As the recent spread of West Nile virus and the anthrax scare of 200.docx

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As the recent spread of West Nile virus and the anthrax scare of 2001 dramatically illustrate, America faces a variety of new health challenges in the 21st century, along with a number of persistent problems, such as racial disparities in health status and care delivery. Promoting and protecting health also has been made increasingly complex by the growing prevalence of chronic conditions influenced by multiple factors, including social, environmental, and behavioral determinants, as well as biological risk factors. Improving America's health in the 21st century requires major overhauls in the funding, organization, and coordination of the government public health infrastructure to ensure that it has the technology, work force, and other resources needed to promote and protect health, says a new report from the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. However, public health should no longer be thought of as just those functions historically provided by government public health agencies. Multiple public- and private-sector partners must engage with government agencies to develop innovative strategies to change the environments - social, physical, and political - that shape the public's health, the report says. Now that this health care bill has become law, the important question is where do we go from here with public health? Using all of the information that you gathered and learn in this course, share your perspective (s) on the future of public health in the United States. .

Education

On July 1, 1665, the lordmayor and aldermen of the city of London put into place a set of orders “concerning the infection of the plague,” which was then sweeping through the population. He intended that these actions would be “very expedient for preventing and avoiding of infection of sickness” (1). At that time, London faced a public health crisis, with an inade- quate scientific base in that the role of rats and their fleas in disease transmission was unknown. Nonetheless, this crisis was faced with good intentions by the top medical and political figures of the community. Daniel Defoe made an observation that could apply to many public health interventions then and today, “This shutting up of houses was at first counted a very cruel and unchristian method… but it was a public good that justified a private mischief” (1). Then, just as today, a complex relationship existed between the science of public health and the practice of public health and politics. We address the relationship between science, public health, and politics, with a particular emphasis on infectious diseases. Science, public health, and politics are not only com- patible, but all three are necessary to improve the public’s health. The progress of each area of public health is related to the strength of the other areas. The effect of politics in public health becomes dangerous when policy is dictat- ed by ideology. Policy is also threatened when it is solely determined by science, devoid of considerations of social condition, culture, economics, and public will. When using the word “politics,” we refer not simply to partisan politics but to the broader set of policies and systems. Although ideology is used in many different ways, in this case, it refers to individual systems of belief that may color a person’s attitudes and actions and that are not nec- essarily based on scientific evidence (2). Public Health Achievements Science influences public health decisions and conclusions, and politics delivers its programs and messages. This pattern is obvious in many of public health’s greatest triumphs of the 20th century, 10 of which were chronicled in 1999 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as great public health achievements, and several of which are presented below as examples of policy affecting successes (3). These achievements remind us of what can be accomplished when innovation, persistence, and luck converge, along with political will and public policy. Vaccination Childhood vaccinations have largely eliminated once- common, terrible diseases, such as polio, diphtheria, measles, mumps, and pertussis (4). Polio is being eradicat- ed worldwide. The current collaboration between the World Health Organization, the United Nations Children’s Fund, CDC, and Rotary International is a political as well as biological “tour de force,” and eradication of polio in Nigeria has been threatened by local political struggles and decisions. ...

The United States health care system Presented By HCA 205 .docx

wsusan1

The United States health care system Presented By: HCA 205: Introduction To Health Care Martha Jennings January 27, 2019 I’m pursuing my Bachelors In Healthcare Administration. I have been in the United States Navy for 6 years and within those 6 years I have 2 years of experience in the healthcare. In 2017 I obtained my Pharmaceutical license and work at HIV clinic for six months. After that I decided I wanted to be a nurse so I spent 6 months volunteering at the Naval Hospital working with ER patients, Cancer patients, and mental health patients. I am excited to talk about this week PowerPoint topic seeing how its close to home for me. 1 Overview Explain Health Care System Describe each revolutionary factors in the 17th,18th,19th,20th, and 21st Century Explain how each revolutionary factor changed the healthcare system Describe each major development from a financial, legal, ethical, regulatory, and social perspectives. Explain how each development transformed the healthcare system. Explain how the three stakeholders has impacted the healthcare system in both a positive and negative way. The United States health care system is considered to be among the most unique in the world’s industrialized countries. Within this PowerPoint presentation I am going to go over how the healthcare system has evolved from the 17th century to the 21st. Furthermore, I will also be discussing how from a financial, legal, ethical, regulatory, and social perspectives how much the healthcare system has transformed. Lastly, I will be closing this PowerPoint with three stakeholders I have chosen and briefly explaining the impact that it has had on our healthcare system in both a positive and negative way. 2 The 17th century During the 17th century leech therapy was a popular cure all for all health issues. It was said that the leeches would suck out any disease from the body. During this time physicians were not used like they are today. In the 17th century the physician would go see the patient where they lived and the patient had self-home remedies they would use to cure there disease. Dr. Bond and Benjamin Franklin founded the “Pennsylvania Hospital”. This facility was the first facility devoted to assisting mentally ill and became a major impact on the field of psychiatry. This impact open up the first American medical school known as “ University Of Pennsylvania” Dr. Bond and Benjamin Franklin accomplishments shed a light publicly on the severity of mental illness . After they opened the ward in New York people began to see mental illness as a social issue. These accomplishments listed above helped transform the health care system into what it is today because we are able to walk into any healthcare facility and receive proper treatment and care. In the early 17th century they didn’t have the luxury because leech therapy and self-home remedies was the answer to all issues and diseases. The 18th century During the 18th century, a group of do.

semo2036

memomemo87

This document discusses chronic diseases and their control. It notes that chronic diseases have replaced infectious diseases as the leading causes of death in the United States. Chronic diseases are characterized by uncertain causes, multiple risk factors, long development periods, and disability rather than cure. The document outlines the continuum of chronic disease from upstream social determinants to behavioral risks to conditions to diseases to impairment. It provides examples of how chronic diseases and their risk factors are interrelated and complex. Effective control requires addressing many determinants and preventing progression along the continuum.

ASSIGNMENT 1 HSA500

luis raffo carlin

The document summarizes the historical transition and growth of the U.S. health care system from the 19th century to present day. It discusses key milestones like the establishment of private health insurance in the 1930s and government programs Medicare and Medicaid in 1965. Major changes included the rise of HMOs in the 1980s and an increased focus on preventative care and reducing costs. The paper also examines challenges facing the system like an aging population as baby boomers require more care and changing demographics bringing new diseases. Financing and technology are seen as important factors enabling advancement, but affordability remains a challenge given high expenditures in the U.S. system.

1212017 Public Health What It Is and How It Workshttps.docx

moggdede

1/21/2017 Public Health: What It Is and How It Works https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781284046342/cfi/18!/4/2/[email protected]:0 1/25 PRINTED BY: [email protected] Printing is for personal, private use only. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted without publisher's prior permission. Violators will be prosecuted. Chapter 9 Future Challenges for Public Health in America OBJECTIVES After completing Chapter 9, learners will be proficient in describing the past achievements, current issues, and future challenges for public health and their implications for improving population health status and quality of life. Key aspects of this competency expectation include the following: • Identifying and discussing at least three lessons from public health’s achievements in the 20th century • Identifying and discussing at least three current issues and challenges facing public health and public health practitioners in the first decade of the 21st century This text approaches what public health is and how it works from a unified conceptual framework. Key dimensions of the public health system are examined, including its purpose, functions, capacity, processes, and outcomes. Although a simple framework, many of the concepts addressed are anything but simple. As a result, much has been left unsaid, and many important issues and problems facing the public health system have been addressed only in passing. This may serve to whet the appetite of those eager to move beyond the basics and ready to tackle emerging and more complex issues in greater depth. The basic concepts included in this text seek to facilitate that process and encourage thinking “outside the book.” Delving into these other issues without the benefit of a broad understanding of the field and how it works, however, can be an occupational hazard in any field of endeavor. For public health workers, continuously fighting off alligators remains the major deterrent to draining the swamp in order to avert the alligator problem in the first place. Each of the eight initial chapters spotlights one or more public health achievements of the 20th century, telling the story of how we got where we are today. Together, these stories demonstrate that the problems facing public health have changed over the past century and argue that we can expect them to continue to change throughout the current century. In retrospect, many past problems appear relatively easy to solve in comparison with those on the public health agenda at the beginning of the 21st century; however, we often forget that the last century’s problems appeared to be quite formidable to public health advocates back in 1910. Although formidable, they were eventually deemed unacceptable, initiating the chain of events that resulted in the impressive catalog of accomplishments chronicled in earlier chapters. Each of these achievements provides valuable lessons and insights into the obstacles to achieving even further ...

© 2010 Jones and Bartlett Publishers, LLCBasic Concept.docx

LynellBull52

© 2010 Jones and Bartlett Publishers, LLC Basic Concepts of the U.S. Health Care Delivery System: Student Activity Workbook Chapter 4 Public Health Role Nancy J. Niles Introduction: Two Definitions Charles Winslow (1920) defined public health as the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life, and promoting physical health and efficiency through organized community efforts for the sanitation of the environment, control of community infections, education of individuals regarding hygiene to ensure a standard of living for health maintenance. The Institute of Medicine in its’ 1988 Future of Public Health report defined public health as an organized community effort to address public health by applying scientific and technical knowledge to promote health . Introduction Public health specialists view health from a collectivistic and preventive care viewpoint—to protect as many citizens as possible from health issues and to provide strategies to prevent health issues from occurring. Public health concepts were in stark contrast to traditional medicine which focused on the sole relationship between a provider and patient. Private practitioners held an individualistic viewpoint—citizens more often would be paying for their services from their health insurance or from their own pockets. Physicians would be providing their patients guidance on how to cure their diseases, not preventing disease. What Is Health? The World Health Organization defines “health” as the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity . The Institute of Medicine defines “health” as a state of well being and the capability to function in the face of changing circumstances. It is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources as well as physical capabilities. According to the Society for Emergency Medicine (SAEM), health is a state of physical and mental well-being that facilitates the achievement of individual and societal goals. How would you define the concept of health? Determinants of Health Health has several determinants or influences that impact the status of an individual’s health. The physical environment would include pollutants, hazardous exposure at work, water contamination, etc. The social environment would include socioeconomic status which relates directly to quality of health An individual’s lifestyle or behavior includes diet, exercise, sexual activity, stressful job, which all have an impact on health. Also, genetic factors or a person’s biology predispose individuals to certain diseases. Primary, Secondary And Tertiary Prevention Of Public Health Primary prevention activities focus on reducing disease development. Smoking cessation programs and immunization programs are examples. Secondary prevention activities refer to early detection and treatment of diseases. The goal of secondary prevention is to stop the progression of disease .

Globalization and global threats and pandemic threts 21 century

Kolegji Universitar BIZNESI - Gjakovë

Globalization has increased risks from international threats like pandemics, environmental degradation, and ethnic violence. Strategies are needed to deal with these threats through improved surveillance, distribution of medicines, and understanding the causes of conflicts. Preventive actions before crises occur are important but difficult for governments. Underlying economic issues from globalization like unemployment and inequality can contribute to these threats if not addressed through education, health programs, and infrastructure investment. International cooperation through organizations like WHO and UN is vital to strengthen global efforts against diseases and support national health systems.

The Role of Public Health in America

Regan Orman

Role of Public Health in Health and social Care Table of Contents INTRODUCTION.. 4 TASK-1. 5 1.1 Role of different agencies in identifying levels in health and disease in communities. 5 1.2 Statistics on the incidence and spread of infectious disease. Explain the epidemiology of one infectious and non-infectious disease and relevance of statistics in context to public health. 7 1.3 Evaluate the effectiveness of different approaches and strategies to control the incidence of disease in communities. 8 TASK-2 Be able to investigate the implications of illness and disease in communities for the provision of health and social care services. 9 2.1 Determine what are the current approaches to the provision of services for the people with disease or illness. 9 2.2 Explain the relationship between the prevalence of different diseases and the requirements of services to support individuals with the health and social care service

1 s2.0-s2214109 x21000814-main (1)

Luís Carlos Nunes

- The initial spread of COVID-19 in Brazil was mostly affected by patterns of socioeconomic vulnerability rather than population age or health risk factors. States with high socioeconomic vulnerability had higher initial COVID-19 mortality despite efforts to expand health system capacity and enact policies. - Over time, differences in policy response converged across states, while physical distancing and lower death rates became relatively greater in municipalities with the highest socioeconomic vulnerabilities. - Existing socioeconomic inequalities in Brazil have affected the course of the COVID-19 epidemic, disproportionately burdening states and municipalities with high socioeconomic vulnerability. Targeted policies are needed to protect vulnerable populations.

HCS 410(2) ACA Tittle IV-Prevention of Chronic diseases

Maria Jimenez

The document summarizes key aspects of the Affordable Care Act as it relates to prevention and wellness. It describes how the ACA aims to promote prevention, fund public health initiatives, and reduce chronic disease. It discusses provisions such as banning pre-existing condition exclusions, covering preventive services with no cost sharing, and investing in community-based prevention programs. However, it also notes that Republicans questioned whether these prevention initiatives were worth funding.

Running head UNIVERSAL DISEASE AND MEDICAL CONDITIONS1UNIVE.docx

toltonkendal

Running head: UNIVERSAL DISEASE AND MEDICAL CONDITIONS 1 UNIVERSAL DISEASE AND MEDICAL CONDITIONS 4 Universal Disease and Medical Conditions Name Institution Course Date Introduction In the recent past, concern and attention has been directed towards climate change, politics and the war on terrorism. The federal and state governments have shifted their focus and attention in trying to eradicate these national issues that have been affecting the world at large. The issue of climate change has brought about a lot of unwarranted effects on the climatic conditions experienced in the US and other countries (Brownson et al., 2018). Issues such as heat waves and floods arising from Hurricanes have been reported rapidly in the country. Thus, its justified for the authorities to concern themselves in trying to balance the climate from the effects brought about by human activities and practices. This justification can also be extended to other emotive issues such as the war on terrorism and politics, which also affect the welfare of the people as well as the performance of their economy. Without a healthy population, the government will not be able to combat the war on terrorism successfully and neither will it be able to mitigate the environment against the ill effects of climate change. All in all, there is greater need for the federal and local governments to shift their focus on matters to do with public health and come up with scientific evidences necessary to reduce the already discovered medical conditions in the US (Brownson et al., 2018). Thesis Statement In this paper, I am going to highlight some study cases that have been conducted by researchers in different fields of medicine and show how the Federal and state governments have ignored the issue of public health. The paper will be discussing the medical conditions in the US that have been researched and documented, but the government is not giving them the attention it deserves. My point in the paper is that the US government has focused its attention and resources on national issues such as climate change and the war on terrorism and forgot to fund research on public health medical conditions that also area a national concern. I will be using scholarly articles to discuss the discovered medical conditions. My argument is that public health is strategically centered in the achievement of developmental and sustainable goals by the national government. There are several studies that have been conducted to document some public health concerns that are affecting the human populations, animals and the environment. I sought to discuss some of the medical conditions through an overview of articles published to highlight the effects of these conditions on humans and the environment and what the authorities need to do in order to reduce or eliminate such public health concerns The Health Effects of a World Without Darkness This article was composed by Rebecca Boyle. According the artic ...

California pays a lot for health care, not so much for keeping people healthy

Δρ. Γιώργος K. Κασάπης

California spends a lot on health care to treat its residents, but relatively little to ensure they are healthy, according to a new report. In 2018, for every $1 that California spent on health care services, it spent just $0.68 on other aspects of health, including social and public health services. That “other” figure is down by nearly half — from $1.22 — since 2007. While California’s total health care spending has grown nearly 150% since that year, spending on other services grew by around 40%. The report’s authors say that the state could rein in some of its $119 billion budget by cutting back on wasted costs, including unnecessary medical services. But it could also invest in community aspects of care tied to improved health, including raising the minimum wage and investing in public health, education, and other social programs.

Discussions Response please treat each Discussions Response separately Dalt.docx

bkbk37

The COVID-19 pandemic has profoundly impacted healthcare systems globally. In the US, the financial strain of the pandemic has increased medical debt by over 25% according to one report. This large financial burden can negatively impact individuals' long-term health and lead to exhausted hospital resources. Governments and organizations must work to ensure equitable access to healthcare during and after the pandemic, such as through public funding and expanding telehealth. The Bradley/Piekoff COVID-19 Forum is a unique initiative that organizes regional healthcare providers to discuss issues related to COVID-19, allowing sector experts to address topics essential for those seeking medical support such as vaccine distribution. The forum also keeps communities informed of new virus developments and treatments through online resources.

Discussions Response please treat each Discussions Response separately Dalt.docx

bkbk37

Discussions Response please treat each Discussions Response separately Dalt.docx

write31

Changing concepts in public health

Dr sakshi kaur chhabra

This document provides an overview of changing concepts in public health. It begins with definitions of public health and discusses its focus on prevention of disease at the population level. The document then outlines 4 phases in the history of public health: [1] the disease control phase from 1880-1920 with a focus on sanitation; [2] the health promotion phase from 1920-1960 adding services like maternal/child health; [3] the social engineering phase from 1960-1980 addressing chronic diseases and behaviors; and [4] the 'Health for All' phase from 1981-2000 aiming to reduce health inequalities. It also lists 5 notable public health officials and 16 surprising facts about the field.

Comprehensive Versus SelectivePrimary Health Care Lessons.docx

donnajames55

Comprehensive Versus Selective Primary Health Care: Lessons For Global Health Policy Meeting people’s basic health needs requires addressing the underlying social, economic, and political causes of poor health. by Lesley Magnussen, John Ehiri, and Pauline Jolly ABSTRACT: Primary health care was declared the model for global health policy at a 1978 meeting of health ministers and experts from around the world. Primary health care requires a change in socioeconomic status, distribution of resources, a focus on health system development, and emphasis on basic health services. Considered too idealistic and ex- pensive, it was replaced with a disease-focused, selective model. After several years of investment in vertical interventions, preventable diseases remain a major challenge for developing countries. The selective model has not responded adequately to the interrelation- ship between health and socioeconomic development, and a rethinking of global health policy is urgently needed. T he health care systems of many developing countries emerged from colonial medical services that emphasized costly high-technology, urban- based, curative care.1 When these countries became independent in the 1950s and 1960s, they inherited health care systems modeled after the systems in industrialized nations.2 Public health programs of international development agencies during this period were also largely targeted at eradicating specific diseases such as smallpox, yaws, and malaria. Each disease eradication program oper- ated autonomously, with its own administration and budget and very little inte- gration into the larger health system.3 There were some successes during this period (for example, eradication of smallpox and a decrease in tuberculosis). However, these short-term interventions were not addressing poor populations’ overall disease burden.4 Analysts realized that although one disease might be con- trolled or eliminated, recipients of that intervention might die of another disease or its complications.5 The situation worsened into the early 1970s, as populations continued to experience failing health outcomes with rising spending.6 C o m p r e h e n s i v e C a r e H E A L T H A F F A I R S ~ V o l u m e 2 3 , N u m b e r 3 1 6 7 DOI 10.1377/hlthaff.23.3.167 ©2004 Project HOPE–The People-to-People Health Foundation, Inc. Lesley Magnussen is a journalist and a master’s degree candidate in the Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, at the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB). John Ehiri ([email protected]) is an assistant professor in the UAB Department of Maternal and Child Health. Pauline Jolly is a professor of epidemiology and international health at UAB. Recognizing that narrow targets were not the only option, countries attempted to implement comprehensive approaches to the provision of basic health services. Examples included the creation of the rural health center, staffed by medical and health assistants .

Health inequalities presentation (should definitely work)

unipal390

The document discusses health inequalities and their causes and effects. It defines health inequalities as preventable differences in health status between different groups in society. Social and economic factors like income, education and employment have a significant influence on individual and group health. Inequalities have many negative effects, including unfairness, higher risks of illness and premature death for disadvantaged groups. Several government reports over the decades, including the Black Report, Acheson Report and Marmot Review, have examined health inequalities in the UK and made recommendations to reduce them. Child poverty is strongly associated with poorer health outcomes for children. Reducing the gap between rich and poor is important for improving population health.

838 journal of law, medicine & ethicsThe Journal of Law, Med.docx

blondellchancy

This document summarizes the history of efforts in the United States to promote health equity and address healthcare disparities, especially for racial and ethnic minority groups. It discusses how the Freedmen's Bureau Act of 1865 was the first major federal policy aimed at improving access to healthcare, food, education and other social services for vulnerable populations after the Civil War, but was terminated after seven years. Over a century later, reports on racial disparities in health status prompted further federal policies in the 1980s-1990s. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010 represented the most comprehensive health reform law intended to advance health equity. However, repealing the ACA remains controversial and could jeopardize protections for millions of Americans and roll

Dr. Obumneke Amadi-Onuoha Public Health Epidemiology Transcript

Discover Health Global Initiative

Over the past century in the U.S., there has been a reversal in morbidity and mortality trends due to advances in public health and healthcare. Chronic diseases are now the leading causes of death but researchers focus on prevention through community interventions. Significant accomplishments like vaccinations for diseases have led to declines in cases, hospitalizations, and costs. Applying community health education theories that target social and behavioral norms through multi-level interventions may have also contributed to reduced morbidity and mortality.

- Background Paper 13 - A national partnership f

RayleneAndre399

- Background Paper 13 - A national partnership for acA national partnership for acA national partnership for acA national partnership for action to tion to tion to tion to end health dend health dend health dend health disparities in the United Statesisparities in the United Statesisparities in the United Statesisparities in the United States Mirtha R. Beadle 1 Garth N. Graham 1 Paul E. Jarris 2 Carlessia A. Hussein 3 Alan Morgan 4 Ron Finch 5 1 Office of Minority Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2 Association of State and Territorial Health Officials; USA 3 National Association of State Offices of Minority Health; USA 4 National Rural Health Association; USA 5 National Business Group on Health; USA - Draft Background Paper 13 - Disclaimer WCSDH/BCKGRT/13/2011 This draft background paper is one of several in a series commissioned by the World Health Organization for the World Conference on Social Determinants of Health, held 19-21 October 2011, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The goal of these papers is to highlight country experiences on implementing action on social determinants of health. Copyright on these papers remains with the authors and/or the Regional Office of the World Health Organization from which they have been sourced. All rights reserved. The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner whatsoever to the World Health Organization. All papers are available at the symposium website at www.who.int/sdhconference. Correspondence for the authors can be sent by email to [email protected] The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Dotted lines on maps represent approximate border lines for which there may not yet be full agreement. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers' products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. The published material is being distributed without warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied. The responsibility for the interpretation and use of the material lies with the reader. In no event shall the World Health Organization be liable for damages ...

- Background Paper 13 - A national partnership f

SilvaGraf83

Focusing Health Equity, Efficiency And Health Maximization Policy Review

Thant Zin

This document reviews approaches to maximize health equity, efficiency, and health outcomes. It discusses how investing in health, especially for the poor, promotes human development and economic productivity. Achieving equity in health access is important both intrinsically for individual well-being and instrumentally for social and economic benefits. The document analyzes factors like equity, efficiency, and sustainability that influence health maximization. It recommends reforms targeting universal healthcare coverage, people-centered services, integrated health planning, and community participation to improve health systems and outcomes for all.

Health Inequalities

unipal390

Health inequalities refer to preventable differences in health status between different population groups. They are caused by a complex mix of social, economic, and environmental factors like income, education, employment, living conditions, and access to healthcare. People in lower socioeconomic positions face higher risks of poor health and earlier death. Reducing health inequalities is important because they are unfair, affect society as a whole, are avoidable through policy changes, and some interventions can reduce inequalities in a cost-effective manner. Several government reports over the decades, including the Black Report, Acheson Report, Wanless Report, and Marmot Report, have investigated health inequalities in the UK and made recommendations to address their social determinants and

Dr. dasen brajkovic md the public health

drdasenbrajkovicmd

The document discusses the role and history of public health in America. It describes how public health aims to prevent disease through education, vaccination, sanitation efforts, and promoting healthy behaviors. Major milestones include the establishment of the Marine Hospital Service in 1798, the American Public Health Association in 1872, and initiatives in the early 20th century that helped control epidemics. While public health spending remains low compared to treatment costs, programs have significantly reduced smoking and occurrence of diseases. Ongoing challenges include addressing issues like obesity, natural disasters, and drug abuse.

attached assignment requirements as well as will attach below my not.docx

As the recent spread of West Nile virus and the anthrax scare of 200.docx

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