns, 2006; O’Reilly & Chatman, 1996) that serve to define socially
shared and normative ways to manage conflict—what we refer to as conflict cultures—which
ultimately minimize individual variation in conflict management strategies (De Dreu, van
Dierendonck, & Dijkstra, 2004; Gelfand, Leslie, & Keller, 2008). Because norms typically
develop around fundamental problems that need to be managed in any social system (Schein,
1992; Schwartz, 1994), and conflict is an inherent problem in all organizational systems, we
expect that distinct conflict cultures can develop in many, if not all, organizations. Accordingly,
we first examine whether we can empirically establish conflict cultures and distinguish different
conflict culture types. We then examine possible antecedents of different conflict cultures –
where do they come from, who shapes conflict cultures and why?
DO CONFLICT CULTURES EXIST?
Individual members of organizations have distinct ways of managing workplace
conflicts. Some prefer a pro-active approach and easily engage in constructive negotiations and
collaborative problem solving. Others are inclined to compete and dominate the conflict partner.
T.
you must read two articles which are from the field of Human Resou.docxdavezstarr61655
you must read two articles which are from the
field of Human Resources
and complete a one page annotated bibliography for each article (scholarly/peer-reviewed journal articles).
Annotated bibliographies must be written in manner, in which, they are understandable. You must describe all-important data such as:
• The participants
• The reason the study was conducted
• What research design was used (surveys, interviews, case study, etc.)
• Which research analysis was used (MANOVA, ANOVA, Kruskal Wallace, etc.) • The results of the study along with any conclusions of the author(s)
.
You must produce a minimum of a 5 pages paper. You must use a minimu.docxdavezstarr61655
You must produce a minimum of a 5 pages paper. You must use a minimum of 5 references, citing the references where you used the material within the paper itself.
- Assure you are citing in APA format
-You must use a minimum of one graphic or image (may use a table)
- Double space the paper
- You must use APA formatting (6th Edition)
.
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Research ArticlePrejudice From Thin AirThe Effect of Emo.docxronak56
Research Article
Prejudice From Thin Air
The Effect of Emotion on Automatic Intergroup Attitudes
David DeSteno,1 Nilanjana Dasgupta,2 Monica Y. Bartlett,1 and Aida Cajdric1
1
Northeastern University and
2
University of Massachusetts–Amherst
ABSTRACT—Two experiments provide initial evidence that spe-
cific emotional states are capable of creating automatic prej-
udice toward outgroups. Specifically, we propose that anger
should influence automatic evaluations of outgroups because of
its functional relevance to intergroup conflict and competition,
whereas other negative emotions less relevant to intergroup
relations (e.g., sadness) should not. In both experiments, after
minimal ingroups and outgroups were created, participants
were induced to experience anger, sadness, or a neutral state.
Automatic attitudes toward the in- and outgroups were then
assessed using an evaluative priming measure (Experiment 1)
and the Implicit Association Test (Experiment 2). As predicted,
results showed that anger created automatic prejudice toward
the outgroup, whereas sadness and neutrality resulted in no
automatic intergroup bias. The implications of these findings for
emotion-induced biases in implicit intergroup cognition in par-
ticular, and in social cognition in general, are considered.
Since the heyday of frustration-aggression and scapegoating theories
of prejudice (e.g., Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939),
social psychologists have recognized that intergroup relations, and the
stereotypes and prejudices that inevitably accompany them, are in-
fluenced by perceivers’ emotional states. As in the case of attitudes
more generally, emotions have been found to influence when, and to
what extent, people express positive or negative attitudes toward, and
beliefs about, members of in- and outgroups (Bodenhausen, Muss-
weiler, Gabriel, & Moreno, 2001; Fiske, 1998; cf. Petty, DeSteno, &
Rucker, 2001). For example, anger and happiness are known to en-
hance heuristic processing of social information that, in turn, ex-
acerbates stereotypic judgments of outgroups (Bodenhausen, Shep-
pard, & Kramer, 1994; Tiedens & Linton, 2001). Sadness, however,
has been shown to promote systematic processing of information that,
in turn, decreases stereotypic judgments (Lambert, Khan, Lickel, &
Fricke, 1997). These and similar findings have led to wide
acceptance of the view that specific emotions can influence people’s
beliefs about social groups.
It is important to note, however, that thus far, the growing corpus of
research on emotion and intergroup cognition has focused exclusively
on the effects of emotion on self-reported, or explicit, judgments of
social groups (for a review, see Bodenhausen et al., 2001). Such
judgments involve conscious deliberation and are, therefore, clearly
under perceivers’ voluntary control. Indeed, if people suspect that
incidental emotion may unduly influence an unrelated judgment, they
often ...
This document provides an overview of a framework for understanding the emotion process in organizations. The framework outlines the emotion process as occurring in stages, beginning with an eliciting stimulus and ending with potential behavioral consequences. Key points of the framework include:
- The emotion process starts with an individual encountering a stimulus, registering its meaning, and experiencing physiological changes and feelings. This can then influence behaviors, attitudes, and expressions.
- Emotion regulation processes occur at each stage and are influenced by individual and group factors. These regulation processes can become automatic with practice.
- The behaviors and expressions from one individual can then act as eliciting stimuli for others, allowing the emotion process to spread between individuals.
- This
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This study examined how conflict management styles and interactional justice influence subordinates' psychological strain. The researchers hypothesized that a bargaining style would be positively related to strain, while a problem-solving style would be negatively related. They also hypothesized that interactional justice from supervisors would weaken the relationship between bargaining and strain. Data was collected through surveys of 390 Malaysian public sector employees. Results supported the hypotheses, indicating that bargaining relates to increased strain, problem-solving relates to decreased strain, and interactional justice buffers the negative impact of bargaining. This research highlights the importance of interactional justice and conflict management styles for subordinates' well-being.
A Supporting Hand In Dealing With Interpersonal Conflicts The Role Of Intera...Amy Cernava
This study examined the relationship between conflict management styles (bargaining and problem-solving) used by subordinates when dealing with conflicts with supervisors, and the subordinates' psychological strain. It also explored the moderating role of interactional justice in these relationships. The study found that bargaining was positively associated with subordinates' somatic strain, while problem-solving was negatively associated with somatic strain and depressive symptoms. Interactional justice buffered the negative consequences of bargaining on strain. This highlights interactional justice as providing support that protects against the negative impacts of bargaining styles on subordinates' well-being. The implications are for organizations to consider interactional justice in managing conflicts to sustain employee well-being.
This document contains a student's honesty declaration for an assignment submitted for an Advanced Research Methods course. The student declares that the assignment is their original work and where they have used other writers' ideas or visuals, they have properly referenced them. The student also acknowledges reading the university's code of conduct regarding honesty in submitting coursework. The student signs and dates the declaration.
Content:
Introduction and Status quo . 2
Ontology .
Epistemology .
Me hodolog . . .3
Research De ign . . 4
The introduction of Background Theory . 4
Background Theorie .
Reference . . . .. . 6
Introduction and status quo
The family business is the prevalent organizational form of business globally (Daily and Dollinger,
1993). One of the distinguishing features of family firms (FFs) is that they are built upon close
relationships among family members (Cruz et al., 2010), which can serve as a valuable resource
for serious tensions (Herrero, 2018). Some scholars see conflict as the source of all evil (Jayantilal
et al., 2016) that can create anxiety, especially among spouses. The tensions may be transferred to
other family members, notably the children, which may cause severe dysfunctional problems in
the family. These problems may put the whole family business in danger. These assumptions are
too simplistic and misleading and are one of the main reasons why the literature on this topic
remains largely undertheorized and fragmented, resulting in theoretical limitations and empirical
indeterminacy (Pai and Bendersky, 2020). we (Paola Rovelli,2021) advice for further research
that looks more closely at the family system, considering for instance aspects such as conflicts to
increase their attention towards the consequences of such inconsistencies. The psychology
literature suggests that moderate levels of conflict may enhance group performance through
improved decision-making processes, fostered innovation, and enhanced creativity Likewise,
conflict is not always negative (cognitive conflict), as it may lead to constructive challenges and
improvements (e.g., Ensley & Pearson, 2005. The purpose of this research is that it will give
insights to understand why in some contexts conflict leads to negative performance and why in
others to a positive outcome.
Ontology
An area of philosoph , that deals with the nature of being, or what exists; the area of philosophy
that asks what is and what the fundamental categories of reality are (Neuman, 2014, p. 94). social
reality is created by subjects through their interactions and interpretations, actors influence
structures and regularities, knowledge about social reality is always dependent on subjects and
social relations. In the concept of ontology, this research will put in the concept of nominalism
(as opposed to realism). Nominalists believe in multiple versions of reality, which is derived from
the researcher s interpretations of truth, and depending on the researcher s experience, it can only
be transferred to similar contexts. conflicts, as phenomena of social reality (Kellermanns and
Eddleston, 2004) focuses on communications, relationships and sees communicative acts as the
elements rather than persons. To understand it, the researcher should penetrate the depth of the
matter. Conflicts as a complex web of ...
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In the past few years the field of emotions has increasingly attracted the attention of researchers. A major reason for this is the ability of emotions to influence human motivation and actions by influencing the cognitive processes of the brain (Latham, 2007). Research by Kahneman and Tversky (1973) has for long suggested that not all human decisions are rational in nature. A significant part of irrational decision making can be attributed to the play of emotions in human beings. Thus, it is interesting to see how emotions interfere with the thinking process of individuals. The paper specifically attempts to view the effect of positive emotions i.e. feeling of happiness, joy and/or enthusiasm on the decision making process in human beings. In order to achieve this, two opposite scientific views in the form of a critique and a refutation are presented to understand the utility of positive emotions in decision making.
Uhs 2062 Group Behaviours, Teams And Conflictsguest1d0b19
Groups consist of multiple members who see themselves as a unit sharing common goals. Factors like cohesiveness, size, and ability affect group performance. Conflicts can occur due to issues like ambiguous roles or goals. There are different conflict styles like avoiding or collaborating. It is best to resolve conflicts through open communication or third party mediation before they escalate.
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This document presents a mathematical model to predict leader self-awareness and effective conflict management in manufacturing companies. It begins with an abstract that outlines the study's objectives to evaluate self-awareness and conflict management and their impact on collaboration and communication. The introduction then provides background on the importance of emotional intelligence competencies like self-awareness for organizational success. The literature review discusses theories of emotional intelligence, increased collaboration, leader self-awareness, improved communication, and their relationships. The study aims to examine how self-awareness influences increased collaboration and improved communication using a mathematical model. It presents the model development and discusses variables. The goal is to monitor leader self-awareness and evaluate effective conflict management to enhance communication between customers
Chronic stress can negatively impact decision making abilities. It has been linked to poor issue interpretation, decreased alternative seeking, and implementing previously failed approaches. Researchers agree chronic stress leads to poor decision making. Those under chronic stress may exhibit risk taking behaviors due to altered reward processing. Additional variables like social pressure and rumination can further decrease decision making capabilities for those experiencing chronic stress. While some mixed results exist, chronic stress overall impairs cognitive processes involved in effective decision making.
Compassion involves noticing and experiencing emotional reactions to others' suffering, and acting to alleviate it. It fosters cooperation and community. Self-compassion involves being kind to oneself rather than self-critical, recognizing one's shared humanity, and holding painful feelings mindfully rather than becoming overwhelmed. Instruments like the DASS-21 and Five Facet Mindfulness Scale can help identify emotional issues and mindfulness in a compassionate way. Organizational compassion occurs when a system collectively notices and responds to members' pain, cultivating cooperation. Overall, compassion emphasizes our shared humanity.
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An introductory look at the role and impact of emotions in business-like negotiations. Within the paper, two studies are analyzed: One of them provides a general argument for emotional intelligence in negotiations; the other presents a particular emotion (disappointment) and its impact. And, while these studies present contradictory findings, they revolve around a similar thesis: emotions affect negotiations.
Emotions, according to Greenberg and Baron (2003), can be defined .docxSALU18
Emotions, according to Greenberg and Baron (2003), can be defined as “overt reactions that express feelings about events.” The same researchers differentiate emotions from moods, claiming that moods are less reactive than emotions, existing in the background instead. Emotions arise due to a variety of reasons, such as needs, ambition, personal development, or the orientation of attention (Andries, 2011). Examples of such emotions include fear, anger, joy and pride among others, and are widely believed to be the antithesis of rational thought (Greenspan, 2002, as cited in Kirman, Livet and Teschl, 2010). This belief has led many to claim that within the workplace, the presence of emotions is problematic for organizations, as it may lead employees to think irrationally and perform erratic or unpredictable actions. However, it should be noted that emotions are an unavoidable aspect of dealing with human employees, therefore, the emotions felt by these individuals should be acknowledged by the organization and controlled or redirected to avoid an undesirable outcome, or in some cases, result in increased profitability through the use of emotional labor. Therefore, this paper will firstly use existing research to present how and why emotions are viewed negatively in organizations and discuss the consequences of such a view. Secondly, the impact of emotions on various aspects of employee performance will be considered, with a focus on the affective events theory. These effects will be further explored, with a focus on the positive effects through the broaden-and-build theory. Moreover, the regulation of emotions in the workplace through display rules and other mechanisms will be analyzed. Finally, the use of emotional labor will be examined to show that in some industries, especially service sectors, emotions can be used to boost customer satisfaction and therefore profits.
To begin with, modern workplaces are often thought to be places devoid of emotions, with an emphasis on rational thought which does not allow for any emotional expression or experiences. However, as claimed by Ashkanasy et al. (2002), workplaces are as emotional as any other aspect of an individual’s social life. As mentioned previously, emotions may arise due to a variety of causes, many of which are unavoidable in a workplace. Organizations often fall under various economic or market pressures and have hierarchical power structures, with an uneven distribution of resources and privilege (Fineman, 2010). Fineman (2010) continues, claiming that such pressures may lead to the rise of negative emotions such as fear or anger. When these negative emotions such are left unchecked, they may escalate and lead to detrimental behaviors through a process known as “spinning” (Mitchell and Noakes-Fry, 2013). These detrimental behaviors, according to Fineman (2010), include resistance to executive instructions, lack of motivation, absenteeism, and in some extreme cases, a bullying culture w ...
We live inside our frame of experiences. These experiences arise from the combination of content and emotions that create emotional states that color our decisions. Redefining the experience keeps the group (team/organization) in a state of movement and creativity. If the system is too tight, the risk is a
stereotyped or compulsive response. If the system is very
relaxed, the risk is the lack of appropriate responses. The
consequence of indifference is the ineffectiveness.
This document discusses the nature and origin of conflict. It defines conflict as an expression of hostility, negative attitudes, aggression, rivalry and misunderstanding. Conflict arises when individuals perceive that another party has negatively affected something they care about. Conflict is a psychological state that occurs when people have to choose between alternative courses of action. The understanding of conflict depends on how it is viewed - as natural, abnormal, or necessary for growth. Conflicts can occur between individuals, groups, and at various levels from interpersonal to international.
Implications of gender disparity in concepts of conflict resolution for peace...Alexander Decker
This document discusses concepts of conflict resolution among residents of Gombe town in Nigeria and the implications of gender differences in these concepts for peace and stability. The study found that while males and females did not significantly differ in their overall approaches to conflict resolution, there were some differences when individual items were examined. Five implications for peace and stability were identified based on these differences. The document provides context on understanding conflicts, causes of conflicts, types of conflicts, advantages and disadvantages of conflicts, appropriate conduct during conflicts, and preliminary steps for conflict resolution.
CULTURES OF CONFLICT HOW LEADERS AND MEMBERS SHAPE CONFLICT .docxannettsparrow
CULTURES OF CONFLICT: HOW LEADERS AND MEMBERS SHAPE CONFLICT
CULTURES IN ORGANIZATIONS
MICHELE J. GELFAND
Department of Psychology
University of Maryland, College Park
College Park, MD 20742
LISA M. LESLIE
University of Minnesota
KIRSTEN KELLER
Rand Corporation
CARSTEN K. W. DEDREU
University of Amsterdam
INTRODUCTION
Why do some organizations develop cultures where conflict is managed productively
whereas others have cultures where members work against one another, sabotaging each other in
and out of the boardroom? Southwest Airlines, for example, has been argued to have a
collaborative conflict culture (Gittell, 2003), whereas organizations such as Playco describe
themselves as having a dominating conflict culture, approaching conflict like they are in “the old
west” or through “warfare games” (Morill, 1995, p. 195). Still others, such as the now defunct
Wang laboratories, are known to have avoidant cultures, in which people actively suppress
conflict at all costs (Finkelstein, 2005). For psychologists, many questions remain unasked and
unanswered: Is there any evidence that conflict cultures exist at the organizational level? If so,
how do such distinct conflict cultures develop? What role do leaders and organizations play in
shaping the development of conflict cultures? Answers to these questions cannot be found in the
psychological literature on conflict, which has focused on conflict management styles at the
individual and small group level and has yet to examine whether and how distinct conflict
cultures develop at higher levels of analysis.
In the present research, we start with the premise that although individuals have
idiosyncratic preferences for different conflict management strategies, organizational contexts
provide strong situations (Johns, 2006; O’Reilly & Chatman, 1996) that serve to define socially
shared and normative ways to manage conflict—what we refer to as conflict cultures—which
ultimately minimize individual variation in conflict management strategies (De Dreu, van
Dierendonck, & Dijkstra, 2004; Gelfand, Leslie, & Keller, 2008). Because norms typically
develop around fundamental problems that need to be managed in any social system (Schein,
1992; Schwartz, 1994), and conflict is an inherent problem in all organizational systems, we
expect that distinct conflict cultures can develop in many, if not all, organizations. Accordingly,
we first examine whether we can empirically establish conflict cultures and distinguish different
conflict culture types. We then examine possible antecedents of different conflict cultures –
where do they come from, who shapes conflict cultures and why?
DO CONFLICT CULTURES EXIST?
Individual members of organizations have distinct ways of managing workplace
conflicts. Some prefer a pro-active approach and easily engage in constructive negotiations and
collaborative problem solving. Others are inclined to compete and dominate the conflict partner.
T.
Similar to Assessing the Relationship Between Conflict-Type and Emoti.docx (20)
you must read two articles which are from the field of Human Resou.docxdavezstarr61655
you must read two articles which are from the
field of Human Resources
and complete a one page annotated bibliography for each article (scholarly/peer-reviewed journal articles).
Annotated bibliographies must be written in manner, in which, they are understandable. You must describe all-important data such as:
• The participants
• The reason the study was conducted
• What research design was used (surveys, interviews, case study, etc.)
• Which research analysis was used (MANOVA, ANOVA, Kruskal Wallace, etc.) • The results of the study along with any conclusions of the author(s)
.
You must produce a minimum of a 5 pages paper. You must use a minimu.docxdavezstarr61655
You must produce a minimum of a 5 pages paper. You must use a minimum of 5 references, citing the references where you used the material within the paper itself.
- Assure you are citing in APA format
-You must use a minimum of one graphic or image (may use a table)
- Double space the paper
- You must use APA formatting (6th Edition)
.
You must provide a references for entire posting. Please use APA for.docxdavezstarr61655
You must provide a references for entire posting. Please use APA for your reference citation. You will also have citations in the text of your responses as well as references at the end of your responses. References for other readings need to be current, within the last three to five years.
1. Theories seem to be such esoteric notions for a profession that seemed to function well for decades, without highlighting them. Can our practice history guide our practice future with theories? Why/not? 2. Define both rationalism and empiricism. Differentiate between these two scientific approaches.
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Explain the implications associated with this breach, specifically in terms of privacy laws and violations of the law.
Analyze the impact that these technological breaches have on consumer safety and well-being.
Recommend further actions to protect the privacy of clients.
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You must produce a minimum of a 10 pages paper. You must use a m.docxdavezstarr61655
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- Double space the paper
- You must use APA formatting (6th Edition)
.
You must produce a minimum of a 10 pages paper. You must use a minim.docxdavezstarr61655
You must produce a minimum of a 10 pages paper. You must use a minimum of 5 references, citing the references where you used the material within the paper itself.
- Assure you are citing in APA format
-You must use a minimum of one graphic or image (may use a table)
- Double space the paper
- You must use APA formatting (6th Edition)
.
You must include the resources you used if any.. THese papers are op.docxdavezstarr61655
You must include the resources you used if any.. THese papers are opinion papers on the subjects posted and not just research papers that you are digging up on previous material... If references are used they most be accessible if not the assignement will be considered to not have been followed and be sent back for revision or dispute if you do not respond.
Paper #1 SCHOOL DROPOUTS
Some statistics about student dropouts follow. The task is to decide what you would do to keep students in schools. In other words, what can be done to improve these statistics?
The national dropout rate is between 25 and 30 percent of students. The typical high school graduation includes only 70 percent of its ninth-grade class members. One result is that approximately one-third of the adult population is functionally illiterate.
States with the lowest dropout rates:
North Dakota
Minnesota
Delaware
Iowa
South Dakota
States with the highest dropout rates:
Louisiana
Florida
Nevada
Mississippi
Tennessee
Georgia
It is possible to spot regional differences in dropout rates, but even more noticeable is the effect of family economics on dropout statistics.
Are there differences by ethnic groups within these statistics?
Analyze the Area of Coos County Oregon
Paper #2
Based on the work of Marcia, there are four general areas in which a person needs to make commitments in order to achieve an identity. These include career identity, sexual beliefs and values, religious beliefs and values, and political beliefs.
Interview a young teenager about his or her plans and commitments in these four areas: 1) career; 2) religion; 3) sexual behavior; and, 4) politics. You do not have to ask about specific behaviors, but ask generally what the person believes. After you interview the child... Write a paper on that interview and the correaltion of Marcia's four Identity Commitments and how it translates to that of the child. 2.5 pages double spaced. you may reference material used from MARCIA
Paper # 3
CHILDERN AND ANXIETY
CHILDREN AND ANXIETY
The prevalence of anxiety disorders among children seems to be on the rise. Children are being treated for obsessive-compulsive disorder, for post-traumatic stress syndrome, and generalized anxiety disorders. Some authors have suggested that the world is a far more frightening and stressful place for children now than in previous generations. Recent historical events, such as the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center, the war in Iraq, and similar events that receive heavy media coverage, may present children with things to think about that previous generations did not experience. In addition, children are exposed to many more graphic images of violence and victimization in their media. These factors, plus the fact that their parents, teachers, and caregivers are also experiencing stressors, might contribute to children’s anxiety.
What did you fear as a child? What things might children fear? Consider the definition of .
You must include the Textbook definition and a picture f.docxdavezstarr61655
You must include the
Textbook definition
and a
picture
for EACH term below.
Terms:
1. rotation
2. day
3. revolution
4. year
5. season
6. equinox
7. solstice
8. satellite
the textbook - HMH Georgia Science
.
You must include 6 references, two that must come peer-reviewed .docxdavezstarr61655
You must include 6 references, two that must come peer-reviewed journals. Include an Abstract, introduction, and conclusion, as well as the body of content. The paper must follow APA.
TOPIC:
Emerging enterprise network applications
Research paper basics:
• 10-12 pages in length
• APA formatted
• Minimum six (6) sources – at least two (2) from peer reviewed journals.
1. Context and Background Information: Clearly developed Paper with the appropriate details
2. Content: Paper is interesting and relevant
3.APA Format: Used APA format correctly throughout paper
4. Used Compelling Chart, Table, or Map to Illustrate Something in the Paper: A compelling chart, table, or map was used correctly to illustrate a point in the paper
5. Excellent closing
6. Excellent body of paper detailing the Topic
7. Excellent closing
8. Included a list of all references used and all references were cited correctly
9. Format is appropriate and enhances the understanding of the Topic in a creative and dramatic manner throughout the paper.
10. Zero plagiarism
.
You must have the Project Libre to create this! Develop a chart .docxdavezstarr61655
You must have the Project Libre to create this!
Develop a chart showing the inputs required from other project documents required to develop the scope of a project and the outputs of a project scope document. Don’t copy another author’s work for any reason, you may use it for input with citations/references.
Suggestion: create columns with input on the left, document description in the middle, and scope output on the far right, then fill it in using the textual information.
Post the Project Libre file (“xxxxx”.pod)
.
You must have experience doing PhD proposal , so the topic of th.docxdavezstarr61655
You must have experience doing PhD proposal , so the topic of the proposal is ( the impact of value -added tax on the locally economy in the developing countries , advantage ,disadvantage. Saudi Arabia as case study
Introduction of value -added tax
Local economy
The impact of the developing countries such as countries close of the Saudi araba
advantage
disadvantage.
Saudi Arabia with value added tax
.
You must have at least 3 sources. Sources should be cited within you.docxdavezstarr61655
You must have at least 3 sources. Sources should be cited within your writing and you should have a bibliography page. Do not use wikipedia, or any .com websites.
The paper should be at least 750 words. Use APA or MLA format. (Artist Name : Leonardo da Vinci)
In Essay:
1) Begin with some biographical information about the artist.
2) Describe their artwork, write about their process, the media they use, the meaning of their art include name of that art, any inspiration or influences, and body of artwork.
3) Explain why you chose this artist and why their art appeals to you.
.
You must have access to the book needed for the Case Study part. I w.docxdavezstarr61655
You must have access to the book needed for the Case Study part. I will not be able to supply it. Again you must have the book yourself. Follow word count! APA format required.
This is a very important assignment and my price is FIRM.
Newton,Englehardt, Prichard (2012). Taking Sides: Clashing Views in Business Ethics and Society,
12th/E
. McGraw-Hill ISBN: 9780073527352
.
You must give the Source(s) of your answers (textbook - WITH SPECIFI.docxdavezstarr61655
You must give the Source(s) of your answers (textbook - WITH SPECIFIC PAGE REFERENCES; websites etc.)
Please give your Sources WITH SPECIFICITY to avoid receiving a failing grade.
WHY? Because you are not an authority on the Law and you are not the Source of the Law, therefore you have to refer to resources. I had to learn this too when I was starting out!
These are the Essay Topics:(Min. 100 words EACH Essay, just write a paragraph for each and all questions below)
What is meant by the phrase “crimes are statutory offenses”?
Explain Criminal Intent.
Choose one of the Constitutional Safeguards and explain how it works.
Can a person be prosecuted twice for the same act? Explain fully all issues.
What is RICO?
.
You must create a court system for the newly created state of Puerto.docxdavezstarr61655
You must create a court system for the newly created state of Puerto Rico. You are to work under the assumption that Puerto Rico has just been admitted as the 51st state and build your court system from the bottom up. To be certain you understand how courts are organized in other states, you must research at least three current state court systems, within the United States, and use those systems to create Puerto Rico’s system. Do not use Puerto Rico’s current system as one of your examples. You must describe your proposal for creating Puerto Rico’s municipal courts, major trial courts, appellate courts, and the state’s highest court. Include geographic jurisdictions.
You must also describe how judges will be chosen for each court and must discuss how judicial and attorney ethical standards will be structured and enforced. You should conduct basic research on Puerto Rico (size, geography, population, existing counties or municipios, etc.) to be certain your proposed system will actually work.
Remember to provide citations when you borrow some idea or structure from another state.
The body (not including cover page, works cited/bibliography, etc.) of the paper must be 10-12 pages in length, double spaced, using Times New Roman 12-point font. A works cited page or bibliography (depending on the citation system used) must be included. Submitting too many pages will have the same result as submitting too few pages. Any images, charts, etc., used in the paper should be submitted as exhibits and are not included in the page count requirement.
.
You must conduct an informational interview as part of this course. .docxdavezstarr61655
You must conduct an informational interview as part of this course. Use Pioneer Connect or LinkedIn to
reach out to a DU alum or other business professional and conduct an informational interview. You may
also utilize professionals you meet through faculty, staff, extracurriculars, athletics, volunteer work,
family, friends, etc. Submit a 1-page reflection on the experience to the Canvas page by Friday of week
7. Attend class and see Canvas for further details on how to conduct an informational interview
.
You must complete an Electronic Presentation on Black Culture.docxdavezstarr61655
You must complete an
Electronic Presentation on Black Culture
. You will select and present on the significances of two works of black culture. The first work you select must be a work of African-American literature, poetry, music, fashion, dance, or some other cultural art form that was created and/or popularized by an
African American
during the time periods of the Harlem and Chicago Renaissances (1917-1949). Your second work of black culture must have been created and/or popularized by a black person (but not necessarily an African American) within YOUR lifetime. For example, if you were born in 1999, your second cultural selection needs to have been created by a black person between 1999 and the present. The two works you select to present do not have to share a cultural form (i.e. one work can be a poem and the other can be a song; one work can be a painting and the other can be a fashion trend). Nor do the two works have to share a particular theme. You may choose to do a compare-and-contrast type presentation. But, you do not have to. In presenting the works, you will need to provide background information on your chosen works (i.e. when where the works created; who created them or made them famous; and, what impact did the works have on the cultural landscape when and since they first appeared?). You will also have to briefly explain why you made those particular selections, and explain what you think each work tells people about the ways in which African-American/Black culture and experiences remained congruent and/or changed from the eras of the Harlem and Chicago Renaissances to the modern era. Moreover, your Electronic Presentation on Black Culture must be creative in both style and substance.
Your Electronic Presentation should have a run time of 7-10 minutes.
And, it must contain both audio and visual components.
When delivering your Electronic Presentation, you will serve as the professor for the class. So, give a Presentation that your temporary students (i.e. your classmates and Dr. Brown) will find to be both impressive and informative. The more creative, interesting, organized, and informative your Presentation is, the higher your grade will be. If your Presentation is disorganized, bland, lacks imagination, or does little more than echo information and ideas that have already been presented through the course texts, media, and PowerPoint lectures, you should not expect to earn a stellar grade on it.
Your presentation should add information, details, and/or perspectives that we did not cover in class. As such, I strongly recommend that you research and select cultural works that we did not discuss in class. In other words, avoid selecting a poem by Langston Hughes or a song we covered in class. Be more creative. Do more research. And, you should use and cite outside sources for the Electronic Presentation.
(See page 15 for the Electronic Presentation on Black Culture Grading Rubric.) You wil.
You must complete an Electronic Presentation on Black Cu.docxdavezstarr61655
You must complete an Electronic Presentation on Black Culture. You will select and present on the significances of two works of black culture. The first work you select must be a work of African-American literature, poetry, music, fashion, dance, or some other cultural art form that was created and/or popularized by an
African American
during the time periods of the Harlem and Chicago Renaissances (1917-1949). Your second work of black culture must have been created and/or popularized by a black person (but not necessarily an African American) within YOUR lifetime. For example, if you were born in 1999, your second cultural selection needs to have been created by a black person between 1999 and the present. The two works you select to present do not have to share a cultural form (i.e. one work can be a poem and the other can be a song; one work can be a painting and the other can be a fashion trend). Nor do the two works have to share a particular theme. You may choose to do a compare-and-contrast type presentation. But, you do not have to. In presenting the works, you will need to provide background information on your chosen works (i.e. when where the works created; who created them or made them famous; and, what impact did the works have on the cultural landscape when and since they first appeared?). You will also have to briefly explain why you made those particular selections, and explain what you think each work tells people about the ways in which African-American/Black culture and experiences remained congruent and/or changed from the eras of the Harlem and Chicago Renaissances to the modern era. Moreover, your Electronic Presentation on Black Culture must be creative in both style and substance.
.
You must choose from the approved list below1. Angels .docxdavezstarr61655
You must choose from the approved list below:
1. Angels
2. Adoption
3. Christ
4. Conscience
5. Conversion
6. Covenants (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, New)
7. Creation
8. Election
9. Eternal Life
10. Faith
11. Fall of Man
12. Forgiveness
13. Glory of God
14. Gospel
15. Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke John
16. Grace
17. Heart
18. Holiness
19. Holy Spirit
20. Hope
21. Image of God
22. Immanence
23. Judgment of God
24. Justice
25. Justification
26. Law
27. Love
28. Mercy
29. Millennium
30. Miracles
31. Names of God
32. Nature of God
33. Peace of God
34. Power of God
35. Prayer
36. Predestination
37. Preservation of Scripture
38. Prophecy
39. Reconciliation
40. Redemption
41. Reliability of Scripture
42. Repentance
43. Revelation
44. Righteousness
45. Sabbath
46. Salvation
47. Sanctification
48. Satan
49. Savior
50. Sin nature
51. Substitution
52. Temptation
53. Transcendence
54. Tribulation
55. Trinity
56. Union with Christ
57. Unity of God
58. Will/Plan of God
59. Wisdom
60. Works of the Holy Spirit
61. Worship
The paper must thoroughly address your chosen social problem, investigate possible solutions for the problem, incorporate five peer-reviewed resources and journal articles, and have a properly formatted reference page.
Papers will be between 6 to 8 pages in length. It is important to convey your subject and topic content concisely for your final assignment. Longer assignments have a tendency to veer off subject. It is important to clearly write about your topic. (An example of a research paper outline is included below which might be of interest to you).
Remember that you must discuss the roles that the church, the family, and the community should play in the solutions to the problem. Additionally, be sure to incorporate biblical support for the positions and opinions that you express.
Review the grading rubric to improve the quality of your paper. Your paper will be submitted through SafeAssign, a tool used to detect plagiarism.
An example of a research paper which you might use to guide you, using APA guidelines which can be reviewed through the Writing Center:
Title Page
The title page for a research paper can be reviewed through the Writing Center and if you have an APA Manual 6th ed. p. 41 includes an example.
Abstract
Double-spaced, flush left margin. An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the article. An abstract reports rather than evaluates. Be brief, and make each sentence informative, especially the lead sentence. An abstract will be viewed alone on the page. An abstract will not include citations per APA guidelines.
Introduction
The body of a manuscript opens with an introduction that presents the specific problem being studied, and describes the research strategy. Although not mandatory, APA citations can be included in an introduction.
Headings will e.
You must be proficient in all MS office. I am looking for someon.docxdavezstarr61655
You must be proficient in all MS office.
I am looking for someone who can help with putting presentations together, also someone who knows and understands: spreadsheets, Pivot Tables, VLookups, etc.
If you are interested you can send me your interests to
(monroe simpson bpo at g mail dot com)
.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Assessing the Relationship Between Conflict-Type and Emoti.docx
1. Assessing the Relationship Between Conflict-Type and
Emotions in Top
Management Teams: An Attributions Perspective Within the
Context of Strategic Decision-Making
Kevin J. Hurt
Columbus State University
This study identifies why conflict reactions vary, focusing on
the role attributions play on the relationship
between conflict and anger within executive teams. Two
attributions were examined: intentionality and
controllability. Intentionality was a significant moderator
between cognitive conflict and anger, whereas
controllability marginally moderated the relationship between
affective conflict and anger. These findings
provide further evidence that attributions about the actions or
comments of an individual can contribute
to subsequent conflict. They also help understand prior mixed
results about conflict effects. Cognitive
conflict had a favorable outcome when it was attributed as
being constructive and dysfunctional when
attributed as destructive.
INTRODUCTION
2. Conflict is considered a multi-dimensional and highly emotional
construct conveying both
constructive and destructive overtones (Allred, 1999; Amason,
1996; Baron, 1991). Many academicians
and practicing managers encourage conflict within a decision-
making context because of the belief that
conflict will lead to higher quality decisions (Amason, 1996;
Eisenhardt, 1989; Foxworthy, 2011; Jehn &
Mannix, 2001; Pondy, 1992). However, these higher quality
decisions may come at the expense of
member commitment as a direct result of the conflict, which
may also foster acrimonious relationships
among team members (Amason, 1996; Amason & Schweiger,
1994). These paradoxical effects can occur
among teams at any level of the organization; however, it is
extremely important to consider these effects
at an organization’s highest level of decision-making authority,
i.e. the top management team, because the
strategic decisions made by a top management team will have
significant influence on an organization’s
performance and long-term value (Mankins & Steele, 2006;
Simons, Pelled, & Smith, 1999). If the top
management team is incapable of working together, e.g. if
emotions impede team cohesiveness causing
members to get derailed with dysfunctional forms of conflict,
the strategic success of the organization
may be jeopardized (Eisenhardt, Kahwajy, & Bourgeois III,
1997; Hambrick, 1987).
While numerous forms of conflict have been identified by
researchers (e.g. goal, interest, value,
process, affective, cognitive, intrapersonal, intragroup,
intergroup) (Jehn & Mannix, 2001; Rahim, 1986;
Weider-Hatfield & Hatfield, 1995), conflict has essentially been
abridged into two primary types: a)
cognitive (i.e. task-focused), and b) affective (i.e. relationship-
3. focused) based on its perceived utility to an
organization (Amason, Thompson, Hochwarter, & Harrison,
1995; Jehn, 1997). Cognitive conflict is
considered functional to an organization because it inspires
creativity and innovation, allows multiple
viewpoints to be openly discussed, and prevents negative
behaviors such as groupthink (Amason, 1996;
70 Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics vol.
11(2) 2014
Jehn, 1997; Peterson & Behfar, 2003). However, a threshold
beyond which cognitive conflict ceases to
have functional effects appears to exist, i.e. higher levels of
cognitive conflict may yield negative
consequences (Jehn, 1995). Affective conflict is considered
dysfunctional and detrimental because it is
extremely emotional and personalized, promoting distrust,
dislike, and lack of receptiveness to other’s
ideas (Amason et al., 1995; Jehn, 1995; Jehn & Mannix, 2001;
Mooney, Holahan, & Amason, 2007).
Within teams, dysfunctional conflict is likely to arise when one
member attributes another’s actions or
comments as personal criticism, or simply when interpersonal
compatibilities exist among members
(Amason, 1996; Jehn, 1995).
Top management teams are, by composition, demographically
and technically diverse (e.g. member
functional backgrounds, experience, age, tenure, cognitions)
(Knight et al., 1999; Yukl, 2006). If top
management teams hope to gain from the benefits of this
diversity, e.g. increased innovation and decision
4. comprehensiveness (Bantel & Jackson, 1989; Simons et al.,
1999), then team members must embrace
conflict by becoming behaviorally engaged in debate over task-
related differences and supporting
conflicting approaches during decision-making processes
(Simons et al., 1999). However, conflict
episodes are complex and require an understanding of emotions
and subsequent individual attributions,
particularly within a strategic decision-making context
(Eisenhardt & Zbaracki, 1992). The key to
effective decision-making is not as simple as instigating
conflict within the team as conflict’s effects can
be inconsistent in that they may simultaneously lead to both
functional and dysfunctional consequences,
dependent upon numerous factors such as conflict-type,
emotions, and issue interpretation (Amason &
Schweiger, 1994; De Dreu & Weingart, 2003; Jehn & Mannix,
2001) (Shook, Payne, & Voges, 2005).
People’s reactions to conflict can vary significantly, from
increased creativity and improved decision
quality, to increased impediments to rational thinking during a
decision-making process and other acts
that are generally hurtful to others (Baron, 1991; Estrada, Isen,
& Young, 1994; Kopelman, Rosette, &
Thompson, 2006; Muchinsky, 2000; Thomas, 1992). These
reactions can be exacerbated if an individual
misattributes cognitive conflict as a form of affective conflict
(Pelled, 1996). The idea that cognitive
conflict should be encouraged while avoiding affective conflict
(Amason & Schweiger, 1994) is certainly
logical; however, that may be harder to achieve in practice
because cognitive conflict may lead to
affective conflict (Mooney et al., 2007). Conflict, by its very
nature, is among the most emotionally
arousing phenomena and it is the felt emotions, e.g. anger, that
5. make conflict particularly uncomfortable
(Baron, 1991; Bodtker & Jameson, 2001; Thomas, 1992). It is
the anger emotion which researchers
underscore as a primary contributor to the dysfuctional effects
asssociated with conflict (Amason et al.,
1995; Desivilya & Yagil, 2005; Jehn, 1997). However, every
emotion has the potential to be positive,
negative, or both, depending on the context since each emotion
has idiosyncratic meaning, varying
sources of causality and subjective experiences attributed to it,
which lead to varying inclinations to act
(Lazarus, 2003). Thus, it is apparent that there is a need to
understand the role attributions play on the
relationship between conflict-type and emotions. This study
addresses that need by focusing on these
relationships within the context of an actual conflict episode
experienced by top management team
members during their most recent strategic decision-making
processes.
In order to understand the effects of cognitive- and affective-
conflict and the subsequent emotional
effects within a top management team, it is important to
ascertain what the individuals involved in the
conflict believed to be its cause (Keaveney, 2008). Emotions
experienced during episodes of conflict are
often negative though they may at times be positive or neutral
(Jackson, 1992). Thus, a person’s
experienced emotion often depends upon the explanation that
has been attributed to it (Kelley & Michela,
1980). Thus, the primary question addressed in this study asks:
How do individual attributions moderate
the relationship between conflict-type and emotions? In
particular, this study focuses on the emotion of
anger since this emotion occurs most frequently during a
conflict episode (Allred, 1999). Furthermore, it
6. is within the sphere of discrete emotions where emotional work
experiences can best be understood,
predicted, and have a vital influence on organizational behavior
(Ashkanasy, Hartel, & Daus, 2002;
Forgas, 2002).
Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics vol. 11(2)
2014 71
THEORY AND HYPOTHESES
Emotions Within the Context of Conflict
Kleinginna and Kleinginna (1981, p. 355) define emotions as a
“complex set of interactions among
subjective and objective factors, mediated by neural-hormonal
systems which can (a) give rise to affective
experiences such as feelings of arousal, pleasure/displeasure;
(b) generate cognitive processes such as
emotionally relevant perceptual effects, appraisals, labeling
processes; (c) activate widespread
physiological adjustments to the arousing conditions; and (d)
lead to behavior that is often, but not
always, expressive, goal-directed, and adaptive.” In short,
emotions are intense feelings brought about by
some contextual stimulus and typically directed at someone or
something (Frijda, 1993; Kopelman et al.,
2006).
Three components of emotional experience include: 1)
behavioral/communicative component, which
consists of the way emotional experiences get expressed through
7. verbal and nonverbal cues, 2)
physiological component, comprised of the way emotion makes
an individual feel, and 3) cognitive
component, which stresses the role of the mind in appraising a
situation in a explicit manner which in turn
makes a person feel a particular emotional state (Bodtker &
Jameson, 2001). Perhaps the most dominant
emotion experienced during a conflict episode is that of anger
(Allred, 1999; Fitness, 2000). A review of
research on the role of anger in conflict reveals mixed findings,
i.e. anger may elicit positive (increased
cooperation), negative (increased competition), or no (neutral)
effects (Friedman et al., 2004; Geddes &
Callister, 2007; van Kleef, van Dijk, Steinel, Harinck, & van
Beest, 2008). However, anger towards
others has generally been associated with negative outcomes
(Allred, 1999; Fitness, 2000; van Kleef et
al., 2008).
Attribution Inferences
Attribution theory addresses the domains of both perception and
motivation and these domains need
not be mutually exclusive (Martinko, 1995). An individual’s
behavior and emotions can be attributionally
dependent and may vary based upon whether self or other is to
blame (Howard, 1993; Martinko,
Gundlach, & Douglas, 2002; Ployhart, Ehrhart, & Hayes, 2005;
Thoits, 1989). Therefore, the
consequences of attributional inferences can affect both an
individual’s emotions and behavior (Weiner,
1985).
Attribution theory is an appropriate theoretical lens by which to
scrutinize cognitive- and affective-
8. conflict and emotions in teams and is based on the premise of
perceived causation, i.e. people attempt to
understand behavior in terms of its causes, which begets
subsequent emotional reactions of the observer
(Betancourt & Blair, 1992; Kelley & Michela, 1980; Martinko,
1995). Two widely accepted causal
dimensions include: a) intentionality (i.e. the extent to which
another individual intended to engage in a
particular behavior), and b) controllability (i.e. extent to which
the cause of behavior is within an
individual’s control) (Kent & Martinko, 1995b). “Intentionality
is most relevant to attributions for the
actions of others” (Martinko, 1995, p. 10).
Interpreting another individual’s behavior involves the
cognitive assesment of three factors: 1)
distinctiveness, i.e. the degree to which behavior varies or is the
same across situations, 2) consensus, i.e.
the degree to which others would behave as the observed
individual in like circumstances, and 3)
consistency, i.e. the degree to which the individual responds in
the same way over time (Kelley, 1972).
Although causal inferences can be made in response to both
positive and negative events, attributions are
most likely to occur with negative events or when outcomes are
disappointing, unexpected, or important
(Martinko, Harvey, & Douglas, 2007; Weiner, 1985; Wong &
Weiner, 1981). While the outcome of
conflict is typically considered important, individuals are more
likely to consider increased levels of
conflict as a negative event, and it is the negative events that
are most associated with attributional
analysis (Taylor, 1991). Mooney et al., (2007) suggest that
higher levels of cognitive conflict are bad
because individuals attribute this as a form of personal criticism
or political maneuvering, thereby
9. confusing cognitive conflict as affective conflict.
72 Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics vol.
11(2) 2014
Attribution Consequences: Anger
The anger emotion is closely related to the causal dimensions of
intentionality and controllability
(Betancourt & Blair, 1992; Weiner, 1985; Weiner, Graham, &
Chandler, 1982). When conflicting
behavior between individuals becomes relational and
emotionally charged, it can have negative effects on
the parties involved, particularly for the one who has taken the
conflict as a personal criticism as is a
common occurrence during episodes of affective or high levels
of cognitive conflict (Jehn, 1995;
Parayitam & Dooley, 2009). The characteristics of these forms
of conflict can thus be considered
negative, disappointing, and perhaps even unexpected and
important, causing the recipient of this conflict
type to engage in attributional analysis, particularly if the
person with whom an individual is in conflict
with is considered close (Fincham & Bradbury, 1987). In the
case of both cognitive- and affective-
conflict, behaviors that are different or unusual, in discord
relative to how others would behave in similar
situations, or inconsistent relative to an individual’s own
behavior in similar historical situations should
increase the extent to which an individual will increase their
attempt to assess whether another’s actions
were intentional and within their control (Kelley & Michela,
10. 1980).
Assessing the intention of another person’s behavior is one way
that people make sense of another’s
actions and it is particularly relevant during conflict episodes
(Dasborough & Ashkanasy, 2002;
Martinko, 1995; Thomas, 1992). Actions seen as intentional by
a person are judged differently from
actions that were deemed unintentional, i.e., more outward
blame will be assigned to actions considerd as
negative and intentional (Gibson & Schroeder, 2003; Kelley &
Michela, 1980). Attributing a person’s
negative actions to harmful intention (e.g. purposeful thwarting
of another’s goals or undermining of
another’s viewpoints) heightens an individual’s emotional
sensitivity producing feelings of anger and
resentment towards others (Crossley, 2006; Harvey &
Dasborough, 2006; Kelley & Michela, 1980).
However, if an individual concludes that another’s actions were
unintentional, this would reduce the
likelihood of responding aggressively toward the other
individual (Allred, 1999; Betancourt & Blair,
1992; De Castro, Veerman, Koops, Bosch, & Monshouwer,
2002; Isen, 2001; Matthews & Norris, 2002).
Thus, the following hypotheses are put forth:
H1: The influence of conflict-type on emotions amon top
management team members is
moderated by an individual’s attributional inferences such that:
H1a: Destructive intent positively moderates the relationship
between cognitive
conflict and anger towards others, whereas constructive intent
negatively moderates
the relationship between cognitive conflict and anger towards
11. others.
H1b: Destructive intent positively moderates the relationship
between affective
conflict and anger towards others, whereas constructive intent
negatively moderates
the relationship between affective conflict and anger towards
others.
It is anger that is derived from interpersonal attributions that
many conflict researchers refer to when
they surmise that affective conflict leads to dysfunctional
organizational consequences (Amason, 1996;
Mooney & Sonnenfeld, 2001; Shook et al., 2005). Since the
effects of affective conflict are generally
regarded as negative and often seen as hostile personal criticism
within a top management team (Amason,
1996; Jehn, 1995), and because higher levels of cognitive
conflict can lead to affective conflict (Mooney
et al., 2007), these types of conflict can also trigger an
individual’s tendency to engage in attributional
analysis, i.e. individuals will have an innate desire to establish
responsibility by making attributions of
control (Kelley & Michela, 1980).
Ascription of responsibility assigned to someone else for acts
that were within their control often
equate to ascriptions of blame and this too can lead to intense
anger, particularly when the consequences
of someone else’s actions have hindered or thwarted the goal
attainment of another (Gibson & Schroeder,
2003; Weiner, 1985, 1995). In these circumstances, anger is
directed at the other (offending) person, i.e. it
is an interpersonal response, which can elicit anti-social
responses (Weiner, 2000). Thus, one experiences
12. greater outwardly directed anger to the extent that one attributes
another’s behavior as being negative,
hostile, and within that person’s control (Allred, 1995). It
follows then, that one would expect less
Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics vol. 11(2)
2014 73
outwardly directed anger if one attributes another’s
comments/actions as being beyond their control, such
as when another is put in a position to have to voice their
opinion at a given moment rather than hold their
comments for a one-to-one discussion (Baron, 1988). This
would be particularly so if one was to
acknowledge that there was some semblance of truth in the
other person’s comments, causing one to
reflect internally (Weiner, 2000). Thus, the following
hypotheses are put forth:
H2: The influence of conflict-type on emotions among top
management team members is
moderated by an individual’s attributional inferences such that:
H2a: Control-Within positively moderates the relationship
between cognitive
conflict, and other-directed anger; whereas Control-Beyond
negatively moderates
the relationship between cognitive conflict and anger towards
others.
H2b: Control-Within positively moderates the relationship
between affective conflict,
and other-directed anger; whereas Control-Beyond negatively
13. moderates the
relationship between affective conflict and anger towards
others.
FIGURE 1
MODERATING EFFECTS OF ATTRIBUTIONS
METHODOLOGY
Participants and Research Design
One hundred fifty strategic decision-making teams of mid- to
large-sized firms operating in the
United States in both public and private sector organizations
were targeted for participation in the study.
Top management team members from eighty four of those firms
were willing to take part in the study.
Howerver, twenty of those firms were eliminated from the study
due to an insufficient number of
responses received. Useable survey questionnaires were
received from 64 teams, comprising a total of
264 individual responses. The rationale for including top
management teams from mid-sized firms is
provided by Amason and Mooney (1999) who state that
accessibility to top management teams is greater
74 Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics vol.
11(2) 2014
14. for mid-sized firms. Since mid-sized firms comprise a majority
of organizations in the United States
(Hufft, 2008) the probability of obtaining a sample size
sufficient for this study was increased.
Sampling Procedures
This study combined probability (e.g. simple random sampling)
and nonprobability (e.g. snowball)
sampling techniques in order to develop a sample frame.
Prospective target firms were identified through
local economic development association membership
directories, local and state trade associations, local
chamber of commerce organizations, and through referral from
industry executives. Membership
directories that were available online, or made available after
discussing the study with association
directors and chamber presidents, were screened to exclude
family-owned businesses and sole-
proprietorships. Once target firms were identified, participants
were selected using a simple random
number generator in Microsoft Excel.
Survey Procedures
Data collection occurred in phases as outlined by numerous
researchers (Amason & Mooney, 1999;
Olson & Parayitam, 2007; Parayitam & Dooley, 2009). During
the first phase of data collection, phone
calls were placed to the chief executive officer (CEO, or
equivalent title), who received a brief description
of the research. After discussing the study with the CEO, a
request for their participation in the research
was made. Additionally, CEO’s were asked if they could refer
15. any other executives or organizations
whom they perceived might also be willing to participate in the
study. The process of obtaining sample
subjects by referral is known as snowballing and it is a
particularly useful technique for populations that
are difficult to reach (Black, 2012; Faugier & Sargeant, 2008).
Participating CEO’s were asked to identify and describe the
organization’s most recent key strategic
decision for purpose of the study. The identification of the most
recent strategic decision minimizes bias
in decision selection (Amason & Mooney, 1999). Given the
proprietary and sensitive nature of strategic
decisions, the CEO was informed that decision details were not
needed by the researcher. Rather, the
CEO was asked to assure that each of the team members
answering the survey understood that the
questionnaire was to be completed with the specific strategic
decision, identified by the CEO, as the point
of reference. Critical to the research design was the need for
each member to recall the same decision
scenario and this aspect of the study was stressed to the CEO’s.
During the next phase of data collection, the CEO and the TMT
members he or she identified, were
asked to complete the survey questionnaire. The surveys were
distributed to each participating
organization in a sealed envelope containing the following: a) a
cover letter written by the researcher
explaining the study and its social and practical usefulness,
along with why the respondent’s participation
is important, b) the survey questionnaire, along with
instructions on how to complete it, and c)
instructions to place the completed survey in a prepaid postage
envelope and mail it back to the researcher
upon completion of the questionnaire.
16. In sum, survey questionnaires which were focused on an actual
and specific strategic decision
identified and described by the CEO, were completed by the
CEO and his or her top management team.
These data collection procedures were consistent with past
studies of conflict within top management
teams, which have yielded response rates ranging from a low of
15% to a high of 73% (Amason &
Mooney, 1999; Olson & Parayitam, 2007; Parayitam & Dooley,
2009; Pelled, Eisenhardt, & Xin, 1999).
Response rates in this study were 43% (overall response rate)
and 68% (within team response rate).
Measures: Validity and Reliability Assessment
Since the validity and reliability of constructs is of critical
importance when conducting research
(Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991), the hypotheses were tested
using a survey questionnaire comprised of
measures which have been found to be reliable and valid
instruments of the constructs they represent.
Unless otherwise noted, all constructs were measured using
multiple-item scales. Given the complexity of
most of the constructs in the study, multiple-item scales were
expected to outperform single-item
measures in terms of greater reliability, precision, and scope
(Diamantopoulos, Sarstedt, Fuchs,
Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics vol. 11(2)
2014 75
17. Wilczynski, & Kaiser, 2012; Singleton & Straits, 2005; Spector,
1992). However, the use of a single-item
measure is considered acceptable when assertions are made that
“what is being measured is so specific
that the construct and the operationalization are virtually
identical” (Sackett & Larson Jr., 1990, p. 468).
Evidence exists that single-item measures perform equally as
well as multi-item scales in terms of
predictive validity when the item being measured is concrete
(Bergkvist & Rossiter, 2007). In this study,
one construct was measured using a single-item scale (see Table
1).
TABLE 1
RELIABILITY ESTIMATES
Multiple-Item Constructs Items
Cronbach
Alpha
Affective Conflict AC1-AC4 0.903
Cognitive Conflict CC1-CC4 0.867
Anger ANG1-ANG4 0.849
Intent INTNT1-INTNT2 0.882
Single -Item Measure
Control Cntrl1 n/a
18. Each of the scales used in this study is identified below,
including the reliability coefficients from
prior studies using existing multiple-item measurements. In
some cases, the wording of an item was
slightly modified to fit the current context. The responses were
measured on a 5-point Likert scale with
anchors ranging from 1-“Very Small Extent” to 5-“Very Large
Extent.” The attribution items were
measured on a 7-point semantic differential scale ranging from
1 to 7, which is consistent with other
literature measuring these constructs (Henry & Campbell, 1995;
Kent & Martinko, 1995a).
Affective Conflict was measured with four items, originally
developed and validated by Jehn (1995),
to measure the degree of relationship/emotional conflict present
in work units. The four-item scale
yielded a .92 reliability estimate in her study. For purposes of
this study, the items were modified to
reflect the specific conflict context as depicted by the CEO. For
example, one question in Jehn’s study
asked “How much tension is there among members in your work
unit?” (p.268). For the present study,
this question was modified as, “To what extent was there
tension among members when making this
decision?”
Cognitive Conflict was measured with four items, originally
developed and validated by Jehn (1995),
to measure the degree of task-focused conflict existing in work
units. The scale yielded a .87 reliability
estimate in her study. Some of the cognitive conflict items were
modified to reflect the specific conflict
context as depicted by the CEO. For example, one question in
Jehn’s study, which asked “How frequently
19. are there conflicts about ideas in your work unit?” (p. 268) was
rendered as, “To what extent did conflict
about ideas among team members frequently occur during the
decision-making process?”
Anger was measured using the four-item scale adopted by
O’Neill, Vandenberg, DeJoy, and Wilson
(2009). The four-item scale yielded a reliability coefficient of
.88. Since anger in the present study was
measured as a directional measure, i.e. determination of whether
anger was expressly directed at others
was assessed, the wording of the items was modified
accordingly. For example, one of O’Neill et al’s
items asked subjects to report how often they felt annoyed or
irritated over the past month. This item was
rendered as, “To what extent did you feel irritated with the
other team member(s) because of their
actions/comments?”
76 Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics vol.
11(2) 2014
Attributions were measured with items from the Organizational
Attributional Style Questionnaire
developed by Kent and Martinko (1995a). The organizational
attributional style questionnaire was
developed to measure general attributional styles (Kent &
Martinko, 1995a). and has demonstrated a high
degree of validity and consistency (Henry & Campbell, 1995).
The reliability of the intent and control
dimensions from the organizational attributional style
questionnaire were reported as .80 and .70,
respectively (Kent & Martinko, 1995a). The items from the
20. organizational attributional style were
modified in order to measure a specific situation. For example,
rather than using a hypothetical situation
to ask “To what extent is this cause under your control?” the
same question was asked in relation to the
specific decision context identified by the CEO. Two items of
the organizational attributional style survey
were used to measure intent. For example, one question asked:
Were the other members’
comments/actions in the interaction aimed at being Constructive
(1)…or Destructive (7). Control was
measured with a single-item measure that asked: Is the cause of
the conflict something that is: Not at all
under other’s control (1)…Completely under other’s control (7).
Control Variables were also included in the study, including:
gender, age, educational level,
organization size, and team size. Following the example of
Parayitam and Dooley (2009), team size was
measured as the number of team members identified by the CEO
as participants in the decision-making
process.
Table 1 presents the list of constructs and their corresponding
Cronbach alpha scores produced in this
study. All of the multiple-item measures in this study had
realiability estimates above Nunnaly’s (1978)
recommended threshold of .70. The correlation of constructs is
presented in Table 2.
TABLE 2
CORRELATION OF CONSTRUCTS
21. Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Cognitive
Conflict 1.538 0.3047 1
Affective
Conflict 1.537 0.3262 .798** 1
Anger 2.189 0.8671 .450** .545** 1
Intent 0 0.6172 .369** .394** .226** 1
Control 0 2.0463 .155* .135* 0.081 .259** 1
Gender 0.37 0.484 -0.063 -0.024 -0.023 -0.039 0.093 1
Age 2.54 1.035 -0.048 -0.015 .125* -.129* -0.046 -0.107 1
Education 2.45 0.93 -0.112 -0.099 -.186** -0.057 0.028 0.004
0.111 1
Team Size 5.27 1.586 .145* .159** 0.047 0.049 -0.016 0.068 -
.131* 0.064 1
Firm Size 3.39 2.096 0.052 0.076 -0.066 -0.007 0.013 0.016
0.003 .333** .353** 1
Note: † p < .10; * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p <.001
RESULTS
Tests of Hypotheses
Data were collected with a survey questionnaire mailed to
respondents. A hierarchical regression
technique was used to analyze 264 individual responses. Prior
to running the main hypothesis tests, a
standard regression analysis was performed using SPSS
22. Regression and SPSS Explore for evaluation of
assumptions.
Results of evaluations of assumptions led to transformation of
some variables to reduce skewness and
improve normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity of residuals.
A square root transformation was used on
Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics vol. 11(2)
2014 77
the measures of affective- and cognitive-conflict. A logarithmic
transformation was used on the measure
of intent. These transformations resulted in improved skewness
scores. The remainder of the independent
variables were either normal or had very slight skewness.
Transforming the variables with minimal skew
resulted in a change of the direction of skew, e.g. from positive
to negative or vice-versa. Therefore, these
variables were not transformed.
All variables were analyzed for the presence of outliers. Given
that the scales were bound by one and
five, or one and seven, descriptive statistics were generated to
assess whether any data entry errors were
made. No values exceeded the range, i.e. the maximum or
minimum, of the scales. Finally, since
demographic variables have the ability to influence outcomes
(Pelled, 1996), and because the interest of
this study was on the moderating effect of attributions on the
relationship between conflict-type on anger,
the respondents demographic information was controlled for in
the study.
23. Moderating Effects of Attributions On the Relationship Between
Conflict-Type and Anger
Hypothesis 1 predicted that an individual’s intent attributions
would moderate the relationship
between conflict-type and anger towards others. Specifically,
H1a predicted that destructive intent would
positively moderate the relationship between cognitive conflict
and anger towards others, whereas
constructive intent would negatively moderate the relationship
between cognitive conflict and anger
towards others. Similarly, H1b predicted that destructive intent
would positively moderate the
relationship between affective conflict and anger towards
others, whereas constructive intent would
negatively moderate the relationship between affective conflict
and anger towards others.
The regression results demonstrated that the relationship
between the independent variable Cognitive
Conflict and the dependent variable Anger-Other was
significantly moderated by attributions of Intent (β
= .310, p = .000) at the .001 level (see Table 3). This model
accounted for 18% (R2 = .180; AdjR2 = .147)
of the variance in Anger-Other. Furthermore, the interaction
term accounted for a significant incremental
increase in the coefficient of determination (∆R2 = .057) at the
.01 level.
The interaction effect of intent, which was calculated using the
method identified by Aiken & West
(1991), is portrayed graphically in Figure 2. As evidenced in the
figure, increasing cognitive conflict
levels led to increased anger towards others when attributions of
24. destructive intent were made. On the
other hand, increasing cognitive conflict levels led to decreased
anger towards others when attributions of
constructive intent were made. Given the significant findings in
Table 3, and the interactions as portrayed
in Figure 2, hypothesis H1a was supported. The regression
results did not reveal a significant moderation
effect of Intent between Affective Conflict and Anger-Other (β
= -.156, p = .590). Thus, hypothesis H1b
was not supported.
Hypothesis 2 predicted that an individual’s control attributions
would moderate the relationship
between conflict-type and anger towards other individuals.
Specifically, H2a predicted a positive
relationship between cognitive conflict and anger towards
others when individuals attributed the opposing
parties comments/actions as being within their control, whereas
a negative relationship between cognitive
conflict and anger towards others was predicted when
individuals attributed the opposing parties
comments/actions as being beyond their control. The results
did not reveal a significant moderation effect
of Control between Cognitive Conflict and Anger-Other (β = -
.366, p = .453). Thus, hypothesis H2a was
not supported.
Hypothesis H2b predicted a positive relationship between
affective conflict and anger towards others
when individuals attributed the opposing parties
comments/actions as being within their control, whereas
a negative relationship between affective conflict and anger
towards others was predicted when
individuals attributed the opposing parties comments/actions as
being beyond their control. The
regression results demonstrated that the relationship between
25. the independent variable Affective Conflict
and the dependent variable Anger-Other was marginally
moderated by attributions of Control (β = -.443,
p = .100) at the .10 level. (see Table 4). This model accounted
for 34.8% (R2 = .348; AdjR2 = .327) of the
variance in Anger-Other.
78 Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics vol.
11(2) 2014
TABLE 3
MODERATING EFFECT OF INTENT ON THE
RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN COGNITIVE CONFLICT AND ANGER
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Cognitive Conflict β β β
(Constant) 7.373 7.731 7.749
Gender -.001 .015 .019
Age 0.172** 0.169** 0.173**
Education -0.162* -0.163* -0.172**
Team Size 0.150* .095 .096
Firm Size -.095 -.091 -.065
Intent .091 -.063
Cognitive Conflict 0.174* .091
Intent x Cognitive Conflict 0.310**
F-Model 3.399** 4.034** 5.504**
R2 0.077 0.123 0.180
26. AdjR2 0.092 0.147
R2 Change 0.046** 0.057**
Note: † p < .10; * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001
FIGURE 2
INTERACTION EFFECTS OF INTENT ATTRIBUTIONS ON
THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN COGNITIVE CONFLICT & ANGER
Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics vol. 11(2)
2014 79
The interaction effects of control, which were calculated using
the methods identified by Aiken &
West (1991), are portrayed graphically in Figure 3. As
evidenced, when another’s actions/comments
were attributed as being within their control, anger levels
increased with greater amounts of affective
conflict, as expected. However, unexpectedly, this same pattern
was observed when another’s
actions/comments were attributed as being beyond their control.
Given the marginally significant findings
presented in Table 4, and given that only half of the interaction
effect was as predicted (see Figure 3),
H2b received partial support.
TABLE 4
27. MODERATING EFFECT OF CONTROL ON THE
RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN AFFECTIVE CONFLICT AND ANGER
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Affective Conflict β β β
(Constant) 7.901 -0.003 -1.255
Gender -.011 .005 .014
Age 0.158** 0.150** 0.151**
Education -0.199** -0.128* -0.131*
Team Size .093 .014 .013
Organization Size -.033 -.070 -.064
Affective Conflict 0.535** 0.684**
Control .020 0.408
†
Affective Conflict x Control -.443
F-Model 3.492** 18.923** 16.986**
R2 0.063 0.341 0.348
AdjR2 0.323 0.327
R2 Change .278** .10 †
Note: † p < .10; * p < .05; ** p < .01; p < .001
28. DISCUSSION
The primary objective of this study was to establish the
moderating effect of intent and control
attributions on the relationship between conflict-type and anger.
The attribution of intentionality was
found to be a significant moderator between cognitive conflict
and anger. There was no significant
moderating effect of intentionality on the relationship between
affective conflict and anger. Destructive
intent positively moderated the relationship between cognitive
conflict and anger; whereas constructive
intent negatively moderated this same relationship.
80 Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics vol.
11(2) 2014
FIGURE 3
INTERACTION EFFECTS OF CONTROL ATTRIBUTIONS ON
THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN AFFECTIVE CONFLICT & ANGER-OTHER
29. The significant findings of intent were as expected since
destructive intent has been found to
influence agressiveness toward the offending party, i.e.
attributions of harmful intent have been linked
with aggressive responses toward the actor (Holm, 1982;
Joseph, Kane, Gaes, & Tedeschi, 1976),
particularly when the actor’s actions were deemed aggressive
and hostile (De Castro et al., 2002; Nickel,
1974). The findings, as they pertain to constructive intent, were
also as expected given that sincerity of an
individual’s actions/comments have been associated with lower
intensity anger levels (Baron, 1988). The
interaction in Figure 2 did reveal one unexpected observation,
i.e., at lower cognitive conflict levels,
anger towards others was higher under constructive intent. The
hypotheses presented here were concerned
with the direction of anger levels after an intent attribution was
made and not necessarily the comparative
amount of anger between constructive and destructive intent.
However, one might have assumed overall
higher levels of anger in a destructive intent context. One
possible explanation for the initial imbalance in
anger levels may be that conflict triggers a preliminary anger
emotion, which is a subjective experience
(Lazarus, 2003), and it is not until an intent attribution has been
made that anger levels begin to rise or
fall. However, once a constructive intent attribution is made
anger levels decrease with increasing
amounts of cognitive conflict. Furthermore, at the highest level
of cognitive conflict, anger is in fact
lower in a constructive intent context as compared to
destructive intent, and this emotional pattern would
coincide with normal expectations.
The attribution of controllability was found to be a marginally
significant moderator between
30. affective conflict and anger, but no moderating effect was found
between cognitive conflict and anger.
When respondents attributed another’s comments/actions as
being within their control, anger levels were
intensified as affective conflict increased. This finding was as
expected given that controllable causes
have been associated with increased anger levels when
ascription of responsibility for the conflict is
placed on an external party, particularly when these same
causes have thwarted another individual’s goals
(Gibson & Schroeder, 2003; Schmidt & Weiner, 1988; Weiner,
2000).
A surprise finding in this study was associated with the
attribution of controllability that was beyond
control of the individual whose comments/actions were
perceived to have initiated the conflict and thus,
an individual’s attributional inferences. It was expected that
noncontrollable actions/comments, i.e. those
Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics vol. 11(2)
2014 81
that are beyond another’s control, would lead to less anger
towards the other party since noncontrollable
causes often illicit pro-social behaviors or at a minimum, are
not typically associated with ascriptions of
responsibility (Weiner, 2000). In this study, however, both
controllable and noncontrollable attributions
positively moderated the relationship between affective conflict
and anger. One explanation for this
finding may be the type of conflict in which the respondents
were engaged. Affective conflict is highly
31. emotional and since this type of conflict is often associated with
personal criticism (Jehn, 1997), it may be
that respondents simply marginalized whether the offending
party’s actions/comments were beyond their
control. Once team members engaged in relational conflict, they
were destined to experience increased
anger levels as affective conflict intensified.
Limitations
There are several limitations to this study. First, the study relied
on team members recollection of
historical events, which is susceptible to recollection bias
(Viscusi & Zeckhauser, 2005). To prevent
errors associated with the process of recalling events that
occurred in the past, CEO’s were asked to
identify the most recent strategic decision made by the team and
complete the surveys with that decision
as the frame of reference. In some instances, the CEO’s noted
that the timing of the surveys coincided
with the time that a strategic decision was being, or about to be,
made. Thus, some responses were
completed immediately after a strategic decision was agreed
upon by an organization’s top managers.
Second, survey questionnaires were given to team members by
the CEO. While voluntary participation,
unconditional to an individual’s employment, was stressed to
the CEO and written in the instruction letter
received by the participants, team members may have felt
compelled to answer the survey, which may
have biased their responses. To minimize this possibility,
written instructions to the team members
stressed that no personal or other identifying information (e.g.
job titles, name of organization) would be
collected in the study. Nevertheless, some members voluntarily
32. provided these specifics. To assure
respondent anonymity, each survey included a self-addressed,
stamped envelope so that respondents
could mail the surveys from a non-work location. Finally, the
attribution of controllability was captured
with a single-item instrument since it was deemed that the
measure and the operationalization of the
construct were indistinguishable. However, a multi-item scale to
capture this construct may have provided
greater reliability and precision.
Theoretical Implications
These findings are important because they provide further
evidence that attributions about the actions
or comments of an individual can contribute to subsequent
conflict since perceived intentionality often
impacts an individuals’ interpretations and subsequent
emotional and behavioral reactions (Dasborough &
Ashkanasy, 2002; Kelley & Michela, 1980). Perhaps more
importantly, these findings may help
understand prior mixed results about the effects of conflict
within an organization. Conflict researchers
have long touted the benefits of cognitive conflict, while
warning against the pitfalls associated with
affective conflict (Amason et al., 1995; Baron, 1990). At the
same time, strategic researchers have
claimed that high levels of cognitive conflict are necessary for
effective decisions, suggesting that low
levels are detrimental to decision outcomes (Eisenhardt et al.,
1997). Yet, there is evidence that cognitive
conflict has a threshold beyond which it ceases to have
functional effects (Jehn, 1997; Mooney et al.,
2007) and now recent evidence suggests that affective conflict
may have unintended positive
33. consequences (Khanin & Turel, 2009). To complicate matters,
one meta-analysis suggests that both forms
of conflict may be detrimental (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003).
Since it is well established that conflict is
highly emotional (Thomas, 1992) and because emotions are
known to influence behavior in the
workplace (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996), it is important to
understand how attributions affect the conflict-
emotion relationship during a strategic decision-making
scenario. This study focused on an organization’s
upper echelon executives within a strategic decision-making
context and revealed how two attributions,
i.e. intentionality and controllability, impact the relationship
between conflict-type and anger. Neither
cognitive, nor affective, conflict had consistent effects on
anger. Cognitive conflict had a favorable
82 Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics vol.
11(2) 2014
outcome only when it was attributed as being constructive.
When cognitive conflict was attributed to
destructive intent, its effects were dysfunctional.
Controllability had an effect on affective conflict, but not
cognitive conflict. The findings for
controllable causes were as predicted, whereas non-controllable
causes had the opposite effect of what
was expected. These findings provide further support for the
avoidance of affective conflict ascribed by
conflict researchers (Amason & Schweiger, 1994; Jehn, 1997;
Mooney et al., 2007).
34. Practical Implications & Future Research
Conflict in a strategic decision-making context is a necessary
condition of organizational success and
considered central to team effectiveness because it keeps
members self-critical and innovative (Lewicki,
Weiss, & Lewin, 1992; Pondy, 1992; Shook et al., 2005). Since
the effects of cognitive conflict can be
positive and negative (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003; Jehn, 1997;
Mooney et al., 2007), executives must
understand how to gain the benefits of cognitive conflict
without incurring its dysfunctional effects. Since
conflict is highly emotional (Thomas, 1992) and generally
associated with anger (Allred, 1999), CEO’s
may be able to offset the effects of anger in a strategic decision-
making conflict scenario by encouraging
team members to preface their comments as constructive intent
before randomly making comments that
have the potential of being misattributed to destructive intent.
Although affective conflict may possess a
silver lining (Khanin & Turel, 2009), it appears that this type of
conflict will result in anger. Thus,
heeding Amason’s (1994) advice to avoid this conflict-type may
still be warranted.
This study focused on an organization’s executive team within a
strategic decision context. While top
management teams possess many similarities to teams in
general, they do differ in their composition in
that they are generally more permanent, and comprised of high-
powerful, high-ranking, influential
individuals prone to self-absorbed behavior and interests
(Hambrick, 1995; Hambrick & Mason, 1984).
Researchers may want to consider whether these effects are
consistent in teams comprised of individuals
35. with less power and status, as well as those teams that are to be
disbanded upon completion of their
objectives.
Finally, researchers may want to consider the effects of another
widely accepted attribution, i.e. the
attribution of stability (variation over time), which is also
related to the anger emotion (Betancourt &
Blair, 1992; Weiner et al., 1982). The attribution of stability
suggests that it is the consistency (i.e.
stability) of a particular action, moreso than its cause, that
influences an individual’s behavior (Weiner,
1985). The stability of an attributed cause may contribute more
to the magnitude of emotions than to the
direction (Weiner et al., 1982). Thus, it is logical to expect
stable attributions of another’s negative
behavior/comments to elicit a greater level of anger.
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51. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further
reproduction prohibited without
permission.
The effect of team empowerment
on team performance
A cross-cultural perspective on the
mediating roles of knowledge sharing and
intra-group conflict
Xueting Jiang and Hector R. Flores
Isenberg School of Management, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst,
Massachusetts, USA
Ronrapee Leelawong
SCG Chemicals Co. Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand, and
Charles C. Manz
Isenberg School of Management, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst,
Massachusetts, USA
Abstract
Purpose – Based on extant literature on empowerment and team
management, this paper aims to
52. examine the effect of power distance and collectivism on the
relationship between empowerment and
team performance through the mechanisms of knowledge
sharing and intra-group conflict.
Design/methodology/approach – This paper conceptualizes a
model depicting the relationship
between team empowerment and team performance across
cultures.
Findings – The authors argue that team empowerment can
increase both knowledge sharing and
intra-group conflict in working teams. Knowledge sharing
facilitates team performance, while
intra-group conflict impairs team performance in the long run.
Team empowerment yields different
team performance across cultures due to the respective
moderating effects of power distance and
collectivism.
Originality/value – This paper explicates the moderating roles
of power distance and collectivism on
the relationship between empowerment, knowledge sharing,
intra-group conflict and team
performance. The authors suggest that the effectiveness of team
empowerment is contingent on the
cultural context that the team operates in.
Keywords Knowledge sharing, Collectivism, Power distance,
Team performance,
Intra-group conflict, Team empowerment
Paper type Conceptual paper
Introduction
Empowerment has been of great interest in the field of
organization studies for decades
(Spreitzer et al., 1997). In general, it has been studied from two
aspects: structural and
54. being empowered (Lee and Koh, 2001) and looks at how
subordinates are intrinsically
motivated to perform their responsibilities to affect their
organization (Chen et al., 2007;
Conger and Kanungo, 1988; Kirkman and Rosen, 1999; Mathieu
et al., 2006). At the
individual level, empowerment refers to an integration of both
the “behavior of a
supervisor” and the “psychological state of a subordinate” (Lee
and Koh, 2001, p. 685).
At the team level, team empowerment represents team members’
perceptions on four
dimensions:
(1) their potency to perform tasks effectively;
(2) their sense of meaningfulness in their work;
(3) their autonomy to make task-related decisions; and
(4) their impact upon task outcomes.
In a highly empowered team, its members receive administrative
autonomy to share
leadership responsibilities, allocate resources, initiate decisions
and regulate work
processes (Kirkman and Rosen, 1999; Manz and Sims, 1987).
The managerial practices of empowered teams were prevalent
when the notion of
empowerment emerged in the organizational literature in the
late 1970s (Appelbaum
et al., 1999; Anderson, 1997; Lawler et al., 2001; Kanter, 1977;
Manz and Sims, 1987;
Singh, 1998; Spreitzer, 2007). A work team is known for the
interdependence and social
interactions among its members to achieve common goals
(Kozlowski and Bell, 2003;
Mathieu et al., 2008). Considerable empirical work has
55. suggested that empowerment is
positively related to team performance (Harter et al., 2002;
Laschinger et al., 2004; Seibert
et al., 2004; Spreitzer, 1996; Srivastava et al., 2006). It has
been argued that empowerment
can have a positive effect on team performance because a highly
empowered team offers
a platform for members to make collective decisions through
their participation in
negotiated decision-making (Yukl, 2009). The proliferation of
team empowerment
provides team members with more opportunities to share ideas
and knowledge (Locke
et al., 1997). Early studies on team empowerment and team
performance tend to reflect
a positive view of the mediating effect of knowledge-sharing on
the relationship between
empowerment and team performance (Kirkman and Rosen,
1999, 1997; Srivastava et al.,
2006). However, the downsides of empowered teams have not
been sufficiently explored
by extant research. For instance, a highly empowered team
might be more susceptible to
intra-group conflict, which has a detrimental effect on team
performance (Bergman et al.,
2012; Langfred, 2007; Kotlyar and Karakowsky, 2006). Given a
situation that calls for
team empowerment, the effectiveness and success of an
empowered team depend on the
extent that team members can adapt to team structural changes
and maximize the
benefits of power and knowledge sharing and minimize intra-
group conflict (Kirkman
and Shapiro, 1997; Langfred, 2007; Stewart et al., 2011) (Figure
1).
56. Cross-cultural management scholarship has revealed that
individuals’ behaviors are
embedded in their specific cultural contexts, which may differ
across nations (Bochner
and Hesketh, 1994; Hofstede, 1993, 1980). For instance,
national cultures influence
individual actions by constructing a collection of strategies in
which certain patterns of
actions are supported, while others are rejected (Hofstede,
1980; Triandis, 1989). We
argue that team empowerment is not an exception, although the
effect of cultural
dimensions has not been sufficiently explored (Alves et al.,
2006; Neck and Houghton,
63
Effect of team
empowerment
2006; Pearce and Conger, 2003). In addition, perceptions of
team performance might
vary across cultures and make different teams to focus their
efforts on different
outcomes. For example, cultural differences in a highly
individualist society can lead a
group to focus more on task-related outcomes, whereas its
counterpart in a highly
collectivistic society can focus more on the social aspects of
team performance (Stewart
and Barrick, 2000). Our focus in this paper is to discuss how
team empowerment
influences team performance in different cultural contexts
(Figure 2). Previous
57. researchers have suggested that national cultures may influence
individuals’ behavior
of conflict management and knowledge sharing (Doucet et al.,
2009; Michailova and
Hutchings, 2006; Tjosvold et al., 1998). This paper examines
the effect of power distance
and collectivism on the relationship between empowerment and
team performance
through the mechanisms of knowledge sharing and intra-group
conflict for teams that in
their composition reflect the specific cultural preferences of the
culture in which they are
embedded (for an exception see Boros et al., 2010). Although
other cultural dimensions
such as uncertainty avoidance and masculinity–femininity may
also affect conflict
management and knowledge sharing (Michailova and Hutchings,
2006; van
Team empowerment
Knowledge Sharing
Intra-group
Conflict
Team Performance
Notes: Extant research does not explore the effect of the
cultural context on
the relationship between team empowerment and knowledge
sharing, and
the relationship between team empowerment and intra-group
conflict is
underexplored
Source: Kirkman and Rosen (1999), Srivastava et al. (2006)
58. Figure 1.
Traditional model
Team empowerment
Knowledge Sharing
Intra-group
Conflict
Team Performance
Power Distance
Power Distance
Collec�vism
Collec�vism
P2 +
P3 +
P1
P4
Notes: The effects of power distance and collectivism on the
relationship
between team empowerment and knowledge sharing are
explicated; an
argument is made for the relationship between team
empowerment and
intra-group conflict, and the effects of power distance and
59. collectivism on
the relationship between team empowerment and intra-group
conflict are
proposed
Figure 2.
Proposed model
IJCMA
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64
Oudenhoven et al., 1998), we only include power distance and
collectivism in our
analysis. There are several reasons that motivate us to focus on
these two dimensions
only. First, the dimensions of power distance and individualism-
collectivism, from
Hofstede’s (1980) framework of cultural dimensions, have been
widely used to
understand differences in management practices across cultures
(Chow et al., 2000;
Tjosvold and Sun, 2010). Second, the power distance
dimension, which focuses on
people’s expectation and acceptance of power inequality in a
society, is essential to
structural and psychological empowerment in teams. Third, how
team members
evaluate group and individual benefits and how they work
interdependently is subject
to individuals’ mindsets of social roles and responsibilities in a
team. Team members’
cognitive and behavioral tendencies can be captured by
60. Hofstede’s (1980, 2001)
individualism-collectivism dimension to understand the
consequent team outcomes.
Last, the dimensions of uncertainty avoidance and masculinity
versus femininity are
still controversial in terms of content and replicability and have
not been convincingly
replicated in both Eastern and Western countries (Minkov and
Hofstede, 2014). The
dimension of long-term versus short-term orientation is strongly
connected to Chinese
Confucius values and national economic growth, which might
be less reliable to predict
individual behaviors in teams (Hofstede and Minkov, 2010).
This research serves as a conceptual cross-cultural analysis of
team empowerment
and team performance. We focused our systematic literature
review on the literatures on
knowledge sharing, conflict management and culture studies at
team levels over the
past 20 years. Most studies included in our analysis are
publications in high-tier
academic journals. We strived to include the most relevant and
most important articles.
When there was a need to choose a citation over another, we
chose seminal pieces
instead of subsequent articles, unless the subsequent articles
added significantly to our
understanding.
Overall, building on extant literature in empowerment and
cross-cultural studies, we
delineate a framework depicting the relationship between team
empowerment and team
performance across cultures. Figure 2 portrays how our focal
61. constructs are
interconnected. Specifically, team empowerment is positively
related to both knowledge
sharing and intra-group conflict. Knowledge sharing leads to
increased team
performance, while intra-group conflict impairs team
performance. In addition, team
empowerment yields different team performance outcomes
across cultures because of
the respective moderating effects of power distance and
collectivism on the relationship
between team empowerment and knowledge sharing as well as
on the relationship
between team empowerment and intra-group conflict. Power
distance inhibits
knowledge sharing and fosters intra-group conflict. In contrast,
collectivism inhibits
intra-group conflict and facilitates knowledge sharing.
Theoretical foundations and propositions
In the following sections, we review the empowerment,
knowledge sharing and team
performance relationship to show that team empowerment is
positively related to team
performance through the mechanism of knowledge sharing.
Then, we argue for the
moderating roles of power distance and knowledge sharing on
this relationship.
Subsequently, we review the empowerment, intra-group conflict
and team performance
relationship to show that team empowerment is negatively
related to team performance
65
Effect of team
62. empowerment
through the mechanism of intra-group conflict. Then, we argue
for the moderating roles
of power distance and knowledge sharing on this relationship.
Empowerment, knowledge sharing and team performance
Previous literature suggests that empowering leadership and
empowerment in various
organizational settings can promote team performance (Kirkman
and Rosen, 1999;
Srivastava et al., 2006). Many scholars have addressed the team
empowerment-
performance relationship by looking at the mediating effect of
knowledge sharing
(Manz and Sims, 1995; Rosen et al., 2007; Srivastava et al.,
2006). Knowledge acquisition
(i.e. problem understanding and communication) is an important
predictor of both
financial and non-financial team performance (Politis, 2003).
Increased knowledge
sharing facilitates a more comprehensive consideration of
alternatives and a better
utilization of a team’s existing knowledge (Stasser and Titus,
1985). Wegner (1986)
stated that knowledge sharing fosters the creation of shared
mental models and the
development of transactive memory (i.e. the knowledge of “who
knows what” in a team).
Mesmer-Magnus and DeChurch’s (2009) meta-analysis also
suggested the importance of
information sharing to team performance. Thus, knowledge
sharing among team
members can positively influence team performance.
63. Srivastava et al. (2006) found that empowering leadership could
enhance team
knowledge sharing through the guidance and coaching of
empowering leaders. The
increased opportunities for idea sharing are inherent in
participative decision-making.
Zárraga and Bonache (2005) found that a high care atmosphere
among team members
engenders both the creation and the transfer of knowledge. They
argued that a “high
care” atmosphere is enhanced when the team is empowered.
Rosen et al. (2007, p. 267)
identified six common barriers to knowledge sharing in virtual
teams and presented six
“best practices” to overcome the knowledge-sharing barriers.
They addressed the
importance of “a psychologically safe team culture” and
advocated that the leaders
should shape the culture of the team so that every team member
can raise their voice and
participate in decision-making when the task is progressing.
In addition, an atmosphere of trust in an empowered team is
known to facilitate
knowledge sharing (Renzl, 2008; Rosen et al., 2007). The full
engagement of team
members can enhance trust within a group, which in turn
enhances knowledge sharing.
Recent research on leadership, team empowerment and
knowledge sharing suggests
that interpersonal-trust in empowered teams is positively related
to knowledge
acquisition (Carmeli et al., 2010; Gagné, 2009; Politis, 2003,
2001; Zhang and Bartol,
2010). Foss et al. (2009) found that feedback in the form of
64. formal evaluations and
recognition schemes was positively related to the motivation to
share knowledge.
Nurturing efficient feedback contributes to developing trust
among team members.
Abrams et al. (2003) offered a set of ten team-member
behaviors that promote trust
among the team. Many of their proposed behaviors mirror the
consequences of team
empowerment. For instance, the authors proposed that a team
should establish and
ensure a shared vision and goals to promote benevolence and
competence (Abrams et al.,
2003). This proposition is consistent with two of Kirkman and
Rosen’s (1999) key
dimensions of team empowerment, i.e. sharing a sense of the
meaningfulness of their
task and group potency (Kirkman and Rosen, 1999). According
to these conceptual
arguments, we posit that team empowerment can enhance
knowledge sharing because
the mutual feedback is highly encouraging and a high care
atmosphere engenders trust
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among team members. The preceding analysis can be
summarized as follows: team
empowerment leads to high team performance through the
beneficial effect of
knowledge sharing.
65. Team empowerment, power distance and knowledge sharing
Power has been described as the potential ability of a person to
influence others
(Anderson and Brion, 2014). Thus, a major power holder has
more potential influence on
others than a minor power holder. Structurally, empowerment
can be viewed as pushing
power from the top-down throughout the hierarchy to
subordinates in an organization
(Hollander and Offermann, 1990). The structural attempts to
empower team members,
such as equalizing social status or hierarchical positions within
a team, generally aim to
increase team members’ psychological perception of being
empowered. However, these
structural empowering practices may or may not succeed in
psychologically
empowering team members completely in all cultural or
organizational settings (Alves
et al., 2006; Randolph and Sashkin, 2002; Sagie and Aycan,
2003).
Power distance is defined as “the extent to which the less
powerful members of
institutions and organizations within a country expect and
accept that power is
distributed unequally” (Hofstede and Bond, 1984, p. 419). In
different national cultures,
the distribution of power within society can range from
relatively equal (i.e. in a low
power distance culture) to extremely unequal (i.e. in a high
power distance culture)
(Hofstede, 2001, 1980). In a high power distance society, the
less powerful individuals are
more likely to accept autocratic or paternalistic power relations.
66. They tend to
acknowledge and accept that power is based on social status or
hierarchical positions.
House et al. (2004) found that power distance is negatively
related to participative
leadership. Pearce and Conger’s (2003) review of shared
leadership also argued that
power distance might limit the effective function of shared
leadership across cultures.
It has been noted that team empowerment and individual
psychological
empowerment are highly correlated (Bandura, 1997; Chen et al.,
2007). However, there
may be differences in individual psychological empowerment
among group members
(Wu et al., 2010). These differences in individual psychological
empowerment can be
exaggerated in a high power distance society as a result of
people’s acceptance of
inequality. Although in a high power distance culture, team
members may be
structurally treated as equal, it would be difficult, if not
impossible, for all team
members to perceive an equal level of individual psychological
empowerment. This
diversity of perceived empowerment may occur in a team
composed of members from
different hierarchical levels within the organization, or with
different tenures, or from
different socioeconomic statuses. We argue that these social-
structural differences
might result in implicit power inequalities among team
members. For example, in a high
power distance society like China, people readily accept a large
degree of power
67. inequality, and can easily turn a relationship between equal
partners in a team into a
junior-senior structural relationship if there are cues to a status
difference in other areas
of life (King and Bond, 1985). This implicit inequity may
generate intra-group cliques
and lead to mistrust and divergence within the group and hinder
knowledge sharing.
There are generally three reasons that prevent team members
from sharing
knowledge in a high power distance society. First, the existence
of power inequality in a
team can undermine the atmosphere of information exchange
among team members
(Follett, 1924). The less powerful team members tend to restrain
their proactive
67
Effect of team
empowerment
arguments with major power holders when the less powerful
individuals are mindful of
their behaviors that might imply threats to the powerful (Eylon
and Au, 1999; Rousseau
and Garcia-Retamero, 2007). Ting-Toomey and Kurogi (1998)
found that the concern
about loss of one’s face is prevalent in high power distance
cultures. Face refers to “the
public self-image that every member wants to claim for
himself” (Brown and Levinson,
1987, p. 61). The concept of face is universally salient and
68. applicable in both Western
and Asian cultures (Kirkbride et al., 1991). Face is determined
by a person’s
socio-structural status (Oetzel et al., 2003). It is a widely
accepted social norm to respect
powerful individuals in high power distance societies.
Challenging a relatively powerful
individual in public can be interpreted as a violation of social
norms, leading to
embarrassment and shame for that person (Kim and Nam, 1998).
The powerful individual
may retaliate against the challenger for face loss. As the less
powerful individuals can
foresee the potential negative consequences of arguing with
powerful individuals, the less
powerful individuals tend to avoid in-depth knowledge sharing
with the major power
holders to prevent such situations from occurring.
Second, people in a high power distance societies are
accustomed to autocratic
leadership and centralization of authority (Pearce and Conger,
2003). Traditionally, in
high power distance societies, the major power holder is
expected to have a strong voice
in decision-making. Therefore, the less powerful individuals are
de-motivated to
contribute their ideas when they assume that their suggestions
account for little in the
final decision. The less powerful individuals spare what they
see as futile efforts to
communicate with the major power holders and are anxious not
to offend their powerful
counterparts during the interactions.
Third, in high power distance cultures, less powerful team
69. members do not expect to
obtain complete information (Randolph and Sashkin, 2002). The
major power holders
often surpass the less powerful members in terms of extensive
social networks and
privileged information sources. This expected information
asymmetry between the
powerful and the less powerful discourages information sharing
within the team, as the
less powerful members surmise that the powerful members
already know what is
needed to be known and consequently do not bother to share
information even if they
think it is novel. On the other hand, major power holders can
obtain information from
exclusive sources and tend not to share it with the less powerful
members (Randolph
and Sashkin, 2002). Thus, a high power differential limits
information sharing among
team members in a high power distance society and can cripple
knowledge sharing even
within an empowered team. The preceding discussion can be
summarized in the
following proposition:
P1. The relationship between team empowerment and
knowledge sharing among
team members is moderated by power distance in such a way
that the positive
influence of team empowerment on knowledge sharing is
diminished in high
power distance cultures.
Team empowerment, collectivism and knowledge sharing
Individualism and collectivism are cultural constructs both in
origin and in nature (Hui
70. and Triandis, 1986). Individualism is the degree to which
people in a country prefer to
act as individuals rather than as members of groups. In
collectivistic cultures, people
define themselves through social roles and hierarchical
structures of their group (Clarke
and Micken, 2002). Their personal goals and behaviors
correspond to the social norms,
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duties and obligations of the group (Chen et al., 1997; Miller,
1994). In collectivistic
cultures, individuals derive satisfaction from group
accomplishment (Earley, 1989) and
have less need to ascribe self-identity to personal characteristics
(Clarke and Micken,
2002).
Randolph and Sashkin (2002) suggested that people in highly
collectivistic cultures
are more likely to exchange and share information that focuses
on team efforts rather
than on individual efforts. In other words, team members in
highly collectivistic cultures
tend to focus more on group performance than individual
performance (Gabrenya et al.,
1985). In highly collectivistic cultures, team members are more
willing to share
team-based knowledge and information because they feel
responsible for the group’s
71. well-being. Also, people are unlikely to address and
acknowledge individual-based
information in highly collectivistic cultures because an
overemphasis on individual
benefits can induce feelings of being separated from the group
(Randolph and Sashkin,
2002). Highlighting individualism in highly collectivistic
cultures is seen as alienation
from the group and a potential threat to the solidarity and
integration of group members.
The fear of being marginalized in collectivistic cultures affects
people’s behaviors in
groups. Group awareness in collectivistic cultures may reduce
team members’ actions
counter to collective goals such as distorting information or
manipulating knowledge
for individual gains. Based on the above discussion, we
propose:
P2. The relationship between team empowerment and
knowledge sharing among
team members is moderated by collectivism in such a way that
the positive
influence of team empowerment on knowledge sharing is
increased in
collectivistic cultures.
Team empowerment and intra-group conflict
Conflict can be broadly defined as a perceived incompatibility
of interests or goals
between or among parties (Jehn, 1995; Korsgaard et al., 2008;
Wall and Callister, 1995).
Two dimensions of conflict are predominantly studied in the
organizational literature:
conflict rooted in the substance of the task and conflict derived
from the emotional,
72. affective aspects of the group’s interpersonal relations
(Guetzkow and Gyr, 1954). These
conflict dimensions have been studied under different
taxonomies, such as “substantive
and affective conflict” (Guetzkow and Gyr, 1954), “task and
relationship conflict”
(Pinkley, 1990; Pinkley and Northcraft, 1994) and “cognitive
and affective conflict”
(Amason, 1996). According to Jehn’s (1997, 1995) studies on
intra-group conflict, task or
cognitive conflict refers to disagreements among team members
regarding viewpoints,
opinions and ideas, whereas relationship or affective conflict
refers to disagreements
among team members on personal or emotional issues.
Kotlyar and Karakowsky (2006) proposed that in empowered
teams, both cognitive
and affective conflict can rise to high levels if there is
insufficient coaching or lack of
invasive interventions by external leaders’ in-group activities.
Absent from ongoing
support and guidance of an external leader, team members have
to deal with high
uncertainty in their procedural directions and thus tend to
generate more conflict in their
day-to-day interactions. Langfred (2000) found that individual
autonomy can clash with
group autonomy in an empowered team and reduce the
cohesiveness and effectiveness
of the team. His follow-up study (Langfred, 2007) suggests that
empowered teams are
particularly vulnerable to the detrimental effects of conflict
because team members
highly depend on intra-group trust when organizing their work
and interacting with
73. 69
Effect of team
empowerment
each other. As high intra-group trust depends on the majority of
team members being
effectively engaged in leadership of the team (Bergman et al.,
2012), there is a possibility
that individual team members differ in their perception of
empowerment (Chen and
Kanfer, 2006), and some members might fight to control power,
which is detrimental to
intra-group trust (Bergman et al., 2012). Some members may
also choose to restrict
individual autonomy and interdependence as a response to
conflict, thereby
undermining intra-group trust. As intra-group trust declines,
empowered teams are
more vulnerable to the negative effects of conflict (Langfred,
2007).
As decision control is transferred from external sources to
internal interactions in a
highly empowered team (Manz et al., 1987), supervisors and
subordinates are subject to
a challenging adjustment when they have to re-identify and re-
differentiate their roles
and responsibilities within and outside of the group (Appelbaum
et al., 1999; Stewart
et al., 2011). Solansky (2008) noted that the leadership process
and the team process are
closely linked. If more “heads” and “hands” attend to team’s
74. developmental and
functioning needs, leadership functions can be shared by several
members, allocated to
individual members or rotated by different members in different
times (Yukl, 1999). As
leadership in a empowered team is a shared process involving
mutual influence among
members to perform tasks and take responsibilities (Ensley et
al., 2003; Katzenbach,
1997; Pearce et al., 2014; Yukl, 1989), the absence or the
reduced level of external
leadership may create the need for a new regulatory system that
can control and direct
team members’ behaviors toward task completion. This dynamic
of supplanting
vertical and hierarchical control may lead to an emergence of
“concertive control”
through horizontal and collaborative interactions among
empowered team members
(Barker, 1993). The concertive control system is a collective
agreement formalized and
implemented by team members to discipline their actions to
enhance the quality of
individual and group outputs. Concertive control can be even
stronger and more rigid
than bureaucratic control in constraining and rationalizing team
members. To achieve
concertive control, team members must reach a “negotiated
consensus on how to shape
their behavior according to a set of core values” (Barker, 1993,
p. 411). Therefore,
concertive control emerges from a process that integrates
individual values and creates
a new formal rationality. In a highly empowered team, team
members must take
collective responsibility to synthesize individual idiosyncrasies
75. rather than depend on
instructions and guidance from an external leader. This process
tends to be a source of
conflict due to emerging interpersonal incompatibilities in goals
setting, job
assignments, expectations and evaluations. Moreover,
insufficient communication and
misinterpretation of personal behaviors may also drive
animosity and tension in highly
empowered teams (Appelbaum et al., 1999). The above
discussion can be summarized as
follows: team empowerment will foster increases in intra-group
conflict.
Knowledge sharing and intra-group conflict
As discussed earlier, studies on intra-group conflict, task or
cognitive conflict refer to
disagreements among team members regarding viewpoints,
opinions and ideas,
whereas relationship or affective conflict refers to
disagreements among team members
on personal or emotional issues (Jehn, 1997, 1995). As work
team members interact and
begin to express their task-related ideas, they become aware of
differences in their
mental models (Johnson-Laird, 1983). Work team members then
engage in a process of
discovery eventually challenging each other’s points of view.
The process of challenging
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76. each other’s points of view involves arguments and
counterarguments through which
more knowledge is increasingly shared (Eisenhardt et al., 1997;
Forbes and Milliken,
1999; Janis, 1972; Mitchell et al., 2011, Nahapiet and Ghoshal,
1998; Smith et al., 2005). As
discussed previously, for decades, scholars have grappled with
the consequences of
conflict inside work teams, and findings are still inconclusive as
to the performance
consequences of intra-group conflict (De Dreu and Weingart,
2003; de Wit et al., 2012).
However, regardless of the performance consequences of intra-
group conflict, one aspect
that comes across in the literature is that heterogeneous teams
experience more conflict
than homogeneous teams (Forbes and Milliken, 1999; Janis,
1972).
In a study of 98 teams, Mitchell et al. (2011) found evidence
that interaction among
group members with dissimilar preferences, diverse
interpretations and different values
was sufficient to trigger behaviors to challenge each other’s
opinions and justify
alternative approaches. Forbes and Milliken (1999) found that
management boards
composed of members with diverse backgrounds engaged in
more debate regarding
goals, decisions, procedures and choices than homogeneous
boards because diverse
board members framed the issues differently and arrived at
different conclusions about
appropriate courses of action. In contrast, Janis (1972) found
that lack of conflict was a