Published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS - A group of national refereed, peer-reviewed, scholarly, academic periodicals. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD, Editor-in-Chief, NFJ (Since 1982)

1. NATIONAL FORUM OF APPLIED EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL
VOLUME 29, NUMBERS 1 & 2, 2016
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The Impact of Context on Chicana Resistance
Elsa Villarreal, MEd
Doctoral Candidate
Texas A&M University
This article explores the impact of institutional and societal contexts on Chicana resistance and
how the Chicana female reflects on her struggles. The data in this study focuses on the
perspective of a Chicana female who has recently graduated from a four-year university with the
intention to teach bilingual elementary students in her community. The findings demonstrate
self-awareness, the determination to participate as a change agent for social justice, and a
declaration of pride for her Chicana culture. An insight into the Chicana perspective will assist
educational leaders to examine their school practices in a society of changing demographics.
Keywords: Chicana resistance, social justice, Critical Race Theory, Latino/a Critical Race
Theory, Chicana feminist epistemology
With legislation, such as No Child Left Behind, schools face more accountability for all
students of differing cultural backgrounds. According to Cuádraz (2005), the Hispanic
population is predicted to reach 98 million by the year 2050 with Chicanas making up 32 million
of that population. Specifically, in the state of California, Collatos, Morrell, Nuno, and Lara
(2004) point out that 70% of Latino/a high school students were taking remedial classes that did
not count as credit for in-state four-year universities. For this reason, Chicano/a researchers
(Pérez & Ceja, 2010) suggest establishing partnerships between high schools, community
colleges, and universities. Since Chicanas are severely underrepresented in higher education,
future generations of Chicana women will find themselves contradicting the norms of the
dominant school culture. For instance, Solórzano, Villalpando, and Oseguera (2005) discovered
that out of 100 elementary Latinos/as, only ten would obtain a college degree; therefore, less
than one of these elementary students will achieve a doctoral degree.
A need for further research, indeed, is necessary to ensure success of the largest minority
population in the nation. Factors, such as inequities in school finance and academic tracking,
correlate to the academic failure of Chicano/a students (Fernandez, 2002). For instance, Behnke,
Gonzalez, and Cox (2010) imply that some ESL programs function separately from general
school operations, thus, giving students a segregated perception of school. Therefore, academic
tracking that focuses on “cookie cutter” or “one size fits all” policies end up subtly manifesting
privileges to benefit the dominant culture, provoking student resistance.
Historical Background
While the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Higher Education Act of 1965 opened doors

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for marginalized populations, the Chicano movement gained more momentum with over 10,000
students walking out of East Los Angeles schools in protest of low quality education. The
demands included smaller class size, bilingual education, and the need to stress Chicano history
in the educational curriculum (Solórzano & Delgado-Bernal, 2001). By the late 1970’s, the US
experienced slight increase in Chicana college enrollment, however; the 1980’s were pivotal as
activists groups were formed at major universities and Chicano/a perspectives were published for
the first time as full-length books, such as The Broken Web: The Educational Experience of
Hispanic American Women (McKenna & Ortiz, 1988). The 1990’s practiced application of
feminist theories to study Chicanas in higher education as protests continued to occur at major
universities, such as UCLA.
ResearchPurpose
The research mentioned above has unveiled injustices in our society and in our
educational institutions. The key lies in those who choose to follow the path of transformational
resistance in order to bring about change in society and change in institutions, as these entities
play a major role in the marginalization of students of color. Therefore, the purpose of this
research is to investigate the following: What contextual factors or people contribute to Chicana
transformational resistance? What can Chicanas learn as they react, process, and implement
transformational resistance? The purpose of transformational resistance is to catapult change for
social justice. The significance of this research will give a voice to the Chicana population.
Without this voice, the Chicana population would never have the opportunity to be heard or
valued. In this study, the voice of a young Chicana first year teacher brings light to the Chicana
experience and self-reflection.
Epistemological Foundations
Before discussing the various methods of Chicano/a resistance, we must consider the
epistemological foundations of the Chicano/a resistance framework. First, Critical Race Theory
(CRT) sheds light on the outcomes of people of color and their experiences of disengagement
from school, a dominant white culture environment (Ladson-Billings, 1998). Second, LatCrit
narrows the focus to provide insight and understanding of the experiences of Latinos/as and
draws on theories of student resistance. This theory addresses the intersectionality of racism,
sexism, classism, and other forms of oppression (Delgado-Bernal, 2002). Third, the Chicana
feminist epistemology, based with a researchers’ own cultural background and experiences can
be incorporated when applicable to explore the oppressive social conditions on Chicana students,
such as Nidia, the data source in this study. Within this epistemology, Chicanas and Chicanos
become agents of knowledge who participate in intellectual discourse that links experience,
research, community, and social change (Delgado-Bernal, 2002).
Forms of Chicano/a Resistance
Chicano/a resistance takes on various forms. The resistance is a reactionary behavior to
an oppressive context. The types of resistance are: self-defeating resistance, reactionary
resistance, conformist resistance, and transformational resistance.

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Self-defeating resistance. An example of self-defeating resistance would be of a student
who drops out of school or chooses to skip class. The surface perception of Chicana students
exhibiting this self-defeating behavior is that they do not care about their educational outcomes.
However, these concepts are informed by deficit, racist, sexist, and/or heterosexist frames
(Malagon & Alvarez, 2010).
Reactionary resistance. Reactionary resistance is simply oppositional defiant behavior.
The student may challenge the teacher "just for kicks" or to "see the teacher sweat" (Solórzano &
Delgado-Bernal, 2001). What is so dangerous about this type of resistance is that if the inequities
in the particular educational institution are not corrected, the behavior will continue and the
negative perception of Latinos/as not caring about school will prevail.
Conformist resistance. Conformist resistance demonstrates how students are motivated
for social justice, but they do not critique the institution or environment that oppresses them.
These students are likely to blame themselves or their culture for their circumstances (Solórzano
& Delgado-Bernal, 2001). They use education to counter societal inequalities without
challenging the marginalizing educational institutions.
Transformational resistance. Transformational resistance demonstrates the oppressed
aware of their oppressing environment and motivated to create change through social justice. As
more Latinos/as achieve doctoral degrees and empower themselves; they advocate and network
(Espino, Munoz, & Marquez-Kiyama, 2010). Also, recent research has explored the experiences
of Chicano/a professors. By using their influence and power, they all felt they were contributing
to the cause of social justice (Urrieta & Mendez, 2007). For this study, real life examples of
transformational resistance will be analyzed in Nidia's journey.
Methods
Qualitative Methodology- testimonio
Testimonio is the Spanish word for "testimony." This method is centered on the
participant's reflection of their personal experiences as an approach to social justice (Delgado-
Bernal, Burciaga, & Carmona, 2012). Thus, the personal experiences are a testimony to the
experiences of marginalization within the participant’s own reality. This type of storytelling is
not a new method of data collection, and Chicanas have critically reflected on their experiences
to address issues in education (Cuádraz, 2005). In comparison to quantitative research, this type
of qualitative approach answers the questions proposed in this study and is more appropriate,
especially to affirm the lived experiences and knowledge of students. In this way, storytelling
serves as a means of empowering students of color during the data collection process
(Rodriguez, 2010). Although critics of storytelling or testimonios may scrutinize these methods
of research, the dominant narrative often excludes perspectives of people of color and women of
color in particular (Delgado-Bernal, 2002).

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Data Sources
A purposeful sampling with the following criteria was applied: Chicana, recent college
grad. Nidia is a Chicana student who grew up in a small suburban town on the outskirts of
Houston. She attended a Title I high school of 1,500 students, graduated top ten percent of her
class, and looks forward to applying her recent accomplishment of a Bachelor diploma from the
University of Houston as a first year bilingual elementary school teacher. In addition to Nidia's
testimonio, my reflective field notes are included to present questions for further study and
describe findings throughout the study. Also, Nidia's permission to obtain her high school
transcripts gave a more holistic perspective into her educational experience.
Data Collection
A semi-structured interview was obtained to give the participant voice and ownership of
the interview. The interview was digitally recorded with the researcher's IPAD using the voice
recorder application. The interview was uploaded to the researcher's computer and played back
for transcription. The purpose of the semi-structured interview is to give the participant a voice
and ownership, as the pacing and choice of the interview questions can change to personalize the
interviewee's experience. Thus, the flexibility and opportunity for interviewee ownership of the
interview provides for a richer picture (Hays & Singh, 2012).
The questions targeted the testimony of Nidia's life experiences along her educational
trajectory. Examples of the questions used in the interview were, “And in college, you say it was
a little bit diverse for you. What kinds of things did you feel comfortable with? And yet, what
obstacles did you encounter? And so now, you've found yourself in the program of bilingual
education. Why did you choose that field? What would you say to other Chicana women seeking
to obtain a college degree?”
Moreover, throughout the interview, points of clarification and replay took place to
ensure correct communication and interpretation between the interviewer and the interviewee.
For instance, phrases like, “Would you say? Did you mean? Is that another word for . . .?” In
other words, replay is a restatement or paraphrase for clarification and elaboration to ensure the
researcher has interpreted the participant correctly (Hays & Singh, 2012).
Data Analysis
First, the data was broken down and color-coded to identify repetitive phrases that could
be categorized into central concepts or ideas. Second, a search for deeper meaning and
symbolism took place in the transcription of the interview through an intersection of CRT
themes. Third, an examination for LatCrit and Chicana feminist framework themes expressed
through cultural and institutional rituals was used to discover embedded values and traditions.
Fourth, the application of triangulation combines the layers of data converging from a variety of
sources in order to construct themes. And finally, these themes emerge from the data to give the
data shape and form (Lawrence-Lightfoot & Davis, 1997).
Trustworthiness-member checking. After the transcript was transcribed to paper, it was
reviewed with the informant. This method of transcript review or member checking is the key
strategy for establishing trustworthiness (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). In a sense, reviewing

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transcripts with the informant is not just a check for word accuracy, it is an opportunity to verify
if the words express their life experience correctly. Obviously, it is a more delicate process than
what it seems at the surface.
Peer debriefing (devil’s advocate). Furthermore, the technique of peer debriefing
pushes the researcher to think outside the box about their inquiry methods, acknowledge their
own personal biases, and discuss the researcher’s personal feelings about the research. Although
the purpose is to explore the devil’s advocate approach to the research, the debriefer assists the
inquirer to devise coping strategies and makes an important contribution to the quality of the
study (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Positionality. Nidia and I share the same ethnicity and gender. Both backgrounds are
similar in that I applied life experiences and knowledge of the field to interpret findings. These
findings serve as a guide with my own familial, cultural, developmental, and educational
background that I can relate (either consciously or subconsciously) to the intellectual themes of
the work (Lawrence-Lightfoot & Davis, 1997).
Findings
Throughout the interview, several recurring themes emerged to give the research shape
and form. As Nidia reflected on her educational journey, she demonstrated an awareness of
herself contradicting the norms of the dominant school culture and an awareness of herself
contradicting the norms of her own culture. These contradictions evolved into a transformational
resistance that inspired change through social justice and a newfound sense of pride in her
culture.
Awareness
Awareness is the first step in engaging in transformational resistance. For instance, in
order to provoke change, the person must be aware of his/her state of oppression or double
standard imposed by society. In the case of Nidia, she stated,
I always felt like I had to work harder to prove to my teacher that I could do work like
everyone else in class. I had to prove that I’m just as good a student. And-you know, that
I was academically acceptable.
Nidia acknowledged there were certain school norms that impacted her educational
trajectory. She knew that she would have to work harder to overcome the institutional double
standard. For example, students may employ a form of resistance, whether it is a form of protest
(external resistance) or a subtle protest (internal resistance) to prove others wrong and succeed
beyond society’s expectations (Hurtado & Ponjuan, 2005). Nidia's testimonio of her high school
experience serves as a body of knowledge for educational leaders in recognizing forms of
resistance and intervening to ensure success for the Chicana student.
Furthermore, she also recognized other contextual factors when she admitted to not
feeling comfortable opening up to an adult at school when she was struggling. She said,

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It was a like a trust issue. It was only certain people, certain race. If things were more
diverse, there would be more people asking for help. There would be less people failing
and less people skipping class. Education is promising, but needs to be more visible to
Chicano people.
Nidia's awareness of these marginalizing contextual factors acted as a catalyst for creating
change, thus, motivating her to shatter stereotypes to create change through social justice. This
revelation teaches educational leaders to analyze the role models and mentors that are available
at their educational institutions with respect to the perceptions of the Chicana student. Despite
Nidia's acknowledgement of her contradictions to school norms, she also experienced
contradictions within her ethnic culture. Specifically, when members of Nidia ’s family would
impose their expectations on her, she recalls them challenging her perspective and priorities. She
stated:
And, it was very difficult because when I would come visit family, and we would have
get-togethers with my family, they would tell me, “Oh you’re in school.” And my aunts
would tell me, “So when are you going to get married? Are you going to have any
children?” It was never any questions about education. And so, what helped is that.
That’s what gave me incentive to know that I’m not going to be that way. It gave me
more incentive to finish, to prove them wrong and tell them that I’m not going to be that
way. And so, on my own hard work and doing a part time job, any chance I got to help
pay for little things here and there. That’s what kept me going because I didn’t want to be
what my aunts and uncles are, some of them, which is what my family expected me to
become.
Nidia recognized that some of her own family members did not expect her to finish
school. In turn, she resisted her ethnic cultural norms and made the commitment to break the
stereotype, thus, exhibiting transformational resistance. As educational leaders, recognizing these
cultural dynamics within the Chicano culture is crucial in establishing partnerships and
recruitment efforts in enrolling Chicanas in higher education.
Social Justice
This transformational resistance guided Nidia to a career choice that would give her an
opportunity to give back to her community and to individuals who have experienced similar
struggles. The desire for social justice, therefore; has inspired Nidia to become a teacher,
specifically, a bilingual education teacher. She revealed,
I would want my students to say that my teacher was truly there for me. My teacher really
listened to me and was always there to help me with little problems. I like how my
teacher stayed with me after school and tutored me and tutored me until I finally figured
out what I was doing and I wasn’t lost anymore. I want my kids to love to come [to
school] every day.
Nidia's social justice commitment derives from her personal experiences as a student where
school officials would often shape policy and practice, based off of deficit notions of Latinos

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(Irizarry, 2012). And, her determination to break her ethnic stereotypes serves as a role model for
other Chicanas desiring to become change agents through social justice. Nidia's testimonio,
therefore, provides a voice for public school administrators and leaders in higher education to
review how they shape policy and practice in the classrooms.
Pride
Nidia mentions that embracing her culture was not instantaneous. After reflecting on her
struggles and demonstrating a dedication to social justice, she makes public her sense of Chicana
pride, which at one point in time, she denied. She said,
You don’t look the same. You feel different. But being that is a good thing. I found out
the hard way. I just needed to embrace it. In high school, and being so young, and
finding my true identity, I was so young, and something I was still learning. I was very
shy and reluctant to talk to people and in college; I truly embraced who I was. I realized
all the advantages of what I could do by being who I am and how I can spread my
education and my knowledge to other people.
Nidia's storytelling of her marginalized experiences have guided her to understanding her
oppression, thus; serving as a means of healing (Rodriguez, 2010). She now embraces her
cultural identity where she once denied it. Through transformational resistance, she can now
share her experiences and teach other Chicana women how to navigate through their educational
journeys. In her words,
There is always a way. Being Chicana anything is possible. They do not need to be
intimidated being Chicana. Being bilingual is such an advantage to them. They oversee
that. Being bilingual is a positive thing. Keep going no matter how long it takes. Being
Chicana you’re always going to have additional responsibilities, additional things to do,
additional stresses and pressures of the stereotypes you face every day and paying for
things on your own . . . Being Chicana is something to be proud of.
Nidia's awareness, commitment to social justice, and cultural pride has transformed her
into an agent of change. Although Latino/a teachers in the field declare that their ability to speak
Spanish was the main reason for wanting to teach, their motivation goes beyond being bilingual.
Their motivation is rooted in personal experiences with marginalization (Weisman, 2008). Nidia
is now in a position of power to advocate and mentor other Chicanas to exceed the expectations
of their own culture and society.
Discussion
Nidia's testimonio offered insight to answer two critical questions. First, what contextual
factors or people contribute to Chicana transformational resistance? Through the CRT, LatCrit,
and Chicana feminist perspective, Nidia revealed her experience with marginalizing educational
institutions and struggles to break society's stereotypes of the Chicana female, particularly those
stereotypes within her own ethnic culture. Second, what can Chicanas learn as they react,
process, and implement transformational resistance? Nidia's testimonio gained knowledge about

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her self-awareness thorough a self-refection of her educational journey and learned that she
became change agent for social justice, a characteristic of transformational resistance. Most
importantly, she embraced her culture as a result of her healing from experiencing struggles and
obstacles in her journey.
Furthermore, unlike self-defeating resistance and reactionary resistance, transformational
resistance through the Chicana feminist lens provides Chicanas with an opportunity to become
aware and reflect on their life experiences. As this self-awareness motivates Chicanas to pursue
social justice, the knowledge gained from Nidia's experience facilitates an understanding of how
others can overcome barriers to academic achievement, self-determination, and social change
(Cammarota, 2004). They serve as role models for other Chicanas aspiring to break the mold set
by the dominant social and political stereotypes.
Implications for Practice
As educators, we are held accountable for the success of all students from all races and
backgrounds. All Chicana students, like Nidia, all have a testimonio waiting to be heard. By
facilitating opportunities for these students to share their testimonios, educators can use this new
knowledge to reflect on their teaching practices. Also, public school administrators and
educational leaders serving in higher education can use this knowledge to impact decisions that
were once shaped with only one perspective, the white male perspective. Educational leaders can
learn from student testimonios to make schools more inclusive, increase parent involvement from
the Chicano community, and increase their recruitment efforts of promoting students of color for
advanced placement programs. Finally, the testimonios of Chicana teachers and Chicana
principals are the key to implementing successful mentoring programs. Since mentoring
programs traditionally benefited white males in leadership positions, women and minorities
would be able to benefit from someone who can connect, teach, and support their career
advancement (Méndez-Morse, 2004).
By learning through the Chicana feminist perspective, educators might not recognize
their dysconscious or unconscious racism (Fernandez, 2002). With only the dominant narrative
lens, educators would be able to see from a tunnel view perspective. We must apply and
internalize new knowledge from other cultural perspectives in order to self-reflect on our
teaching styles and communication behaviors, thus, becoming allies of social justice.
Conclusion
In conclusion, despite legislative efforts and attempts at school reform, we continue to
experience a shortage of Chicana students enrolled in institutions of higher learning. As
researchers continue to inquire about student disengagement at the elementary and secondary
levels, a critical analysis through the epistemological lenses of CRT, LatCrit, and Chicana
feminist epistemology and the testimonios methodology has opened up our eyes to a deeper
understanding of the Chicano/a experience.

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Author
Elsa Villarreal is a Doctoral Candidate in K-12 Educational Administration at Texas A&M
University-College Station, TX. Elsa's research interests include Latino/a studies, K-12
Leadership, and K-12 school climate.